Open access peer-reviewed chapter
Abstract
Parenting in the twenty-first century compel among working parents a great deal of effort and balancing act between having a family and at the same time maintaining a good career. The challenges among working parents are on the balancing act of taking care and attending to family needs while becoming successful in chosen career. In the modern-day society where couples have to strive to make both ends met for the needs of the family, the issue and concern for balancing act is really perplexing. In this fast-paced twenty-first century world, such concern for balancing act has just been relegated to the confines of family resolution without the greater society having so much concern of it. However, it is a topic worthy of concern and study as it pervades not only within the realm of family life but as well as on the aspects of productivity and performance of working professional parents. In this paper, seven general themes with underlying discussions were presented. The themes are not exhaustive of the dynamics between parenting and work-family balance. The bottom line is to provide insights, reflection points and points to ponder about the realm of parenting and work-family balance in the twenty-first century.
Keywords
- parenting in the twenty-first century
- work-family balance
- parenting challenges
- parenting struggles
- parenting dilemma
1. Introduction
The advent of twenty-first century has brought dramatic changes to social arrangements in general. In particular, parenting and work-family balance has its own series of vignettes worthy of attention since the dawning of the twenty-first century. To start with, parenting in the context of this paper refers to the attributes of activities about rearing and educating a child by parents [1]. On the other hand, work-family balance can be defined as the equal treatment of work and family responsibilities among parents [2, 3]. The dynamics between parenting and work-family balance has created several social contracts and constructs that are already distant in identity compared to that of the immediate prior centuries. Changes in social contracts supported by institutional polices that ranges from expansion and enhancement of child care facilities so that working parents can have the opportunity to attend to their work regularly down to the provisions of reduced work hours for working mothers and flexible work schedules are already widely practiced among organizations [4, 5]. The social constructs of work-family dynamics have also seen several changes such as the role of mothers being the caregivers and fathers being the breadwinners. These social portrayal of roles in the family has slowly been eroded in the twenty-first century landscape [6]. This change in the societal role of men and women in the context of family responsibilities can be attributed to the ever-growing entry of women in the labor force in the beginning of the twenty-first century [7].
Perhaps the modernity of the twenty-first century is the main reason that has created significant impact to both the aspects of parenting and work-family balance. The evolving nature of society is truly a catalyst of change to the features of parenting and work-family balance that modern humans have seen and observed. At the macro-perspective, mega-factors such as political, social, economic and technological can be considered as the primary sources of significant changes to parenting and work-family balance. Looking into at the micro level, individual attributes such as job satisfaction, personal preferences, motivation, career choice and personal discernment among others are the primary turnaround of the subtleties of parenting and work-family balance in the twenty-first century.
Salient features of modern-day parenting can be seen in shared responsibilities along with the revival of egalitarianism. The delineation of gender roles and its corresponding stereotyped identities between parents are slowly eroding. This can be attributed to the changing consciousness of the current society which is more liberal and fluid. Another lever of change can be attributed to the financial and economic need and stability of the family. Thus, modern-day parenting does not account who will stay at home and who will work as long that opportunities offer economic stability for the family.
Globalization and interconnectivity hastened by the use of handheld technology gadgets has also empowered parents and families in general to learn from other parents and other individuals that share their experiences. Alongside, a plethora of resources about the topic can be readily accessible from the Internet. A lot of lessons can be learned by parents by simply browsing the Internet from the best practices about parenting and work-family balance in this modern-day society. Digital technologies and the Internet have empowered parents to learn from other people across time, space and national borders, making them more resilient and efficient in their parenting roles and managing their work-family balance [8].
The central thesis of this paper revolves around several pressing issues that confronts and pervades parenting and work-family balance in the context of twenty-first century. Anchored on the everyday backdrop of parenting and work-family realities in twenty-first century, this paper explores and explicate recurrent themes that are worthy to be reckoned with from the vantage points of parents, academic researchers and the greater society.
