Importance of Minerals in the Diet of Cattle in the Tropical Climate of Mexico

Abstract

The chapter addresses the importance of minerals in the diet of cattle in a tropical climate to maintain their body condition in relation to productive activity and especially reproductive activity, this importance falls on the physiological processes within the animal organism considering that fantastic world that explain the phenomena that occur within the organism that are important processes since they maintain cellular homeostasis, this allows the generation of cells of the body structure as well as male and female gametes that influence the conservation and maintenance of biochemical phenomena with the emphasis on conserving the organic status that, when unbalanced, generates fertility problems, affecting above all milk and meat productivity, generating economic losses in cattle ranches in southern Mexico. It is convenient to indicate that Mexican soils in a great proportion present deficiencies of minerals such as zinc, selenium, boron, chromium, a few to comment that along with forage production, this is accompanied to produce infertility phenomena in cattle. in grazing that influence the presentation of heats, corresponding to artificial insemination as well as problems in ovarian pathologies that inhibit ovarian cycling and become unprofitable, for this reason this the minerals in the diet is important so that the profitability of milk and meat benefits the producers of the countryside in southern Mexico

1. Introduction

Ruminants are characterized by their ability to feed on pastures and forages, since they degrade carbohydrates, such as cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin, these are very indigestible for non-ruminant or simple-stomached species. Therefore, the digestive physiology of the ruminant acquires particular characteristics due to the fact that the degradation of the food is carried out mainly by fermentative digestion and not by the action of digestive enzymes, the fermentative processes take place by different types of microorganisms that the ruminant houses in its stomach diversity. However, to reach these stages, the digestive system of bovines undergoes various transformations from birth to the development of the forelimbs, particularly the rumen, being essential to carry out these fermentative processes, which are accompanied by microbial action to facilitate the digestion process. The rumen is the proventriculus with the largest physical size and its physiological importance lies in the fact that the forages are fermented here to make nutrients absorbable and facilitate the extraction of chemical compounds to be distributed in the bloodstream to the liver and then sent to the whole organism. Rumen development is favored by the food ingested, in the first week of life from 0 to 4 weeks they basically depend on the glucose contained in milk [1], the newborn of this age cannot digest pastures or concentrates, in practice, adding 100 grams of concentrate daily to the newborn’s diet favors the development of rumen papillae for when they mature, facilitating the absorption of volatile fatty acids (AGVs), thereby facilitating the increase in weight and body size, the AGVs refer to butyric, propionic and acetic acid they enter different metabolic pathways to produce glucose, acetic acid o It quickly crosses the rumen wall without undergoing any change and is used by the organism as an energy supply. Propionic acid is converted into lactic and succinic acid so that it directly enters the Krebs cycle for energy or is used as a glucose precursor. Butyric acid is metabolized in the rumen wall and converted to β-hydroxybutyrate [2]. For [3], forage consumption affects the rapid development of the rumen in size and functioning, after 60 days of birth, the rumen experiences its maximum growth, reaching proportions close to those of the adult with respect to the other digestive organs and the body weight. By this time the calf will be ready to be weaned and the rumen microbiota should be fully developed [2]. Likewise, [4] endorses that the diet is the fundamental or determining factor for the development of the morphology of the rumen wall and the papillary development, for which reason the consumption of balanced foods stimulates the growth and the presence of products that originate AGVs that are necessary factor for papillary maturation. Consequently, with the body development of the calf, the rumen matures, facilitating the growth of bones and body mass, which, supported by the genetic characteristics of each breed, favors meat production. Minerals are important elements since they are essential nutrients for all domestic animals and influence the productive and reproductive efficiency of almost all species, they constitute about 5% of the total body weight and are involved in most of the metabolic reactions that occur at the intra and extra cellular level. The generalized classification divides them into two large groups: microminerals and microminerals or trace elements as shown in Table 1.

Macrominerals	Microminerals
Calcium	Cobalt
Phosphorus	Copper
Potassium	Fluorine
Magnesium	iodine
Sodium	Iron
Sulfur	Manganese
Chlorine	Molybdenum
	Selenium
	Zinc

Table 1.

Macro and micro minerals.

