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The Pontine Plain was reclaimed by Fascists in the 1930s. The Plain morphology and sea level have persistently changed through the Pleistocene, and from the last post-glacial period, the coast started to retreat. The most recent hydrogeological maps (1957, 1977, and 2007) clearly show that water is saturating the plain, and this will cause serious mobility problems in the Pontine Plain in the future. Several hazards of the plain are listed in this chapter. These include volcanic, seismic, coastal erosion, and sinkhole hazards, as well as water contamination hazards (e.g., As F), which have increased the number of cancers. There is an urgent need for monitoring in the area (i.e., Latina).
*Address all correspondence to: angelo.paone1@gmail.com
1. Introduction
The term Pontine Plain generally refers to the flat territory of Lazio between Terracina, Anzio, Circeo, and the Lepini Mountains obtained through reclamation of the Pontine Marshes in the 1930s. The history began more than two thousand years ago with the ancient people of the Volsci and ended in the first decades of the twentieth century with the “integral reclamation” of the 1930s (Figure 1) [1, 2]. As shown in Figure 2, the northward motion of the Adriatic Plate is affected by the interaction with the African Plate, which pushes from the south, and also by that of the Aegean Microplate, which moves toward the southwest at high speed [3]. The tectonics of Italy has shaped its morphology, especially the Apennines and Alps chains. Conversely, the Italian Plains (e.g., Po Plain and Pontine Plain) formed during the recent period of Pleistocene climate variation. The Roman area of interest lies between the Apennine chain and the Tyrrhenian Sea. The Apennine chain is a complex structural unit, with a series of thrusts toward the E–NE that formed mainly between the upper Miocene and lower Pliocene. Following the tectonic shortening phases, the internal sector of the chain underwent a progressive process of extension toward the west with the formation of the Tyrrhenian back-arc basin. In particular, the Lazio anti-Apennine south of the Tiber is composed of the anti-Apennine volcanic zone with the Alban Hills, an isolated group that retains traces of volcanic activity including various solfataras. Southeast of the Alban Hills, the topography rises into the Lepini Mountains, and further south into the Ausoni and Aurunci Mountains [3].
Figure 1.
Recent geological map of the study area 1:1000000). From project CARG Piana Pontina. North arrow like in Figure 3.
Figure 2.
Main structural and tectonic features of the central Apennines and the peri-Adriatic zones: (1) Ligurian and southern Alps; (2) Foredeep basins; (3, 4) axial and outer belts of the northern Apennines; (5) Latium–Abruzzi and southern Apennines carbonate platforms; (6) outer belt of the southern Apennines; (7) Dinarides carbonate platforms; (8) Adriatic foreland; (9) Calabrian arc; (10) compressional features: A = outer front of the Alps and Apennines; b, c = active and inactive thrusts, d = fold axes; (11) Transcurrent and extensional features: A, b = active and presumably active strike-slip faults; c = normal faults. Scale 1:1000000 (modified from [3, 4]. North arrow like Figure 3.
The Pontine Plain extends between the Lepini Mountains and the sea. Beyond this, the promontory of Mount Circeo forms a short (5 km long) limestone chain. Figure 3 shows the sedimentary terrains surrounding the study area (Pontine Plain). We will focus on the origin of the Pontine Plain in relation to the sedimentology and paleoclimatology, along with a volcanological outline.
