Approaches to Improve Water Productivity and Livelihood Resilience in the Karkheh River Basin: A Case Study from Iran

Abstract

The CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF) was conducted in the Karkheh River Basin (KRB) as one of the nine benchmark basins and a representative basin in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world in its phase one of implementation. The CPWF Program in the KRB began in 2003 and ended in 2008. Four focal projects, namely: 1) Water Productivity Improvement (WP), 2) Improvement of Livelihood Resilience of Local Communities in the Upper Catchments (LR), 3) Karkheh Basin Focal Project (BFP), and 4) a small grant project for Stakeholder Participation (SG) were implemented in the KRB. The international focal institutes in charge of these projects were ICARDA, IWMI, and the CENESTA Center (an NGO), respectively. These institutes implemented the mentioned projects in collaboration with the Iran country’s national institutes/centers (NARES). In this chapter, the approaches of CPWF in implementing the program in KRB are explained and discussed. Moreover, some major achievements and lessons learned from implementing the mentioned focal projects are provided. Based on the results, it can be stated that the roadmap for improving water productivity from the plant to the basin scales, by considering the policy and institutional issues, has been drawn in the CPWF program in KRB. Moreover, for better management of upstream watersheds in KRB, integrated watershed management principles have been well formulated and developed, taking into account the livelihood resilience improvement issues of local communities. In general, it can be stated that the development of multidisciplinary research of national research institutes and collaboration with related international institutes is necessary to improve water productivity and integrated management of catchments and to solve water crisis in the KRB and Iran as a whole. The lessons learned from implementing the CPWF program in KRB could be used as a suitable model to improve the quality of future similar studies in Iran and Central Asia.

1. Introduction

The Karkheh River Basin (KRB) is one of the benchmark basins in the first phase of the CGIAR¹ challenge program on water and food (CPWF). The basin is located in the west south part of Iran, and an arid to semi-arid region (Figure 1). Most of the upstream area of the KRB is located in the Kermanshah, Lorestan, and to some extent in Hamedan provinces (Figur 1). Rainfed agriculture is the major agricultural system and farmers’ agricultural production and incomes are quite low [1, 2].

Figure 1.

Administrative map of Karkheh River basin and location of upstream and downstream areas of the basin.

The downstream region of the basin is mainly located in the provinces of Khuzestan and Ilam, where irrigated agriculture is the predominant farming system (Figure 1). The last part and outlet of the basin is “Hur al-Azim” wetland on the border of Iran and Iraq.

In general, KRB was not in good condition regarding water use, agricultural production, water productivity (WP), and the livelihood of the beneficiaries. These conditions provided the ideal situation for the CPWF to select KRB as a benchmark basin, indicating a representative basin from arid to semi-arid regions and directly impact improving people’s livelihoods and enhancing basin WP for preserving it for the environment.

KRB was one of the nine benchmark basins of the CPWF Phase 1. It was implemented by CGIAR worldwide in the year 2004 and ended in 2008.

Three major research projects were launched in this basin mainly by the International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), and with the cooperation and participation of national institutions affiliated with the Agricultural-Research-Education-Extension Organization (AREEO) of the Ministry of Jihad Agriculture of Iran.

The four major international projects approved for the KRB were: 1) Water productivity improvement (WP), 2) Strengthening livelihood resilience in upper catchments of dry areas by integrated natural resources management (LR), 3) Basin Focal Project of KRB (BFP), and 4) a small grant project namely as SG.

In terms of the dimensions and scope of the CPWF program in KRB, it can be acknowledged that the program covered all issues related to improving WP and socio-economic issues related to the use of natural resources to improve the livelihoods of local communities in the basin. Regarding geographical distribution and main focus of the pivot projects, the WP project is located mostly in the irrigated areas in the Khuzestan (basin downstream), Kermanshah, and Lorestan (basin upstream) provinces and focusing on WP improvement issues including supplementary irrigation in basin upstream [3, 4, 5] (Figure 1). The LR project covered the entire area of upstream basin (Figure 1) [6, 7]. BFP project was also a large-scale pivot project that mostly dealt with large-scale WP and poverty issues for the entire basin area [2, 8].

Each of these focal projects had major and minor sub-projects and various core activities in areas related to the main project theme. Table 1 summarizes the key sub-projects or activities considered in the two comprehensive pivot projects, i.e., WP and LR projects.