2. Developing

Cattle farming in the tropical climate of Mexico presents serious production and reproduction problems due to geographical, technical and social factors, the exploitation system that prevails is extensive livestock, in which the following pastures predominate: 1. Elephant (Penisetum purpureum), Guinea (Panicum maximum), Buffel (Cenchrus ciliare), Para (Brachiara mutica), African Star (Cynodon plectostachyus) and other varieties such as Insurgentes (Brachiaria brizanta), Signal (Brachiaria decumbens), Privilegio (P. maximum) and Bemuda (Cynodon dactilon) despite the great forage production that is achieved during the rainy season, the maximum weight gain is less than 500 grams per day, deteriorating in the dry season due to the lignification of the plant produced by high temperatures, the protein, energy, vitamin and mineral supplementation becomes necessary but due to the high costs it is not used, although some producers use common salt to meet the needs of cattle, mineral supplementation is an alternative, in addition to being low cost, helps to improve the productive and reproductive parameters of animals in the southern region of Mexico. The tropical zones of Mexico represent an alternative for livestock production since pastures are the most abundant and economical source of food to feed livestock. However, there are times throughout the year where the productivity and quality of pastures are affected by climatic conditions, especially temperature [5], affecting the weight gain of grazing animals [6]. The types of soils that predominate are the so-called chronic rainy, lithosols with medium textures with good permeability, efficient superficial and internal drainage, rich in potassium (K) in the first layer and with low amounts of phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), slightly acidic and free of sodium (Na).

Mineral nutrition in any organic (plants and animals) and inorganic (water and soil) life system is of vital importance for the development of human life [7]; however, the great imbalance that has been generated in the inorganic environment due to the excessive use of fertilizers and chemical substances has caused a general deterioration in both life systems, to such an extent that a mineral disorder has been caused that, as a consequence, causes high deficiencies. and/toxicities [8]. It should be remembered that the interaction that exists between the soil–plant–animal, as a very complex small food chain, if the law of ecological life complies with its rule, only 10% of each link will contribute nutrients to the next trophic level, that is, that only 10% of the soil nutrients will be taken up by the plant and the other 10% of the plant will be taken up by the animal [9]. Although protein and energy inputs represent the main limitations in animal production in the rangelands of southern Mexico, mineral deficiency increases the problem, since these exert a marked influence on the use of these two nutrients [10], so the action becomes reversible, that is, good nutrition is not only considering the contribution of energy and protein, minerals even when they are incorporated in very small quantities are necessary in the daily consumption of the animal to maintain its good physiological state, metabolize and general health of the organism [11].

Minerals fulfill various basic functions within the body, both at the cellular level and in tissues and organs, so a deficiency or excess of one or more of them can cause metabolic dysfunctions that are reflected in low productive and reproductive performance, even in the death of the animal [12]. In the grazing system, unlike the feedlot one, the latter always supplement the bovine diet with complete rations that almost always include a mineral premix, not so in extensive grazing bovines and in tropical environments, where there are generally deficiencies or toxicity of elements. Inorganics that cause negative effects on the growth rate, low meat and milk production, fertility disorders in the animal [10], inadequate use of forage and low digestibility of the same [13], which increases the fattening period from 3 to 5 years.

The most commonly used sources for grazing water supply are small streams, lakes, puddles or springs, wells, and rainwater [14]. All the essential minerals considered as dietary nutrients in the animal are present in the water; however, concentrations for grazing animals are completely inadequate to meet the animal’s requirements [14, 15]. The consumption of water for the animal is a function of the food, the content of dry matter in the forage, the physiological state and climate, as well as the quality of the water [14]. For [16], points out that the soil pH influences the root absorption of minerals, acid soils often produce forages with deficiency of Ca and Mb. [17] pointed out that in calcareous soils the availability of phosphorus is related to the content of carbon dioxide and the pH, soils of 6.6. at 7.7 they are more favorable to contain P, being the acidic soils of the tropics marginal in this element [18].

Mg is another mineral that has low availability in crops, due to its low availability in the soil or by interaction with Ca and P, Mg is one of the minerals most sensitive to pH changes in alkaline soils it precipitates and in acids is soluble and available. Fleming [19] comments that acid soils decrease the availability of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co.

Organic matter is important in relation to the contribution of nutrients from the soil to plants, texture is also relevant in the contribution of nutrients to the plant since it facilitates water retention and makes available Co, Cu, I than in sandy soils. It will be of low availability and in clay soils high in these elements [11].

The nutritional value of tropical pastures is characterized by its low digestibility and nutritional value compared with pastures in temperate climates, the protein increases as the crude protein content increases, this in tropical pastures varies between 50 and 60, likewise, grasses in tropical climates have a high growth rate in rainy seasons considering their medium to good nutritional value at this time, but it decreases rapidly due to the effect of maturation caused by the high temperatures existing in the region [5, 15].

There are several factors that intervene in the availability of an element of the plants as they are; the plant species, the period of growth, the climate and the stocking rate. Within plant species, legumes and grasses are distinguished, the first being rich in Ca, while in pastures it is Mg, although these are deficient in protein, P, Mb, Se and I [7, 16]. In forages in tropical climate, minerals are affected by the growth stage; Na, P, and K decrease as the plant grows and matures, an effect due to leaf drop and decreased absorption of nutrients from the soil to the plant. The climate also affects the presence of minerals because tropical forages have a high photosynthetic rate, light and temperature accelerate the photosynthetic process, making the plant mature soon, increasing the content of the cell wall, on the other hand, McDowell 1977, reported that the solubility of minerals in the soil is diminished in regions with high rainfall, due to loss of edaphic leaching, as it is in the humid and sub-humid tropics.