2. Methodology
This research utilized the scope literature review as the methodology to fill-in the discussions of predefined themes relating to parenting and work-family balance in the twenty-first century. The predefined themes are presented in succeeding sections. Google Scholar was the primary platform for the search along with other databases such as ProQuest and Ebscohost. The inclusion was narrowed down subject to the relevance of the papers to this research at the discretion of the authors.
Other search parameters to expand the periphery of the topic was also made. The main term used for the search is “parenting in the twenty-first century” with Boolean operators “AND” and “OR” to connect with other string of words such as “parenting challenges”, “parenting struggles”, “work-family balance”, “parenting and work”, and “parenting and career trade-off” among others. Both peer reviewed articles and gray literatures were included. In order for the gray literatures to be included, it has to be either a conference paper, academic notes, or literatures coming from credible web sources and with reputable origin. Other criteria for inclusions are:
Papers must be written in English.
Papers must have at least some degree of contextual discussions related to parenting in the twenty-first century.
Papers must have at least some degree of contextual discussions related to parenting and work-family balance.
3. Performing the balancing act
It is indeed a challenging task for parents to work and at the same time attend to family needs. The struggles of everyday job and taking care of the needs of the family requires a lot of patience, courage and perseverance for parents. This reality is more vividly depicted for starter families wherein young parents has to juggle the balancing act of being an effective and efficient worker and at the same time providing perpetual attention to the newly formed family. Regardless of spatial and geographical context, there is a universal truth that the juggling activities among parents to strike a balance between work and family has made a dent on their emotional, psychological, physical and economic wellbeing [9].
The learning curve of performing the balancing act increases as the family becomes psychologically and emotionally mature and by that time, the children are already grown up with little attention being required to look after their personal needs.
Performing the act of good parenting and maintaining work-family balance is an overarching goal of almost all parents. Good parenting is referred in this paper as the awareness of parents and their ability to provide the needs of their child [10]. Good parenting is also allied to the notion of positive parenting which purports the attributes of parental warmth and responsiveness [11].
At the outset of the balancing act, a variety of negative spillover effects can come into fruition such as stress, family dissatisfaction and poor workplace performance just to name a few [12]. It is of crucial importance that parents has to spend quality time with their children but at the same time exert substantial quantity of efforts in their jobs [13].
The early years of parenting and family life is overwhelmed with mixed emotions and struggles to balance the variety of aspects between family and work. The balancing act require parents to keep up with the rapid growth and development of their children during formative years [14]. On the other hand, the desire to become successful or excel in one’s career or job is at the other side of the balancing spectrum. To some extent, trade-offs cannot be avoided in performing the balancing act among parents. There are circumstances that some parents have to take side and chose priorities between family and career. Empirical evidence shows that women are more likely to trade career opportunities for their family and consequently devote more of their time to child rearing and household activities [15].
The nature of the balancing act between parenting and work is to some degree innate in the very environment where parents work. Organizations and institutions that have high-performance work practices and with some degree of flexibility offer better opportunities for their staff to exercise productivity at work and attending to family obligations [16]. Hence, there is a strong attribution towards the very nature of workplaces or working environments as significant contributory factor for proper balancing act.
Institutional and organizational policies that foster harmonious work and family life balance is an essential catalyst to attain the desired level of satisfaction and success between work and parenting [17]. Situational and work circumstances that are not complimentary in attaining harmonious work and family balance will render dysfunctionality among working parents and thus resulting to negative family outcomes [18]. The negative outcomes brought by dysfunctionality in the family has many root causes. Salient among them are parental stress and quality of relationship due to caregiving burden and role conflict [19, 20].
It can be deduced therefore that the performing of balancing act is not only burdened upon the shoulders of parents. The very organizations where these parents are working have to do their share of helping these parents perform the balancing act. It is the moral duty, obligations and social responsibility of these organizations to help parents achieve the proper balance of work and family [21].