2. Geological history of the pontine plain and Alban Hills volcano
The topics of interest are the Pontine Plain and Alban Hills, which had a much younger genesis. Pliocene–Quaternary, than the sedimentary terrains outcrop-ping around the Pontine Plain (Figure 4). At the upper Pliocene–Pleistocene, the shoreline had reached the Lepini and Ausoni carbonate reliefs, which were still in the uplift phase. Mount Circeo was a limestone island separated from the mainland by a large area of sea (Figure 5A). The sediment contributions of the drainages flowing into the sea and the contribution of clastic materials linked to the initiation of activity of the Alban Hills volcano caused the first partial filling of the marine basin and the formation of a series of coastal bars. The volcanic activity of the Alban Hills began shortly before the beginning of the Pleistocene (Figure 5B). The lowering of sea level associated with the onset of the cold climate phases of the Pleistocene caused the shoreline to advance approximately 10 km. The entire area was transformed into a marshy area with some water courses that reached the sea and formed incised valleys. The volcanic activity at Alban Hills continued (Figure 5C). With the marine transgression that began 10,000 years ago at the end of the Würminaglacial stage, the shoreline regressed, assuming an articulated trend by occupying the previous river valleys. The deposition of new coastal strips led to the formation of a new, different, and more rectilinear shoreline with the isolation of the Fogliano, Monaci, Caprolace, and Paola Lakes (Figure 5D, Table 1). Dunes separated the lakes from the sea, as can be seen in the case of Circeo (Figure 6A). A geomorphologic model for Pontine Lake (Sabaudia, Figure 6B) was constructed. Figure 7 shows digital reconstructions of the Pontine Plain with coastal lakes formed during the regression of the coastline during the Holocene. Moreover, the warm period brought erosion of the coastline, which is still occurring.
Figure 4.
Chronologic interval covering the formation of the pontine plain (Pliocene–Pleistocene). Modified from (https://www.isprambiente.gov.it/scala_tempi_geologici?current_era=Miocene).
Figure 5.
A geological model of the pontine plain around the Pliocene (3 ma ago). B geological model around the middle Pleistocene (200,000 years ago). C geological model around the end of the Pleistocene (50,000 years ago). D geological model around the Holocene (10,000 years ago). Modified from https://www.parcocirceo.it/pdf/Piano%20del%20Parco%203%20pag%2029-57.pdf.
Era
103 years
Period
Climate Period
Occurrences
Quaternary
10
Holocene
Post-glacial
Glacial deposits, recent fans at the mouth of the streams, moraines at the mouth of the valleys
100
Upper Pleistocene
Wurm
Last ice age Completely decalcified stratigraphic deposit
180
Inter-Glacial Riss-Wurm
250
Riss
400 450 550 600
Middle Pleistocene
Inter Glacial Mindel-Riss Mindel Inter Glacial Mindel-Gunz Gunz
Stratigraphic deposit originated by the rocks present in place Conoids at the mouth of valleys to form terraces on the high plain
C
Inter Glacial
Glacial deposits First ice age of Pleistocene
Donau-Gunz
750
Lower Pleistocene
Donau
800
Upper Pliocene
Table 1.
Ice age succession with the sedimentary terranes formed.
Figure 6.
A recent coastal dunes. B Sabaudia Lake model. 1-sandy deposits; 2-sandbar of recent dune; 3-current lake silt–sand deposits; 4-current beach. Modified from the http://www.zaininspalla.it/articoli.php?url=articoli/geologia/circeo.htm&titolo=Note%20geologiche%20e%20geomorfologiche%20dell%E2%80%99area%20pontina&PHPSESSID=frpledcgn761q5jl2ljspo9gf1.
Figure 7.
Digital elevation model of the pontine plain highlighting the coastal lakes. Modified from [5].
The carbonate outcrops of the Monte Lepini complex were lowered several 100 m below sea level by a system of vertical faults that accommodated dynamic extension. The depression, thus, formed was filled by clayey sediments dating to the Pliocene and Calabrian (gray-blue clays) during the marine ingress and regression phases. The Quaternary formations of the coastal area consist mostly of sandy continental formations (Upper Pleistocene) deposited by wind in the form of large dunes on preexisting coastal–brackish sandy deposits consisting of organic limestone sands (Middle–Lower Pleistocene). The entire sandy complex, which varies in thickness from a few tens of meters to about a hundred meters, is called the “Duna Antica.” Proceeding inland, the recent formations of the continental environment are replaced by deposits formed in fluvial–marsh environments. These consist of alternations of sandy and sandy–clayey strata along with travertine formations. In the marshy environment, formed in the foothill depressions, numerous peaty levels formed and contribute to triggering its marked subsidence [6, 7]. Some additional pertinent information is listed below:
Toward the north, the Acque Alte channel forms a watershed bordering the volcanic aquifer system of the Alban Hills.