The stocking rate influences the predominance of certain plant species and changes the leaf/stem ratio, which is why it has a direct relationship with the mineral content of the pasture because the leaves are richer in minerals than the stems, the mineral content is removed in the plants the more there is a greater grazing and increase in the production of dry matter [20, 21, 22, 23], reported that continuous grazing produced significantly lower levels of Ca, Mg and Cu compared to rotational grazing, there being no differences in their P content in both systems. The minerals are also beneficial for rumen microorganisms [24], the Co serves as food for bacteria that produce vitamin B12, the inorganic S is only used to stimulate the digestion of cellulose within the minerals involved in the digestion of cellulose are Ca, P, K, Mg, S, Mn, Fe, Cu, Co, Zn, Se and I [13].

The minerals play an important role within the enzymatic system, they form the commonly called Metalloenzymes and enzymes activities by minerals in the first group the mineral is an integral part of the molecule and cannot be removed by dialysis, this type of enzymes generally contain Fe, Cu, Zn, Mb, Mb, Se in some cases have two minerals such as cytochrome oxidase (Fe and Cu) or xanthine oxidase (Fe and Mb), the second group of minerals are not part of the molecule and can be removed by dialysis so that these compounds are unstable among the mineral elements that activate enzymes are; Ca, Na, K, Co, Fe [25]. In the same way, minerals have a direct and indirect effect on the structure and function of hormones.

Within bovine reproduction, minerals play an important role since the scarcity of these increases the periods of infertility, quality and embryonic death, fundamentally marking the deficiencies of the same during the transition period since inadequate diets in elements such as Zn and P it favors the appearance of anovulatory cycles or delays in ovarian cycling that lead to economic losses since the inter-delivery interval is prolonged, losing productive and reproductive life of grazing cattle.

3. Function and general characteristics of minerals: Calcium (Ca) and Phosphorus (P)

Calcium and phosphorus have vital functions in almost all body tissues and must be available to animals in the right amounts and ratios. These elements represent more than 70% of the total minerals in the body and are generally studied together due to the interrelationship between them.

Approximately 99% of the Ca and 80% of the P in the body are present in the bones and teeth.

It has been established that the Ca: P ratio and the level of vitamin D can affect the utilization of both minerals.

Calcium constitutes about 2% of the total weight of the animal. The soil concentration varies in different mammals from 9 to 15 mg/dl. This mineral is in a dynamic state and is constantly deposited and mobilized from the reserve organs. Calcium exists in 3 states in the blood and body fluids.

As ionized soluble Ca (free ion).

As non-ionized organic acid Ca such as citrate.

Protein-bound Ca whose binding increases with ph.

Only ionized soluble Ca is physiologically active.

4. Absorption

Calcium is absorbed by the mechanism of active transport throughout the intestine, although the preferential site of absorption is the duodenum, the amount of Ca absorbed depends on several factors, among which are:

• The form of Ca intake level.

• Absorbed levels of Ca and P.

• The vitamin D status in the animal.

• The presence of lactose.

• Bile salts and fats.

• Phytic acid, iron and oxalate.

Calcium in foods is usually present as salts of phytic, phosphoric, oxalic, carbonic, or tartaric acids. These salts are soluble at low pH and accelerate the absorption of dietary acids.

The ratio of Ca to P has a great impact on the degree of absorption of the blood levels of both elements. An excess of either causes an increase in fecal excretion by formation of insoluble Ca that is not available for absorption.

It has been proven that vitamin D increases the absorption of ca in the intestine only when the salts are soluble. The main hypotheses state that:

• Vitamin D or its derivatives enhance the diffusion of calcium ions through the intestinal wall by counteracting the factors that reduce calcium concentration (Ca + 2) or by increasing the permeability of the intestinal epithelium membrane.

• It is essential for the formation or initiation of the special mechanism of ca transport in the intestinal wall. It has been shown that sugars that are absorbed relatively slowly, such as lactose, ribose, sorbose, xylose, and fructose, can increase ca production by favoring its binding with the protein that serves as a transporter.

• Under normal feeding conditions fats have a minimal effect on intestinal ca absorption. When fats are hydrolyzed in food, giving rise to fatty acids and these are not absorbed, a union will occur for the formation of insoluble ca salt that is lost in the feces.

• Some organic and inorganic compounds such as iron, oxalate and phytic acid can form insoluble salts with ca and thus affect its absorption.

Another factor that regulates ca absorption is parathyroid hormone (PTH) which raises low blood ca levels and maintains normal levels by mobilizing ca in the bone. A high dose of parathyroid hormone can demineralize bone and lead to hypercalcemia.