4. Challenges and constraints
It is indicative that young and starting families are expected to face more challenges and constraints as compared to those that are nearing the stage of empty nest. Studies have found out that family life cycles are factors to reckon with when looking into the challenges and constraints of parents towards rearing their children [22, 23, 24]. The growing period for a family is beset with challenges and constraints due to the demands of raising a child which solicits time and effort and on the other hand compelling parents to work for economic sustainability and survival [22]. Thus, from the point of family founding up to child launching stage, it is expected that multiple challenges and constraints can be encountered.
Working parents are at dilemma on finding ways on how to balance their parenting responsibilities and being an efficient employee [25]. The reckoning of twenty-first century parenting issues and concerns has taken a visible step recently owing to the fact that more legislative and legal redress has been crafted to address the clamor from citizens to harmonize work and family activities [26].
One of the most prominent and distinct feature relative to challenges and constraints of parenting in the twenty-first century is the high level of perceptual stress among parents [27]. The post-modern work-family ecology has brought tremendous stress among parents in the aspects of financial, social and emotional amidst the demands of good parenting imperative. The pressing demands of good parenthood along with the need to provide the family with stable stream of economic stability has provided parents with so much pressure and stress [28].
Regardless of the setting, there exist some degree of disjuncture between parenting and work-family balance among parents in the twenty-first century [29]. Both parents actually have their respective stress and pressures because of their social roles to portray in the family. Mothers are destined to stay at home in exchange for a career to look after the needs of a growing child. While fathers are socially portrayed and expected to become good providers for the family. This portrayal and expectation of roles among parent were socially constructed by previous era and has been carried over to the present century.
There is a detrimental effect to such social construction among parents with regards to the portrayal of roles. Mothers can experience maternal depression while fathers can experience work-family stress phenomenon due to wage premium expectation. Maternal depression can have a significant effect in the development of a child [30, 31, 32]. On the other hand, fathers will tend to be confronted with work-family stress that can be associated with breadwinning demand. This is more pronounced among low-tiered income fathers that have been caught in a quandary between parenting roles and fulfilling the economic needs of the family through stable working environment [33].
In general, all parents can experience parenting stress in one way or another. However, too much of parenting stress can reduce parents psychological and cognitive ability to become optimal parents [34]. There is a need among parents to maintain their proper emotional, cognitive and psychological functioning even when confronted with challenges and difficulties brought by parenting.
5. The hustle Culture and work-family balance
Almost all parents that are wanting to provide their families with substantial economic stability and resources are consumed by the idea and obsession of working harder and longer. The capitalist society is partly the source of the hustle culture and instilling in the mindset of individuals that the idea of rise and grind is the catch-all phrase for success. This can be a false panacea that the modern-day society has venerated.
Working parents are obviously sold out to this idea at the expense of work-family balance. Working hard is not bad after all. It fosters productivity and organizational commitment. What is detrimental to work-family balance is going beyond the limits of regular work and having little or no time for family responsibilities. Parents has to be cautious in oversubscribing to hustle culture as there are negative outcomes such as physical and mental health effects in the long run.
Twenty-first century parents have to be cognizant about the negative effects of the hustle culture to their family relations. Hustle culture can take some toll on employees’ physical and mental health considering the negative effects of working long works [35]. Hustle culture is a quick path to burnout and can eventually affect the work-family balance structure in the long run.
The only way to counter the cult of the hustle culture is for institutions to implement work-family balance friendly policies. This will enable working parents to cope with their work demands while maintaining their active family roles [36]. Institutions have a key role and responsibility by implementing policies that are work-family friendly so that working individuals can achieve significant level of work-family balance [37].
The hustle culture can definitely take away precious moments that supposedly allotted for spending quality time with family and loved ones [38]. In the twenty-first century parenting context, parents have to work smarter more than working harder. The rise and grind notion to success advocated by the hustle culture is more of a fallacy than a fact [39, 40]. Moreover, what does working parents can profit from hustle culture at the expense of strained family relations. Excessive working hours has negative effects on workers’ mental and physical well-being as well as losing proper balance between work and their families [41].