Title of the main project	Leading Institute	Sub-projects and or activity	Major Report/Publication
Improving On-farm Agricultural Water Productivity in the Karkheh River Basin (WP)	ICARDA	Determining and evaluating farm WP in the irrigated lands in the south of KRB (non-saline and saline lands),; Determining and evaluating the farm WP in the rain-fed lands upstream of KRB and the effect of supplementary irrigation (SI) of rain-fed fields (mainly wheat and barley) on crop WP,; Development issues of SI irrigation in upstream areas of the basin and its impacts on the quantity and quality of water flow in the downstream basin,; Socio-Economic assessments of WP in field level Policy-institution issues related to improving WP in the KRB	[4]; [5]; [3]
Strengthening Livelihood Resilience in Upper Catchments of Dry Areas by Integrated Natural Resources Management (LR)	ICARDA	Review and development of the principles of integrated watersheds management for KRB,; Erosion and sedimentation issues upstream of KRB,; Drought studies in the basin,; Rangeland and forest management in the basin,; Issues of land use change and preparation of agro-ecological zoning map of the basin,; Natural resources management issues and agricultural production policies in the basin,; Water resources issues in the basin Development and participatory transfer of production technologies and improvement of WP in the basin,; Study of gender issues and water management.	[6]; [7]

Table 1.

Specifications of the approved CPWF projects in KRB and their key sub-projects and or activities.

In general, the purposes of these two participatory focal projects were to identify the basic issues, assess the status of agricultural WP, identify its sources of inefficiencies, provide the necessary technical and managerial solutions to improve poor agricultural and rural communities and increase income and improve their living conditions through comprehensive and appropriate management of natural resources. Ultimately, training and capacity buildings of all stakeholders, researchers, and experts of national agricultural research and extension services (NARES), and related local organizations were other goals of the projects [9].

It can be claimed that the CPWF program in the KRB is the first comprehensive international project in Iran that addresses water management and agricultural WP issues with participatory approach from field to basin scales and with the cooperation of international institutes, executive organizations, universities, and research institutes of the country.

2. Objectives and approaches of CPWF for river basin management

The CPWF’s main goal in KRB was to produce more food with less water for the Iran’s growing population over the next 20years, and to achieve this ultimate goal by reducing malnutrition, alleviating rural poverty, improving the health of local communities and protecting the environment. CPWF also sought to provide the research, extension, and capacity building needed to significantly increase basin WP and livelihood resilience of local communities while protecting the basin’s natural resources and environment, especially in drought conditions and climate change (CC) in the region.

Therefore, the key features of the CPWF were: 1) long-term goal to increase WP for food and livelihood of communities in a way that also preserves the environment and is socially acceptable; 2) medium-term goal to maintain the current status of water allocation for the agricultural sector at the end of the program, as per the current level of 2000 (beginning of the program), while increasing food and agricultural products. Achieving international environmental goals to reduce malnutrition and alleviate poverty by the end of 2015, especially in rural areas and small urban areas in low-income catchments with physical or economic scarcity or in the aquatic systems with a particular focus on high-poverty groups was also a medium-term goal and 3) short-term goal to include food security, alleviating poverty, improving the health level, reducing pollution, and environmental security [10].

2.1 CPWF research themes

The CPWF program organized and presented the following five research themes to achieve its goals. Table 2 provides the specification of the research themes along with the coverage rate of the KRB focal projects.

Themes	Objective	Research sub-themes	Leading Institute	Rate of Coverage of Projects with the Research Themes (%)
				WP*	LR	BFP	SG
T1: Crop-Water Productivity improvement	To promote and increase food and livelihood security through the produce “more crop per drop” approach	• Scope of work at the plant scale: effects and future direction of plant breeding activities,; • Crop and field scope: New opportunities for integrated natural resource management,; • Outlook and scope of agro-ecological system: integrating water and land management,; • Policy and institutional issues facilitating the transfer and adoption of improvement measures.	International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)	60	20	—	—
T2: Multipurpose use of upstream catchments (Water and people in catchments)	To improve water management in upstream catchments	• Water, poverty, and risks hazards in upstream catchments,; • Potentials for improving water management,; • Empowering communities and people to use improved land and water resources management.	International Center for Tropical Agriculture Research (CIAT)	20	65	—	—
T3: Aquatic ecosystems and fisheries	Conservation of aquatic ecosystems and fish and aquaculture for greater security of livelihood of people and biodiversity in catchments	• Issues of policy, institution, and governance,; • Valuing ecosystem services and products and the costs of destroying resources and the environment,; • Environmental water needs,; • Improving water productivity.	World Aquaculture Center (ICLARM)	0	0	—	—
T4: Integrated basin water management systems	Management of catchments in a comprehensive and integrated manner	• Communications and impacts and scales of analysis,; • Integrated decision support tools,; • Good governance.	International Water Management Institute (IWMI)	10	5	—	—
T5: The Global and national food and water system	Evaluate water resources and food production in the water-food system on a national and global scale	• Globalization, trade, macroeconomics, and sectorial policies,; • Investment and financial issues for agricultural water development and water supply,; • Common cross-border (trans-boundary) water policies and related institutions,; • Changes in the global water cycle.	International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)	10	10	—	—