5. Functions

The main function of ca is bone formation. It has been shown that the content of this mineral in the body is a function of the live weight of the animal.

The intensity of postnatal calcification depends on the physiological maturity of birth.

It is involved in the action of enzymes involved in blood coagulation.

Decreases cell permeability and maintains physiological permeability and its pores by counteracting the effect of sodium and potassium.

It is required for muscle contraction. In its absence, all types of muscles lose their ability to contract. Excess ca stops muscle contraction.

For the maintenance of the correct degree of neuromuscular excitability and tone.

The main routes of ca excretion are the intestine and the kidneys.

The ca concentration in the urine of calves is above 100 mg/dl because during the first weeks of life in ruminant’s ca is excreted mainly through the kidneys and not through the intestines.

There is a relationship between the excretion of Ca and Mg. Magnesium increases ca excretion and vice versa, both compete by a common absorption mechanism.

6. Hormone regulation

Several hormones such as parathyroid (PTH), calcitonin, and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D2 and D3 are involved in ca homeostasis during pregnancy and lactation.

Parathyroid hormone regulates the ca mechanism and maintains a constant level of this element in the blood in combination with calcitonin. The active process responsible for the homeostatic regulation of the level of ca in the blood can be of two types.

1. Maintain calcemia, that is, the activity of ca carried out within the limits required for normal physiological functions.

2. Maintain the product of ca and p activities (ACa2+ AHPO4-2) in the extracellular fluid at a level that enables the spontaneous growth of hydroxyapatite crystals in the bone.

Thus, the first line of defense against decreased Ca2* activity is when the amount of phosphate in the serum decreases. This is due to increased excretion by the kidneys through the effect of parathormone. This mechanism is very fast and sensitive but its potentialities are limited. The second line of defense against decreased Ca + 2 activity, which is less sensitive but practically inexhaustible, is the mobilization of ca ions from the bones by the direct effect of parathormone. At the same time, the elimination of excess phosphate through the kidneys takes place.

Increases the concentration of ca and decreases the concentration of phosphate ions in the plasma. Thus, it compensates for the effect of the release of phosphate ions during the elimination of ca through the bones. Accordingly, the increase in plasma ca concentration proceeds according to the formula P x Ca = K.

7. Excess calcium

Feeding with high levels of ca reduces feed intake, weight gain and delays sexual maturity. Excess ca can also cause mineral imbalance by chelating other elements such as zn, which reduces ca and causes parakeratosis in pigs. In dairy cows, the incidence of paresis at calving can increase and diets rich in this element hinder the absorption of p, cu and mn.

8. Mineral excretion

8.1 Phosphorus

Phosphorus is excreted in the feces and in almost insignificant amounts in the urine in ruminants. In pigs, they are eliminated in large quantities by the kidneys and the intestine.

Determination of endogenous losses is important in ruminants since these animals excrete endogenous p almost exclusively through the digestive tract and the amount may exceed that present as undigested in the feed.

8.1.1 Availability

Phosphates are found in nature in the form of organic compounds and are used depending on the species and age of the animal.

Phytic acid salts (phytates), especially those of ca and mg, are not digested by some animals, particularly in monogastric species, and assimilation is low. In pigs, a small part of the phytates is hydrolyzed in the stomach by plant phytases, while in ruminants, phytate hydrolysis occurs in the stomach by bacterial phytases. This is explained because the optimum pH for cereal phytases is approximately 5.1 and it shows some activity at a pH lower than 3.

Therefore, there is considerable breakdown of dietary phytate in the crop of chickens and in the stomach of non-ruminants, before gastric secretion reduces the pH of the ingestion to a level too low for nutrient activity. This is not the case in ruminants, because the pH of the fore-stomachs is higher than 5.1.

Phosphorus from inorganic supplements and foods of animal origin can be used up to 100%, while that from plants can range between 30 and 60%.

The digestibility and therefore the availability of p is reduced when diets low in energy are supplied, for which reason it is considered that this is essential to guarantee a good use of p.

8.1.2 Function

In the metabolism of fats, the intermediary metabolism of formation of cephalin and lecithin’s (phosphatides) appears.

It is an essential component of nucleoproteins and nucleic acids such as RNA and DNA.

It plays a vital role in carbohydrate metabolism in the formation of hexoses and trioses, as well as energy compounds such as adenylic acid and creatinine phosphate.

Involved in protein metabolism (formation of phosphoproteins), and in muscle metabolism.

Phosphate as a constituent of energy-rich phosphates is of key importance in the energy metabolism of cells (as ATP) a large number of coenzymes are phosphorous compounds.

Phosphorus deficiency is the most widespread in grass-fed domestic animals and is more frequent in cattle than in sheep, since the latter has energy needs per unit weight greater than those of cattle due to its size, smaller consumes more food.