Two different Quaternary aquifer systems, separated by the Sisto River, which constitute a watershed with two different hydrogeological basins, can be distinguished in the Pontine Plain (Duna Antica and Pedemontano) [8, 9].
Below the Quaternary aquifers, groundwater is confined to the basal aquifer of lower limestones of the Lepini Mountains system, which is fed partially by lateral infiltration and reverse percolation of the alluvial aquifer multilayer in the foothills area.
The aquifer of the Duna Antica is considered a hydrogeological basin filled solely by direct rainfall (Figure 8) [8, 9]. Broadly, the aquifer of the Pontine Plain evolved considerably from the time of the first hydrogeology studies (Conforto, 1957 [5, 9, 10] to 1977) (Mouton, 1977; Gisotti et al. 1977 [5, 9, 10, 11]) (Figure 9). Figure 10 shows a comparison of the hydrogeology between 1957 and 1977. The total error of the comparison process can be assumed to have a maximum value of about 6 m, although the computed error value is usually much lower than 6 m. Given the apparent phenomenon of lowering saturation levels, management decisions are needed.
Figure 8.
ESRI GIS hydrogeological map modified from [5] permitted to show it.
Figure 9.
Historic evolution of the piezometric surface within the pontine plain from 1957 to 1977 (Conforto, 1957; Mouton, 1977, Gisotti et al., 1977) [9, 12].
Figure 10.
Comparison of results of hydrogeological studies between 1977 and 2007 [5].
4. Volcanological context of the pontine plain region and volcanic hazards
The most important volcanic threat is the quiescent Alban Hills volcanic complex (Figures 11 and 12A, B). New results for the Alban Hills volcano (Roma, Italy), which was surveyed for the 1:50,000 scale Geological Map of Italy (CARG Project) [18], provide insights into the caldera evolution. Colli Albani, a quiescent volcano, was active at approximately 600 ka. The eruptive products are consistently mafic (<50% SiO2); nevertheless, the morphology and dominant explosive eruptive style are like those of felsic calderas [19]. The volcano is a composite, containing multiple superposed edifices or lithosomes. The oldest edifice (Volcano Laziale (VL), ca. 600–350 ka) is a 1600 km2 plateau of low-aspect ignimbrites (VEI 5–7) with a central caldera. After the last large eruption (>50 km of deposits), forming the Villa Senni Eruption Unit ignimbrites at ca. 355 ka, two edifices were built within the caldera. The first is the horseshoe-shaped Tuscolano–Artemisio (TA) composite edifice (or lithosome), which consists of coalescing, peri-caldera, fissure-related scoria cones interbedded with lava flows; the fissure system forms two segments controlled by regional faults. The second is the steep-sided Faete stratovolcano (949 m a.s.l.), which filled the caldera. The TA and Faete lithosomes, which partly interfinger, were emplaced at ∼350–260 ka. Their products indicate reduced eruption rates relative to the VL period and a change to effusive and mildly explosive eruptions. The most recent and still active phase of phreatomagmatic activity formed overlapping maars and tuff cones along the western and northern slopes of the volcano, collectively named the via dei Laghi composite lithosome [19]. The Alban Hills caldera is a polyphase caldera: (1) A piecemeal caldera is associated with large-volume ignimbrites of the VL edifice, and the present shape of the caldera is related to the Villa Senni eruption. (2) The TA composite edifice, erupted from peripheral caldera fissures, is unrelated to explosive phases of caldera collapse. The TA final products cover a morphologically stable caldera wall. The peripheral fractures feeding the TA composite edifice are interpreted as volcano-tectonic structures activated during the late-stage downsagging of the caldera. Reduced eruption rates during the TA and the Faete stages (1–10 km3/ka compared to >100 km3/ka for the VL edifice) suggest that diminished recharge of the magma chamber may have induced prolonged deflation and downsagging of the caldera floor and the opening of outward-dipping peripheral fractures [19]. Based on this interpretation, the TA edifice represents the surface expression of ring dikes at depth. The absence of similar fissure structures along the western caldera rim may be related to the deep geometry of the inward-dipping ring faults in those areas, which therefore were not favorably oriented for magma intrusion during a period of general subsidence. “In contrast, the subsequent and still active phreatomagmatic phase, which emplaced the via dei Laghi composite edifice and is active on the western side of the caldera, may produce resurgent conditions that could affect Aprilia village and other areas near the volcano” (Figure 13) [16]. A volcano model of Alban Hills [12] suggests that such a volcano could potentially affect all of the territory around it, a densely inhabited area, in addition to Aprilia village (Latium Province) (Figures 13–15).