6. Work: family conflict and family vulnerabilities
Work–family conflict among families are common scenes among working parents [42]. Moreover, it has been found out that parents that are exposed to longer hours of work are prone to experience work–family conflict compared to parents with flexible work schedules [43]. The prevalence of work–family conflict poses a significant risk and danger to families. This may lead to adverse outcomes such as family dissatisfaction and consequently family dissolution. Work–family conflict can make parents and families vulnerable to negative outcomes that will result to strained family relations. Stressful experiences such as fatigue and psychological imbalance are visible manifestations of negative outcomes brought about by work–family conflict [44]. Further, work performance is also reported among scholars to be affected by work–family conflict [45, 46, 47]. The balancing of work to family demands can lead to work-interference-with-family making both parents vulnerable to unhealthy family interactions [48].
Moreover, those families that are in lower strata of the economy are more vulnerable to work–family conflict. Parents in this lower stratum of society lack the ability and mechanisms to compensate and mitigate the adverse effect of work–family conflict [49]. Low-income households still experience inequalities in the context of solving their work–family conflict since majority of their workplaces does not foster policies to mitigate such concern [50]. Scholars are already recognizing this phenomenon as a structural issue more than just a personal shortcoming among parents [51]. Moreover, women are often the most vulnerable between the two parents in work–family conflict [52]. The prevalence on the differential bias of gender role and responsibility in the family is still present although subtle in modern times [53, 54]. The result will be most likely that women are to take the burden of child rearing and household responsibilities [55, 56]. Both parents eventually will suffer the effects of work–family conflict and spousal disputes will significantly increase over time with collateral damages such as children’s emotional well-being [57].
7. The motherhood penalty
In this theme- ‘the motherhood penalty’ along with the succeeding theme which is the ‘fatherhood premium’ are presented consecutively for the purpose of capturing the dynamics of parenting from various standpoint. The purpose of presenting and discussing these two consecutive themes is to provide readers a comprehensive macro perspective about the context of parenting in the twenty-first century. The ‘motherhood penalty’ and the ‘fatherhood premium’ can be considered as paradoxes of parenting dynamics and are worthy to be given attention in the discussion of parenting issues. The importance of laying down these two important themes for discussions are not contradictory but rather a point of reckoning wherein in the grand scheme of things, in the realm of parenting such paradoxes exists.
Empirical evidences have showed that women are most likely to experience drawbacks from being a parent in relation to career progression than their male counterparts [58, 59, 60, 61]. Gendered norm identities and responsibilities are inherent part of parenting aspects. The aspect of motherhood penalty is one of the most recognizable themes in the sphere of parenting and work-family balance. Income and career inequalities among working mothers are ascribed as the motherhood penalty [62]. Women are more likely to bear the sacrifice of striking the balance between work or career and family matters [63]. In the process, this results to gendered gaps in work opportunities and growth among working mothers which can significantly affect their careers [60].
Women usually experienced drawbacks in career progression the moment they became mothers [64]. This is due to the fact that women would have additional family responsibility during child rearing process that gives them additional work-family balance pressure. There is a common perspective among work institutions that women with children are more likely to reduce their commitment at work due to caregiving responsibilities at home [65]. This social perspective is more likely to result in gender inequality in the workplace as well as a prejudice to working mothers’ opportunity for career growth and advancement [66]. This normative discrimination among mothers is associated with the view that they are less committed to their jobs since they have children to look after [64]. Consequently, this amplifies employers’ perceptions that mothers have conflicting interests between work productivity and family responsibilities [67].
8. The fatherhood premium hypothesis
The social perception that fathers as breadwinners and mothers as caregivers pervades the realm of parenting discussions. Such would often lead to the delineation of gendered roles and gendered pay gaps in the process of family formation [68]. Fatherhood premiums are associated with the theoretical underpinning wherein fathers are more likely to increase their productivity granting that marriage, family and child are reinforcing factors for such premium gains [69]. The fatherhood premium hypothesis can be considered as an incentive among fathers to strive hard to provide for their family’s needs [70]. Occupational characteristics are the usual underlying elements of the fatherhood premium but is just one parameter among the myriad of explanatory mechanisms that can affect wage differentiation [71].