Sheep meet their physiological needs for p with diets whose concentrations are lower than those of cattle. Calcium deficiency rarely occurs in cattle and sheep, except in high production cows that require large amounts of this element.

8.1.3 Phosphorus deficiency leads to

1. Poor reproductive performance.

2. Inactive ovaries delay sexual maturity.

3. Low conception rates.

4. Long DAs.

5. Embryonic death, calves born weak.

6. Excess: endometrium susceptible to infection [26].

8.2 Magnesium

60% of the mg is found with the p-ca as complex salts in the bones and teeth. The rest of the mg is found in tissues and in body fluids. The mg content, unlike ca and p, remains almost constant in the tissues when the animal is an adult. The levels in the soils oscillate between 1.3–3.3 mg/dl and are directly related to their content in the diet.

The assimilation of mg in animals depends on the degree of endogenous loss of this element in feces.

Endogenous mg is secreted in the gastrointestinal tract with saliva and other digestive tracts and can pass through the intestinal wall. The concentration of Mg + 2 in the saliva of ruminants is 0.4–0.6 meq/l and varies inversely by the rate of disaggregation.

The endogenous loss in cattle is 3–4 mg/kg LW/day, in pigs, sheep and horses it is 2.5, 2 and 2.3 mg respectively.

In all species the assimilation of mg is low and depends on the type of food. The mg assimilation of adult ruminants is 25–30% in hay, 16–20% in concentrates, 20–25% in mixed diets and 50–55% in other diets.

Magnesium is mainly eliminated in the feces. Most of it is filtered through food and is reabsorbed in the renal tubules. Under normal conditions, endogenous and unabsorbed magnesium is eliminated from the body mainly through the gastrointestinal tract. The amount of magnesium excreted in the urine is relatively small, although this pathway plays a definite role in maintaining magnesium homeostasis. Thus, if the concentration of magnesium in the diet increases, its relative excretion in the urine increases, but up to a certain limit.

Metal ions are found in 2 forms in enzymes.

1. Metalloenzymes in which magnesium is bound to protein.

2. Metalloenzymatic complexes not bound to proteins.

In many catalyzed reactions, magnesium can be substituted for manganese. Another function of magnesium is to influence central nervous system irritability by activating cholinesterase, which breaks down acetylcholine.

8.2.1 Calcium magnesium relationships

The levels of ca and p in the diet have a marked effect on Mg requirements. By raising ca and p, mg needs are increased.

A deficiency of mg in the diet of layers produces a rapid decrease in laying, hypomagnesemia in the blood and depletion of mg in the bones.

Altered mg metabolism produces meadow tetany in herbivores. This disease occurs at the beginning of spring when cattle are taken out to graze on grass that has been fertilized with k or n. The increased production of ammonia in the rumen causes the deduction of mg absorption. The most important biochemical alteration is the existence of subnormal levels of mg and ca in the blood of 1–7 mg/dl of mg and 6.6 mg/dl of ca. Hypomagnesemia can also occur in calves fed dairy diets.

Another disease associated with mg deficiency is puerperal paresis or milk fever that, although the characteristic is acute hypocalcemia, it is also observed that the levels of inorganic p in the serum decrease to half of normal. Magnesium deficiency is usually not appreciated unless severe natural or induced diuresis occurs.

8.3 Sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl) and Potassium (K)

Sodium, k and cl are the main determinants of acid–base balance and water balance (sodium, alkaline potassium, acid chloride). Acid–base balance and imbalance can affect many bodily functions, including growth rate, feed intake, protein metabolism, bone metabolism, and stress response.

Sodium and cl are extracellular ions. Potassium is intracellular and forms the basis of body cells.

Carnivorous animals can get enough na in their diet. Herbivores, however, should supplement their diet with na, since vegetables generally have low amounts of this element and are rich in k. This causes increased excretion of na. Potassium salts significantly increase the k content in plants. Therefore, there is often an unfavorable k-na ratio of 10:1 and even higher in cattle feed.

8.3.1 Absorption

The site of absorption of Na, K and cl is in the small intestine.

8.3.2 Excretion

The route of elimination of Cl, Ca and K is through the kidney.

The homeostatic mechanism that regulates the metabolism of na and k is sufficiently developed so that animals can survive for long periods with low na intakes and conserve k, except in pathological conditions.

Potassium is practically 100% assimilable. Almost all the K that is eliminated from the organism is of endogenous origin. The percentage of K excreted in the urine is 75–86% in cows, 85–88% in sheep. Neither the amount of K ingested nor the level of feeding affect the ratio between the amount of K excreted by the kidneys and by the intestine.

8.3.3 Biochemical functions

Chloride and na facilitate regulation of osmotic pressure.

Sodium regulates acid–base balance and fluid volume.

Sodium and K increase nervous irritability. In this function they oppose the effects of Ca and Mg.