Figure 11.
Volcanic map of Italy. Distribution of the Plio-Pleistocene volcanic rocks in the Italian peninsula and geological sketch map of the Sacco River valley (i.e., Alban Hills and middle Latin Valley volcanic field associated with the pontine plain). Drawn after Refs. [13, 14]. Main monogenetic volcanoes are represented by cinder cones, tuff rings, and small plateau-like lava flows [15].
Figure 12.
A geological setting of the Colli Albani volcano Central Italy. B three-dimensional view of the Colli Albani volcano (10 times vertical exaggeration). The study sites are located in the west-southwestern sector of the volcano, namely, the Imater quarry, Zolforata di Pomezia mine, Zolforatella, and Laurentina 1–4 outcrops (L1, L2, L3, and L4). Except the Imater quarry (unaltered term), hydrothermal alteration and sulfate or sulfide mineralization affect all other study sites. Alteration occurs at Zolforata di Pomezia and Zolforatella (proximal outcrops), whereas L1 to L4 are distal outcrops. GRA is the main highway encircling the city of Rome [16, 17].
Figure 13.
A composite stratigraphic column of the Colli Albani volcano (simplified after Giordano et al., 2006). The studied section (from Pozzolane Nere to Pozzolanelle) is emphasized with colors. B photograph of the studied section within the Imater quarry. Diagrams with contours are Schmidt polar nets (lower hemisphere) representing the density (red: Maximum data density) of extensional fracture poles measured in the studied volcanic units. The diagram with the cyclographic data is a Schmidt net (lower hemisphere) showing the attitude of subvertical N-striking strike-slip faults observed in the quarry exposure. Red dots along the cyclographic data are fault subhorizontal striae. C–D close-up photographs showing details from the exposure shown in B. In C, note the presence of fractures, particularly in the Tufo Lionato ignimbrite. E close-up photograph showing a N-striking fault surface with subhorizontal striae [16, 17].
Figure 14.
Cartoon showing the possible volcanological and magmatological evolution of the Colli Albani plumbing system. Here, the magma chamber and plumbing systems have been reconstructed with petrological, isotopic, and geochemical data and geological and geophysical interpretations of the geological and structural setting of the Alban Hills prevolcanic units. Xenoliths from the Alban Hills volcanic rocks along with information from deep wells drilled in the area allowed the reconstruction of the stratigraphy of the substratum of the volcano, whereas the thicknesses of the main geological units were derived from gravimetric and seismic data [14].
Figure 15.
Simple sketch of the geology of Aprilia village. Simply qualitatively taken from the web: Pedological sketch compiled by the Chemical-Agricultural Station of Rome, offers a summary view of the main types of soil that occur in the area.
The Earthquake Hazard Map of Lazio produced by the Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV) indicates that the Pontine Plain has a degree of danger that is among the lowest in Lazio (0.050–0.125). Although these data are reassuring, we cannot forget the threat of earthquakes from the Alban Hills, a volcanic system that is currently dormant but that could resume activity at any time (Figure 16).
