Introductory Chapter: Possible Occupational, Technological and Climatic Contributions to Rare Diseases Occurance

1. Introduction

The quest to ensure public health is at the front burner of all government around the world over but these efforts cannot be a reality if Sub-Saharan Africa and less developed countries of the world does not take center stage in health planning of the advanced countries. COVID-19 outbreak has proven that no country is immune to health catastrophe and poor nations face more devastating consequences in major disease outbreak, as a result of poverty and inadequate public health infrastructure and lack of up to date medical record, it implies that many emerging diseases are not well documented and reported, coupling this scenario with devastating effect of noncommunicable diseases that has been ranked highest killer in some African country [1]. As a result, large-scale initiatives, updated medical records, training, and disease outbreak reporting are needed to help support the effort of various governmental and nongovernmental agencies in establishing accessible public health services. Potable water supply in Sub-Sahara Africa is an uphill task due to inadequate policy formulation to cover poverty and disease-laden rural dwellers. A decade ago, Ebonyi State in Nigeria was devastated by guinea worm infestation of water sources that it needed international support for eradication [2, 3], yet, it is possible that in local water sources, inorganic and organic chemical pollution was not taken into account by the relevant authorities in the same way that the guinea worm was.

2. Factors that may encourage rare diseases

2.1 Technology and occupation

As knowledge multiplies, it acts synergistically with technology, and recent advances in the field of environmental health are a gateway to health hazards, risks, and susceptibilities. Technological advances have brought more people together, increased production processes but inadvertently led to more consumption, and accompanied wastes (gaseous emission, solid, and liquid waste), which exacerbate human health via devastation of aquatic ecosystem, pressure on water resources, deforestation, and increase in agricultural chemicals. Human occupational exposure/contact through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact causes enzyme hormonal distortion, inhibits fetal growth, and activates DNA damage. A hallmark of technology is in industrial emission, transportation such as roads, aviation, radiation from telecommunication, and military armaments activates climate change imprint. Air pollution occasioned by dust particles, vehicular emission, soot, nitrates, NH₃ and nitrogenous gaseous oxides (NOx), oxides of sulfur, aerosols, CH₃, PM2.5, and PM10 activate biomarkers (ceruloplasmin, orosomucoid, C3, and alpha-1-antitrypsin), which may be a pointer to high risk at moderate exposure levels that significantly and positively elevate the risk of cardiovascular disease via chronic systemic inflammation [4]. The aforementioned effect also exacerbates and promotes progression of atherosclerosis and ups cardiovascular events, including regularity of noncommunicable respiratory diseases (NCRDs) with asthma, chronic bronchitis, obstructive respiratory disease, and allergic rhinitis [5, 6]. Human ailments such as cancer, renal issues, cognitive impairment, bronchitis, and neurological disorders have been attributed to environmental toxicants such as heavy metals (Cd, Ni, Cr, Pb, Hg, As) [7], which partly correlates with findings of Unachukwu et al. [1], agreeing with several pieces of literature linking heavy metals to noncommunicable diseases. Pb⁺² and metals like Cd⁺² activates blood lipids, which undermine cardiovascular ailment (CVD) and atherosclerosis, exacerbating blood pressure (BP) rise and hypertension that triggers stroke, diabetes, pollution keratoconjunctivitis (PKC) [8, 9, 10]. Human factors that may exacerbate the occurrence of rare diseases may include low attention emission from pharmaceutical industries, inappropriate government policy, lack of public health advocacy groups, poor coverage, low monitoring, and inadequate reportage by the global health research community. Occupational exposure plays a major role in rare disease occurrence, hexavalent chromium (Cr⁺⁶) is carcinogenic, corrodes skin, and causes denaturation and precipitation of tissue proteins [11]. Occupational exposure to chromium is mostly by inhalation, but gastrointestinal tract and skin can occur [12], hence respiratory tract is the primary target organ for Cr⁺⁶ and its compounds. Nickel is absorbed through the lungs [13, 14], gastrointestinal tract [15], and skin [16], but excreted in the urine [17]. Artisanal effect, respiratory abnormalities, and industrial occupation take a huge aspect of rare disease that may be undocumented [18] and show that it may be significant in public health issues through occupational exposure considering the work of Orisakwe et al. [19, 20] and that of Vitayavirasuk et al. [21], which shows that subjects exposed to heavy metal in a paint factory and automobile paint spray may have compromised health status.

3. Climate change and rare disease occurrence

Literature documentation on potential and prevalence of infectious disease as a result of climate variability exist. Infectious disease occurrence history is rooted in geography and prevalent in places with hot and wet weather [22], likewise in global warming episodes, it is expected that diseases will spread further as it play role in the widespread emergence, resurgence, and redistribution of infectious diseases. Most commonly, insects transmitted diseases are highly sensitive to variations in climate alternation. Included in this category are the vector–borne communicable diseases like dengue, malaria, hantavirus, and cholera, others are salmonellosis, cholera, and giardiasis [23]. Temperature variation may likely cause changes in the life cycle of pathogens as it can cause death of pathogens. Again, elevated temperatures have been documented to affect the fertility and sporogony of microorganisms [24]. Changes in climatic parameters such as humidity, amount, volume, and duration of rainfall may influence distribution of waterborne pathogens that are prevalent in the rainy season. In extremely high-temperature duration that can cause drought, the water resources of the given location tend to decrease and concentrate, and effluent waterborne pathogens rise in amount and effect [25]. Infectious diseases are also influenced by atmospheric water (humidity) vapor, a well-known example is the influenza virus transmission and rate of survival. An important fact about climate change’s impact on infectious diseases is that it cannot be generalized, the effect peculiar to a given environment may differ from another as climatic factor change. Microclimate may have profound effect on hosts housing disease pathogens as well as host. Pattern of changes in population and geographical location influences insect vector that is strictly associated with pattern and variation in climates, small scaled environment (microenvironment) may act as a shield to contain disease vector/host, for the fact that microclimate variation is insignificant but on large-scale climate differences over regional influence scenario may differ [26]. A localized environment of extreme heat may have heat rash, heat edema, heat syncope, cramps, exhaustion, life-threatening heatstroke, and other related ailments as major occurrences of diseases among the populace.

The book – Rare Disease is aimed at documenting information about certain diseases that occasionally occur or may be strange, it may have been witnessed before or reemerged, and it will espouse its fatalities, treatment options, and its containment. It will contain information on possible causes or outbreaks, point of its discovery, nature of the disease, infection rate, possible causative agents and life span, and information about conditions enabling its spread. The book will contain information on effect of the disease on age group, color, sex, and occupation. Climate and environmental parameters that aid survival of causative organisms and their transmission will be discussed. The book will also contain information on cultural practices that exacerbate the outbreak, progression, and fatalities of disease. Finally, the book will contain information on drugs, herbal products, and supplements for treatment. Possible patient medical history and genetic makeup in relation to the disease can be important information. Advise on personal and community hygiene for effective prevention and treatment in an emerging scenario. Public health and policymakers’ responsibility in prevention and management of outbreaks of rare diseases to ensure minimal fatalities will be highlighted.