Chloride is involved in the transport of CO2 by displacing Cl-.

Potassium facilitates the uptake of neutral amino acids.

Sodium is involved in muscle cells during contraction and is necessary for the transport of amino acids, glucose through mucous membranes and cell membranes.

The adrenal gland is important for the regulation of na retention and its insufficiency leads to a reduction in the level of sodium in the blood.

The metabolism of Na in the body is controlled by the endocrine system (mineralocorticoids-aldosterone and oxycorticosterone). Aldosterone controls the process of reabsorption and Na + in the kidney tubules. Na + (and water) retention is usually accompanied by intense K secretion in the urine. Hydrogen ions (H+) that are secreted in the urine compete with K ions (K+). Na reabsorption can be accompanied by a preferential secretion of K+ (in ruminants) and H+.

On the other hand, aldosterone secretion can regulate, by itself, the levels of Na + and K+ in the blood. Aldosterone has been found to suppress mg absorption through the intestinal wall in vitro and to produce hypomagnesemia in vivo. The effect of aldosterone on Mg metabolism may be secondary and is related to mg metabolism of Na and K.

Low serum mg levels were observed in ruminants fed sugarcane straw-based diets treated with na hydroxide.

8.3.4 Deficiencies

Dietary na deficiencies can occur during lactation. This may be caused by the loss of this element in milk in animals that grow rapidly and consume cereals low in Na in warm areas where there are extensive na losses through sweat. It also occurs in animals subjected to intense work and in animals that consume pastures deficient in this mineral.

Farm animal diets are often deficient in na and for this reason the level of the element in the ration must be constantly monitored.

Deficiencies and excesses of k are rare in animal feed.

Sodium deficiency affects bovine reproductive physiology.

8.4 Sulfur S

Sulfur represents 0.15% of the body weight. This element is present in all the cells of the body, mainly in organic tissues rich in protein. Sulfur and n metabolism are associated, since two important amino acids cystine and methionine contain sulfur.

There is evidence that s may be limiting in certain diets. With the increase in the use of urea in the ration, an increase in inorganic sulfate supplementation is suggested. The s requirement of the animal is covered with the content of s-containing amino acids and, partially, with heterocyclic compounds such as biotin and thiamine.

8.4.1 Absorption

The absorption of s occurs mainly in the small intestine. Among the different sources, inorganic s is absorbed less than organic s in some species, although not in all.

8.4.2 Excretion

Sulfur is eliminated in feces and urine, depending on how you administer the amount received.

Possible use, by microorganisms in the digestive tract, of elemental s or sulfate that is added to diets to cover the deficiency.

Sulfur is essential for the synthesis of certain compounds (mucopolysaccharides) in the body.

Sulfur is essential for microorganisms, for the digestion of cellulose, utilization of n-p-n (non-protein nitrogen) and for the synthesis of B complex vitamins.

8.4.3 Deficiencies

In ruminants, s deficiency can occur if protein is replaced by non-protein nitrogen (NPN).

8.4.4 Excess sulfur

Excess mineral s as sulfate has an adverse effect on chickens and piglets (growth inhibition, gastroenteritis). Caution should be exercised when using Clauber’s salt as a source of s and na in calf and cow diets.

8.5 Manganese (Mn)

It appears distributed throughout the body in minute amounts, although it tends to concentrate in the mitochondria. It is also found in the bone, liver, pancreas, kidney, brain, and heart.

Bone is the main source of mn and can serve as a deposit of this element.

It is also found in the liver, muscles and kidneys. The concentration of mn in the hair or feathers can be correlated with the level in the diet and it has been recommended that the content in the body hairs of pigs be taken as a criterion of an adequate supply of the diet.

8.5.1 Absorption

Manganese is absorbed mainly in the small intestine, specifically, in the duodenum in polygastric and monogastric animals, and its absorption decreases when there are excessive amounts of calcium, phosphorus or iron. Absorbed MN is rapidly cleared from the blood to the liver, bones, and hairs.

8.5.2 Excretion

Manganese is eliminated through the bile and into the intestinal tract and is excreted in the feces. It is absorbed as bile-bound mn. Each atom crushes several times before its final excretion. The excretion of mn in the urine is negligible.

As part or activator of numerous enzymes such as the enzyme arginase.

In the function of the skeleton, the muscles and the development of the genitals.

It is essential for the development of the organic matrix of bone, which is composed of mucopolysaccharides.

It is required in the synthesis of fatty acids as a mn chelate.

It is involved in the metabolism of amino acids with pyridoxal phosphate.

8.5.3 Deficiencies

Although mn deficiencies have been produced experimentally in many animals, it has only been presented as a practical problem in the feeding of birds whose dietary needs are higher than mammals [26].

Deficiencies manifest as growth retardation, skeletal abnormalities, impaired reproductive functions, and ataxia of newborns. In bovines, a deficient diet in mn delays sexual maturity and decreases fecundity. Milk production decreases.