Given the state of the Alban Hills volcanic system and the presence of volcanic materials in Aprilia (the volcanic soils of Aprilia are remodeled, but some in-place material remains), there is clear evidence that an explosive eruption such as those produced by the Alban Hills could easily reach the city of Aprilia. The presence of products associated with the occurrence of peripheral volcanic activity in numerous perforations (pyroclastic rocks and travertines arranged on numerous horizons) causes us to hypothesize the regional existence of evolved volcanism capable of influencing the geochemical characteristics of the waters of the Pontine slopes.
5.3 Coastal erosion
The last 10,000 years (Holocene) have been a warm period, and the climate warming process has been accelerated by global warming attributable to the release of CO2 into the atmosphere through the industrial period, which in turn resulted in some retreat of the coastline. Coastal erosion has recently occurred in some parts of the Pontine Plain, so the Latina coastline has been nourished by the Latina Municipality. There is strong evidence that the coast is retreating in the Latium coastal region, so nourishing is urgently needed along this coast.
5.4 Sinkholes
Catastrophic collapse features, called sinkholes in the international literature, are a type of instability that affects the surface of the soil as sudden collapses occur over a short period of time (6–24 hours). These differ from the normal karst forms because of their suddenness and conditions of initiation and development. Sinkholes can be classified according to their genesis, their interaction with the topographical surface, and the hydrogeological structure of the area in which they form. Their impact on the landscape, and even more on the populations in the areas most at risk, is very high, as demonstrated by the numerous bibliographies available, which often describe huge economic losses and, in some cases, losses of human life, although cases of this type have not yet occurred in Italy. If we also consider the fact that sinkholes are neither random nor extemporaneous phenomena and that their localization, morphometry, and evolutionary typology, as well as their temporal recurrence, clearly demonstrate that they occur in specific geological conditions (sinkhole-prone areas) and in the presence of various geological factors (sinkhole-triggering factors), it is clear that, even in areas such as Italy, it is necessary to reach a profound understanding of the development and triggering modalities these phenomena, even more profoundly if we consider that many of the sinkholes that occur in the susceptible areas of Italy have some peculiar characteristics that substantially differentiate them from those studied in the rest of the world [20]. The terminology, which is vast, was schematically classified in Table 2 [21]. Figures 17 and 18 illustrate the diverse types and evolutions of sinkholes [20]. Figure 19 shows the typical sinkhole typology of the Pontine Plain. Doganella’s cavity filled with water in a short amount of time. However, the sinkhole of Doganella di Ninfa did not change very much during the few months after its formation. The Doganella chasm appeared in December 2003 [21]. Additional details on all sinkholes in the Piana Pontina are available in several sources (Figure 20) [22, 23, 24].
Definition
Main genetic processes
Sedimentological setting
Morphology
Solution sinkhole/doline
Chemical dissolution of karst bedrock
Outcrops of carbonate/evaporitic rocks
Enclosed depression funnel-shaped with a flat bottom. Thin cover of red soil
Subsurficial dissolution or collapse of karst voids in the underlying rocks
Karst carbonatic bedrock with non-consolidated cover (i.e., sand, gravel).
Topographic depression with dimension of some tens of meters both in diameter and depth
Collapse/cave-collapse sinkhole, collapse doline
Collapse of the roof of caves
Karst cave overlain by lithoids deposits (i.e., tuff, limestone, travertine)
Deep sinkholes with steep walls and truncated cone vertical shape
Rock-subsidence sinkhole, subsidence doline
Collapse on cohesive, permeable and non-soluble rocks placed over soluble sediments
Karst cave overlain by cohesive deposits (i.e., clay, silt)
Funnel-shaped sinkholes
Piping sinkhole, cover-collapse sinkhole
Upwelling of water and gases with a piping process followed by the collapse of the soil
Sediments of different granulometry and less cohesive
Variable shape from smooth depression to steep sinkholes
Table 2.