Table 2.

Specification of the research themes along with the coverage rate of the KRB focal projects.

^*

: Improving On-farm Agricultural Water Productivity in the Karkheh River Basin (WP); Strengthening Livelihood Resilience in Upper Catchments of Dry Areas by Integrated Natural Resources Management (LR); Basin Focal Project (BFP); Small Grant Project (SG).

2.2 Approaches and activities for implementation of CPWF projects in the Karkheh River basin

The approaches and activities for implementation of CPWF projects in Karkheh River Basin (KRB) included three main steps, 1) Holding of a Kick-off or Launching Workshop of KRB, 2) Development of criteria for selection of pilot research sites in the basin, 3) Explanation and elaboration of the research projects to the project team and stakeholders by the project leaders and development of the project management structure.

2.2.1 Kick-off or launching workshop of KRB

The workshop, entitled CPWF program start-up workshop, was held on June 8–10, 2004 at the SPII² campus of Agricultural-Research-Education-Extension Organization (AREEO) with the participation of officials and all stakeholders. The workshop described the CPWF program and how the KRB was nominated and selected as one of the benchmark basins of the program.

In this workshop, various sessions and discussions were held in the form of brainstorming dialogs among the participants (experts and stakeholders). The two main areas of discussion were: a) Improving WP, food security, and livelihood of farmers in the aquatic ecosystem (irrigated agriculture) of KRB and mainly related to Theme1 of CPWF, and b) Issues of basin upstream, related to the Theme 2 of CPWF program, that is explained below.

2.2.1.1 Results of the CPWF theme one - workshop discussions

Regarding the first question of the workshop, i.e., high-priority research issues in the KRB, the summary of the Theme1 (improving water productivity at plant and farm scales) group as follows:

soil and water salinity, soil nutrition and fertility, irrigation efficiency, crop cultivars and plant species, thermal stress on crops, land drainage, cropping systems, land preparation, irrigation management, irrigation systems, drought stress, socio-economic, institutional, and environmental issues.

The above issues were divided into the following five groups:

1. Improvement of crop cultivars, including cultivars resistant to environmental stresses and having good crop yield and quality.

2. Water and irrigation management, including irrigation systems, water conservation and saving, and increasing irrigation efficiency.

3. Soil management issues, including soil nutrition, salinity, biological and physical–chemical aspects of soil, and land preparation.

4. Aspects of agro-technical management, including plant management and agro-systems; and 5- Political and institutional issues at the level of local communities.

Comments on the second question, i.e., “What are the best and most promising research methods that can cover at least three priorities and meet its research, are summarized as follows:

1. Improving plant cultivars (Germplasm): common and molecular methods of breeding cultivars and using methods of participatory breeding,

2. Irrigation management: methods based on the local community, application of more efficient irrigation systems, special methods of farmer education (Farmer Field School), and water saving methods,

3. Soil management: the same methods mentioned for case (b),

4. Aspects of agro-technical management: including agricultural meteorological studies, plant modeling, plant diversity and intensive cultivation (intensification),

5. Policies and institutions at the local community level: including product insurance policies, the establishment of water users associations, methods of reducing energy consumption, motivation and desire strategies in the application of improved or new technologies to ensure compliance with them.

Table 3 summarizes comments regarding the key indicators questions in the priority areas.