8.6 Zinc (Zn)

The normal animal organism contains a Zn concentration of approximately 30 parts per million. The highest concentrations of zn in the body are found in epidemic tissue such as skin and hair, although they have no preference for any particular tissue.

8.6.1 Absorption

In most species, zn is mainly absorbed in the upper segment of the small intestine (less than 10% of the amount ingested). Absorption varies according to how the item is ingested. Zinc carbonate, sulfate, and oxide, as well as metallic Zn, are absorbed in the same way.

In the rumen of ruminants that receive grass diets there are only 5–10% of zn in the soluble form (grass has 50%). It appears that Zn binds to the microflora of the foreskin. In the abomasum and duodenum the solubility increases and can be more than 80%. Excess phytic acid reduces the absorption of Zn. White tissues have a large exchangeable zn deposit that maintains a balance with plasma Zn. Organs such as the liver and renal cortex are rich in mitochondria and have a maximum amount of Zn.

Zinc is eliminated mainly in the feces and less than 5% of the ingested is eliminated in the urine. There is an effective homeostatic mechanism for Zn in the intestine. Homeostasis is maintained by variations in the amounts of Zn absorbed and its endogenous excretion in feces.

It is an essential component of carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme that plays an important role in the basic balance in the body and in the release of CO2 in the gastric mucosa.

8.6.2 Deficiencies

In calves they are manifested by subnormal growth, alopecia, parakeratosis in some regions of the body. The lambs show appetite disturbances, eat wool and reduce growth.

Biochemical alterations in blood and tissues are not constant, but as deficiency progresses there is a slight decrease in Zn in liver, kidney, heart and muscle tissues and a more intense decrease in the pancreas.

Zinc deficiencies also lower the blood level along with alkaline phosphatase.

Interrelation of Zn with other minerals. High Zn intake decreases cu and fe retention. The interaction between Cu and Zn was forced by seeing that Zn provides good protection against Cu poisoning.

There is an interrelationship between the ingestion of Zn and Ca, since the main parakeratosis has been observed and in pigs that receive diets high in Ca.

8.7 Iron (Fe)

In adult animals it is found in amounts ranging from 60 to 90 ppm in fat-free tissues. Approximately 57% of the total fe is in the hemoglobin of the blood and 7% in myoglobin. Iron is stored for the most part in the form of ferritin and hemosiderin.

The bone marrow is one of the last reserves that can be depleted of iron and also one of the last to recover.

The duodenum is the major site of fe absorption in the digestive tract, although some absorption occurs in the stomach. This is absorbed in the form of ferrous ion and is reduced to ferric in the stomach. The absorption mechanism is believed to be as follows, ferrous iron enters the mucosal cell and is oxidized to ferric form. This combines with the protein apoferritin to form ferritin, which requires energy from phosphate bonds. At the other end of the cell, Fe is reduced to the ferrous state, separating from ferritin, it passes into the blood and, after autoxidation and in the presence of CO2, it binds to siderophyllin to be transported as ferric iron.

One of the main functions of Fe is to be a component of heme that combines with qlobin to form hemoglobin. It acts as a component of cytochromoxidase and xanthine oxidase. Muscles contain an oxygen-carrying compound, iron-containing myoglobin.

The first sign of deficiency is microcytic hypochronic anemia caused by insufficient fe for normal hemoglobin formation.

There is no convincing evidence that animals grazing under natural conditions suffer from Fe deficiencies. Young animals of any domestic species can be Fe deficient if they eat a dairy diet and lack other external sources of Fe.

8.7.1 Excesses

Many times the excess of Fe salts of food origin can cause nutritional disorders, form insoluble phosphate that reduces the absorption of P, which produces rickets, insoluble Fe phosphate absorbs vitamins or inorganic trace elements that prevent their absorption.

8.8 Copper (Cu)

Copper is an essential element for food. In most adult organisms of the species they are found in a concentration of 1.5 to 2 ppm. The highest concentration of cu is found in the liver as dietary levels raise the liver content.

8.8.1 Absorption

It takes place in the upper portion of the small intestine and increases with CIH and decreases with ca. About 28% of ingested cu is absorbed.

Absorbed Cu bound to plasma albumin is rapidly transported to the liver and other organs where it is stored as a Cu-containing protein. The liver is the major storage site for Cu and the status of Cu balance in the animal can best be assessed by determining the Cu content in the liver. A number of factors such as age, growth hormone, and pregnancy influence the cu balance in the animal.

8.8.2 Excretion

Most of the Cu is excreted in the bile. Urinary Cu excretion is associated with the concentration of Cu that is not bound to plasma protein.

Copper is involved in the formation of young erythrocytes, but not in the concentration of hemoglobin. It has a functional role in fe absorption.