Terminology of sinkhole.
Terms used to describe the sinkholes, the main genetic processes, the sedimentological setting and the morphology (partly taken from Gunn, 2004).
Figure 17.
Classification of sinkholes based on the literature and field observations of Italian case studies. (a) Anthropogenic sinkhole; (b) solution doline/sinkhole; (c) cave collapse; (d) cover collapse; (e) cover subsidence; (f) rock subsidence; and (g) piping sinkhole [20].
Figure 18.
Schematic of sinkhole evolution. Modified from [20].
Figure 19.
Typical sinkhole of the pontine plain. Dimension 3x3 m.
Figure 20.
Areas in the pontine plain at risk of catastrophic sinking (based on history): (1) Doganella–Via Ninfina (Comuni di Sermoneta e cisterna di Latina). (2) Contrada Ciocco–Contrada Talci, San Michele. (3) Gricilli–Mezzaluna–Tenuta Isabella–Cotarda.
5.5 Drinking water quality
Water analyses from the Agenzia Regionale per la Protezione dell’Ambiente del Lazio (ARPA) broadly provided data (shown in Table 3) of the turbidity, microbiology, arsenic content, and fluoride content of the drinking water of villages within the Latina province including Aprilia, Sermoneta, Latina, Cisterna di Latina, and others. These waters are extremely hazardous. As shown by these data, the relevant institutions must take major control of these waters, especially given the concern about contaminants that would be highly dangerous if consumed in drinking water. The hazards of these waters have been confirmed by the Azienda Sanitaria Locale (ASL). In fact, the contamination revealed by ARPA and ASL indicates that the sampling locations are associated with high rates of cancers. The results indicate a need to conduct more in-depth epidemiological studies (resident studies) by initiating a monitoring campaign to estimate the levels of arsenic and fluorine in the resident population. Survey results indicate plausible health effects in the resident populations of the municipalities of Rome and the Latium provinces, which have high arsenic levels. The effects refer to chronic exposures through the past decades, during which arsenic levels could have been higher than the current levels. The results indicate the need for continuous monitoring of water arsenic levels and public health interventions to ensure compliance with the limits established by the legislation currently in force (directive 98/83/EC, As <10 μg/L).
Comune
Nr. di campioni non conformi triennio 2007–2009 (D.lg. 31/01 e modifiche O.Lgs. 27/2002)
Torbidità
Contaminazione microbiologica
Arsenico
Floruri
Aprilia
0
1
11
6
Cisterna
0
14
114
1
Latina
1
16
0
0
Ser moneta*
0
7
5
0
Table 3.
Concentrations of harmful elements in the drinking water of Latina villages.
Fonte: Banca dati ARPA latina - (*) Il dato di Sermoneta si riferisce al triennio 2008–2010.
The Pontine Plain is a fragile and young territory, and its fragilities, unrestrained anthropogenic use, and natural changes have brought various types of disasters, as described in this chapter. The fascist reclamation of the Pontine Plain dramatically affected the demography of the area, considering that the people from North Italy (Lombardia, Veneto, and Emilia-Romagna regions) who moved to the plain would have preserved the area. Before this time, the area was abandoned and attended by criminals. Currently, although the area is well populated and tended, global climate change (e.g., [25]) and the geological circumstances continue to modify the environment, bringing several hazards (seismic activity, volcanic activity, coastal erosion, sinkholes, and drinking water contamination) attributable to both nature and recent human activities. Most importantly, the plain could again experience a submerged period, which began in the post-glacial period (Holocene) and is being strengthened by global warming.
Chris Hawkesworth is thanked for some comments for the style of the paper.
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Written By
Angelo Paone and Sung-Hyo Yun
Submitted: 10 January 2023Reviewed: 25 April 2023Published: 08 November 2023
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