Row	Five years period	Fifteen years period
1	Adoption and application of varieties and new production technologies	Control of soil erosion
2	Improving farmers’ incomes	Control of soil and water salinity
3	Reducing water consumption and improving agricultural WP	Creating confidence and ensuring economic benefits for farmers
4	Improving food quality	Increasing and creating security in the agricultural sector
5	Improving environmental quality	Improving the livelihoods of local communities
6	—	Improving and preserving the environment

Table 3.

Key indicators questions of the priority areas for the different horizons.

For creating a credible basis lining, it was suggested that benchmark analysis of socio-economic and biophysical status of the basin at the beginning of the CPWF program and at the end of the program to be reviewed.

Also, a special working group for rainfed agriculture, mainly in the upstream areas of the basin, was formed. The specific results for this type of agriculture and in the form of Theme1 of CPWF program in KRB were as follows:

1. Three important issues in rain-fed agriculture of the KRB include: Low yield and yield instability, drought, inadequate existence of agricultural systems;

2. Promising research methods to address the above issues include: identifying areas in terms of Agro-ecological characterization, improving germplasm to withstand environmental and non-environmental stresses to the plant and thus improve plant WP, improving cropping systems and proper soil and crop management, application of supplementary irrigation, rainwater harvesting, application of participatory research methods, and crop modeling;

3. Key indicators in priority areas include cultivar adaptation, production technology adaptation rate, cropping system, soil erosion rate, soil quality, vegetation cover, and farmers’ income.

2.2.1.2 Results of the CPWF-theme two workshop discussions

Summary for Theme two of CPWF program in KRB, i.e., the issues of the upstream catchments were as follows:

The problem of water availability for rainfed lands (especially for supplementary irrigation), the small size of agricultural lands, improper use of forest lands for the production of medicinal and industrial products and coal production, destruction of forests and their improper control, uncontrolled grazing in pastures, lack of integrated plan or management for watersheds, erosion of cultivated lands and destroyed pastures, and surface flows pollution due to mining activities, etc.

Also, the summary of three important and priority issues of the basin upstream was: 1) Agricultural issues, including reduction of productivity due to soil erosion, drought (especially in dryland areas), and land ownership issues; 2) Livestock issues, including the destruction of forests and pastures and productivity of livestock production; 3) Side effects including pollution in the downstream of the basin, floods and sediment, issues of water allocation for upstream and its impacts on downstream of the basin and the Karkheh dam in downstream.

Promising research methods were: 1) Integrated Natural Resources Management (INRM) method; 2) Integrated catchment management method focusing on interactions and communication between water consumption and landowners; 3) Participatory research and stakeholder participation; 4) Diversification in the sources of income of the inhabitants of the basin; 5) On-farm research including production of drought-tolerant crops, rainwater harvesting, and supplementary irrigation of crops in rainfed lands; 6- The effects of land ownership and issues of land use policies and regulations on land degradation; 7) Socio-economic issues including specifying livelihood issues, etc.; 8) Livestock issues and rangeland rehabilitation; 9) Cultural issues and information communications; 10) Water quality monitoring; and 11) Establishing a link between research on the scale of catchment and rain-fed agriculture.

Following the workshop, discussions on planning for future research and implementation activities in the KRB were as follows:

At first, a conceptual discussion entitled “Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM)” was introduced. Based on its model, the KRB area was divided into two parts of upstream of Karkheh Dam (Downstream) and downstream of the dam (Downstream) and its issues were investigated as follows:

1. In the upstream areas of Karkheh Dam the following studies were potentially proposed:

   1. Watershed studies, effects of natural and human processes on river hydrology as well as Karkheh Dam, runoff, flood and sediment, pollution, water allocation issues, surface and groundwater interactions, and identification and evaluation of water users (farmers) and their efficiency and productivity studies;

2. In the downstream areas of Karkheh Dam, potential studies proposed as follows:

   1. General issues include studies of soil and water management and their relationship, issues of land salinity improvement, long-term effects of development activities in the region (such as construction of new irrigation and drainage networks, etc.), effects of drought and water shortage on the downstream basin and especially on Hur al-Azim wetland, study of available water and available technologies for reclaiming saline and sodium lands in the region, Karkheh dam management issues, study of water pollution issues from various urban, industrial and agricultural sources.

   2. Specific issues of irrigated lands, including evaluation of irrigation efficiency and WP at the irrigation network and basin scales, water balance, supply and demand issues, determination of standards and indicators necessary for investment planning at the basin scale, irrigation methods and technologies, drainage, study of optimal cropping pattern, and the relationship between users and water distribution system in large-scale irrigation networks in the basin.