Copper participates in the process of osteogenesis; in protective functions, in the pigmentation and keratinization of the hair. It is a component of cytochrome oxidase, ceruloplasmin, galactose oxidase, and uricase.

Deficiency diseases. Anemia is a general symptom for all species. In cattle, Cu deficiency results in high levels of Fe and low levels of Cu in the liver.

Reproductive problems have been detected in cows that consume diets lacking in Cu.

Although animals are not very sensitive to excess Cu, the problem of toxicity has been pointed out in recent years, especially in ruminants.

8.8.3 Biochemical functions

Excessive doses of Cu (including Cu in milk replacers) and the indiscriminate use of Cu.

Use of Cu sulfate to deworm animals.

Use of Bordeaux mixtures in the silage of certain crops.

Presence of pig and poultry excreta (from animals fed high doses of Cu) in ruminant diets).

Early embryonic death, retained placenta, placental necrosis, better conception rates, silent estrus and low fertility.

In males, low libido, poor seminal quality, sterility.

8.9 Selenium (Se)

It is considered an essential element in nutrition and is associated with Se in organic and inorganic compounds.

In ruminants, a large percentage of ingested Se can be incorporated by rumen microorganisms along with cystine and methionine. They are absorbed and deposited in the tissues as Se amino acids.

8.9.1 Absorption

Seleno-methionine is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract by an active transport mechanism apparently very similar to that involved in the conduction of methionine through the intestinal mucosa.

8.9.2 Excretion

It is excreted by several routes, being the greatest losses through urine, feces and expired air.

8.9.3 Metabolic function

It has been proven that small amounts of se stimulate vital processes and counteract some unfavorable effects of vitamin e deficiency.

8.9.4 Deficiency

Its deficiency is related to infertility, miscarriages, retained placenta, and delayed involution.

In calves, se deficiency, together with vitamin E, P and other factors, can be the cause of white muscle disease (muscular dystrophy).

8.9.5 Excess

Prolonged digestion of relatively small amounts produces toxic symptoms, especially in young animals where growth is inhibited.

8.10 Cobalt (Co)

8.10.1 Absorption

It is absorbed in the proximal portion of the digestive tract of ruminants.

In monogastrics it is synthesized and absorbed in the distal region.

8.10.2 Excretion

Its main route of excretion is urine, although smaller amounts are eliminated in the feces.

8.10.3 Biochemical function

The first or perhaps the only function of Co is the synthesis of vitamin B12 and it represents 4% of the molecule.

8.10.4 Deficiency

Deficiency has only been observed in ruminants and can be caused by low co content in soils or by low availability of this element for plants.

Ruminants synthesize vitamin B12 using Co. When this element is scarce, the synthesis of vitamin B12 decreases, causing anemia.

8.11 Iodine (I)

8.11.1 Absorption

It is absorbed throughout the digestive tract and through the skin, and is present in small amounts in the feces, indicating that almost all orally administered is absorbed.

8.11.2 Excretion

It is almost entirely excreted in the urine. Urinary is constant enough to serve as an indicator of the animal’s thyroid function.

8.11.3 Biochemical function

It is used in conjunction with tyrosine in regulating the metabolic rate of the organism.

8.11.4 Deficiency

Iodine deficiency in domestic animals results in dead offspring. Those who survive have enlarged thyroids.

9. Conclusions

Finally, we can say that macrominerals, microminerals and trace elements are of vital importance in the body development of grazing cattle because they enter metabolic cycles to strengthen organic anabolism and catabolism. In mineral nutrition there are 15 elements considered essential, 7 macrominerals: Calcium (Ca), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl), Magnesium (Mg) and Sulfur (S), and 8 microminerals: Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Iodine (I), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo), Selenium (Se) and Zinc (Zn) participate in the generation of milk and meat but that Mexican soils are deficient in them, so it is important to carry out soil analysis to identify deficiencies that may present and be careful when supplementing animals and avoid losses due to growth delays, especially in presentation puberty and reactivation of the ovarian cycle after the birth. One of the greatest benefits of mineral supplementation lies in the positive effect on the rumen microbial population, having a great impact on production. Rumen microbes use Ca, P, Mg, K, Fe, Mn, Co, Cu, Mb and S as non-protein N sources, facilitating protein synthesis, fiber digestion, carbohydrate fermentation and energy generation. The minerals cause antagonistic effects to other minerals and are toxic to animals. For example, Cu poisoning is caused by low mo intake, causing hemoglobinuria, gastroenteritis, and sudden death. The loss of Ca-P balance (2:1) is characterized by the presentation of irregular heat or long periods of anestrus [27]. Na intoxication can cause cerebral edema and polyencephalomalacia. The imbalance in Mg, Ca and P can generate urolithiasis. According to the nutritional requirements of cattle, cattle need at least 17 minerals as indicated by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering 2016.