There are however contending arguments about the fatherhood premium hypothesis. Some empirical findings do not support the desired outcome of the fatherhood premium hypothesis which leads to the inference that underlying mechanisms for wage and productivity premiums among fathers are not universally true [72]. If that’s the case, the fatherhood premium can be considered as milieu specific contextual results that can change over a period of time in different locales. The fatherhood premium therefore can remain as a working hypothesis subject to further verification. Other parameters aside from occupational characteristics should be explored such as work efforts as a moderating factor to assert the universal existence and veracity of the fatherhood premium hypothesis [73].
9. Importance of egalitarianism to work-family balance
In the twenty-first century parenting scenario, it does not matter anymore whether it will be the mother or the father that contributes more to the family and household chores. Raising a family is not about counting the contribution from each parent. It is about the convergence and concerted efforts from both parents that makes parenting and work-family balance becomes feasible and attainable [74].
Stereotyping of gender identity in the realm of parenting in the twenty-first century can be a thing of the past. Such stereotype perspective of gender identify parenting has an almost cult-following popularity in previous centuries. The context of parenting in the twenty-first century is more of an egalitarian nature rather than delineation of gender roles in parenting [75]. Basically, it has to be necessary to become egalitarian so as to promote the idea of equality among parents.
Although the notion of egalitarianism in parenting is not a new concept, there is a need to revive the spirit in order to propagate the essence of equality among parents. This can be called neo-egalitarian parenting movement. The bottom line that can be achieved with such notion is the attainment of equality of gender roles, sharing of accountabilities and responsibilities, and to unburden the other parent especially women from the despotic idea of masculinity of the other parent along with the stereotype roles and identities in the family.
The neo-egalitarianism can also be related to neoliberal concept of parenting and work-family management of the twenty-first century [76]. The social constructs of parenting and work-family balance in the twenty-first century is projected towards the functionality of the family along with its coherence in the general society. This can be considered as well as a post-modernism movement of parenting and work-family balance with emphasis on child-focused care together with institutional and social support mechanisms to achieve the desired outcomes of parenting ideals. The practice of egalitarian parenting can be diverse from country to country but the general trajectory points to the same direction [77]. Egalitarianism will prevail in the context of parenting in the twenty-first century.
10. Conclusions
The themes presented in prior sections are not exhaustive of the realities and dynamics of parenting and work-family balance in the twenty-first century. However, to some degree, it has elucidated several pressing issues and topics that needs to be given attention in the context of parenting and work-family balance. Parents, academic researchers and even ordinary people are well aware that those aforementioned topics discussed are the central issues of parenting and work-family balance.
Although so much has been said about those topics, institutional and social support are still necessary to improve the working conditions of parents in the modern work environment. Legislative and legal actions are also vital to mitigate the stress and anxiety of parents due to the juggling demands between work and family responsibilities. The practice of egalitarianism and shared family responsibility roles at the personal and family level can greatly alleviate the burden of the family in terms of work-family balance.
Stereotyped gender roles are not necessary to be practiced in the twenty-first century parenting. It is a dysfunctional social idea that does not serve any merit in the twenty-first century parenting practice.
The academia which is the primary source of knowledge disseminated towards the greater society should constantly encourage researchers to embark on the topics of parenting and work-family balance. This is to further develop and expand the body of knowledge about the topic. There is also a need that this topic has to be revitalized among researchers and scholars. Further, researchers that will venture into this kind of topics for empirical investigations should incorporate or consider other parameters which are vital to the building and development on this body of knowledge.
In succeeding opportunities for publication, the authors wish to explore other dominant and salient themes relevant to parenting and work-family balance in the twenty-first century that can still be developed and expounded.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to IntechOpen for the opportunity given to them to share their knowledge about the subject.
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