The workshop also provided supportive scientific lectures on integrated natural resource management (INRM) in arid areas and definitions and issues of participatory research in the basin.

In presenting integrated natural resource management in arid areas, the challenge of natural resource management and the concepts and principles of the integrated natural resource management framework was defined and explained, and several important tools were introduced. Accordingly, the IMRM framework is a method that: integrates research into different types of natural resources using stakeholder participation processes, and adaptive management and innovation.

It also aims to improve livelihoods, agro-systemic resilience, improve agricultural productivity and environmental services. Its solutions and effects of which operate at different scales and levels of local, ecological and global communities. Therefore, the principles of INRM are: integrating research and development, creating a system for adaptation and learning, creating a balance between hard and software sciences, focusing on choosing the right type of science and knowledge and applying it at the appropriate level, and changing the scientific and organizational culture. INRM tools generally include three types of tools: process tools, cognitive tools, and problem-solving tools and investment on opportunities.

2.2.2 Development of criteria for selection of pilot research sites in the basin

2.2.2.1 Criteria for site selection in the upstream areas of the KRB

In the upstream areas of the basin, the main purpose of selecting the research site was mainly to implement the LR project. The main goal of the LR project upstream of the KRB was to improve livelihood resilience in arid watersheds through diversification and integrated natural resource management. According to the relevant conceptual model, resource degradation is not a reason for the change but a sign of changes in the socio-economic environment. Based on the results of field studies and considering diversity upstream of KRB, four research sites were initially selected based on the criteria and methods mentioned in the Mid-annual meeting [11] and Kick-off Workshop [12], as follows:

2.2.2.2 Criteria for site selection in downstream of the KRB

The criteria presented in the selection of research sites in downstream (south of KRB) were mainly derived from the results of field visits to the area by a group entitled “Agro-ecological plants and areas” in the early stages of the CPWF projects performed, which its results are presented in the followings.

The mentioned group categorized and presented their results of field visits to the entire basin in three categories: a) required data and information, b) quantitative determination of WP, and c) agricultural products in the basin [13, 14], which are presented only for case “a” in below³.

2.2.2.2.1 Required data and information

A-1-Hydrology includes inflows and outflows (including seasonal and non-seasonal streams and rivers, water withdrawals for irrigation and runoff) (if possible daily data), rainfall and its time distribution and location of rain gauge stations, groundwater aquifer and its characteristics, and water quality.

A-2- Climates include: temperature, humidity and wind (ideally hourly, daily desirable but at least monthly), the amount of radiation (if data is available), evaporation data from the pan or reference evapotranspiration (ET).

A- 3- Water, soil, and land include soil texture and type, soil depth and root limiting layer depth (if any), soil water holding capacity, drainage characteristics, groundwater depth, general soil fertility level, soil salinity and sodium content, land slope, and gravel and coarse rocks level (if the area is pasture).

A-4- Crops and other agronomic issues include: type of plant species (under cultivation including trees), rangeland and forest, cultivation calendar (planting and harvesting time, etc.), crop yield (including the number of crop residues obtained if used as fodder), plowing and tillage operations, if the land is pasture, type of rehabilitation activities performed, estimation of vegetation cover and weed cover to crop cover ratio and date (time) of data collection, inputs include fertilizers and pest and disease control (insects, diseases, and weeds), plant coefficient (if locally determined or approved).

A-5- Irrigation operations include: the amount of applied water, its frequency and duration, irrigation water application system (and application efficiencies, storage and transfer, if available), leveling of farms with surface irrigation system, source (sources) of irrigation water, a ratio of water used for leaching salts (leaching fraction), reuse of drainage and farm effluent, quality of irrigation water,

A- 6- Livestock status includes: livestock species, time of production or purchase of livestock, or sale (live or killed), livestock density and their mobility, livestock grazing operations, and production products, including meat, milk, wool, eggs, poultry, or livestock labor, type of feed, quantity, source and seasonal amount.

A-7- Fishery and aquaculture include: species, water needs, products (including type and amount), its effects on water quality, the possibility of potential for artificial aquaculture and its expansion.

A- 8- Use of environmental water include: type, amount (in the presence of sound).

A-9- Economic-social and organizational-institutional issues including the level of land ownership and its type, and other information related to the upstream of the basin.

As discussed above, summarizing the criteria for selecting research sites downstream of the basin were [13, 14]: 1) Representation of soils in the region, 2) Appropriateness of water quality, 3) Having problematic soils, 4) Importance of agriculture in the region, 5) Low water and land productivity, 6) Access and existence of infrastructure, 7) Proximity to meteorological stations, existence of old and modern irrigation systems, 8) Existence of poverty in local communities, 9) Existence of diversity in agricultural systems, 10) Existence of associations and institutions (such as water users associations), 11) Existence of data and secondary information, 12) Cultivation of strategic irrigated agricultural products, 13) Existence of mechanized agriculture, 14) Location of the region within the borders of a province, 15) Access to water resources, 16) Existence of agricultural plots of different sizes (small, medium, large), 17) Existence of famous local communities, and 18- Proximity to a research center or station.

2.2.3 CPWF-KRB explanation and elaboration of the research projects

Table 4 summarizes CPWF-KRB main projects (WP and LR).

Project Title	Main Objectives	Sub-Objectives/ Components
Improving On-farm Agricultural Water Productivity in the Karkheh River Basin (WP)	Increase in food security and improve farmers’ livelihoods,; Increasing and sustaining WP and thus increasing farmers’ income in dryland and irrigated farming.; options to improve WP in rain-fed and irrigated areas of the basin,; awareness and promotion of adaptation of new technologies, upcoming policies and appropriate organizational-institutional arrangements,; capacity building in National Research Systems (NARES) and local community leaders,; Evaluate WP and the organizational and institutional structure needed to improve it.; Finding options for sustainable improvement of WP in irrigated and rain-fed agriculture of the basin,; Familiarity and application of recommendations and technologies by farmers,; Provide sustainable organizational arrangements and necessary policies,; Training and capacity building among local communities, experts and researchers in the basin and even the country,; Evaluate WP and propose related structures and policies for Karkheh, Euphrates and Amu Darya basin,; Determining agricultural WP at farm and basin scales.	Improving rainwater productivity (RWP) through supplementary irrigation and agronomic practices in rain-fed lands upstream of KRB,; Determining and improving agricultural WP in the irrigated lands (non-saline and saline lands) downstream of KRB,; Socio-economic issues of WP improvement,; Policy and institutional issues related to improving WP and water management in agriculture of basin,; Study of impacts of upstream on downstream (Upper / Lower interactions).
Strengthening Livelihood Resilience in Upper Catchments of Dry Areas by Integrated Natural Resources Management (LR)	Strengthen the livelihood resilience of poor rural communities; Improve the environmental integrity of the upstream watersheds; Increase the adaptation capacity of the basin stakeholders in order to improve their livelihood and living conditions in arid and harsh areas in a sustainable way; Develop an appropriate methodology that could link livelihood enhancement strategies to watershed management principles	Development of a framework for assessing vulnerability and livelihood resilience in upstream watersheds,; Identification and evaluation of management principles of upstream watersheds in arid areas,; Creating the capacity of local communities to strengthen livelihoods and manage of their watershed in a sustainable way,; Effective strategic development to spread research results and experiences and achievements horizontally and upwards,; Improve coordination, communication, and process skills.; Climate change (CC) scenarios and plant adoption studies in KRB,; Drought analysis for upstream areas of KRB Basin,; Semi-detailed soil surveys Soil erosion studies inside and outside research sites,; Land use changes studies,; Participatory Technology Development activities in farmers’ fields and rural areas upstream of the basin (called PTD),; Water issues for integrated basin management,; Develop a decision support model (DSS) to model integrated watershed management,; Water resources of Honam watershed Gender and livelihood issues of catchment communities; Experiences learned from agricultural management activities in KRB,; Stakeholders and institutions in the basin,; Livelihood analysis of local communities,; Integrated basin water resources management and livelihoods resilience: Experiences of CPWF projects in benchmark basins and project impact assessments (IA),; Conducting land use planning studies,; Creating participation among communities,; Creating employment to reduce the pressure on natural resources and soil erosion control,; Rainwater water harvesting for optimal use of water and to improve the livelihood resilience of communities,; Training of farmers (land users) and develop their skills,; Encourage women’s participation,; Soil erosion studies at LR project pilot sites in upstream of KRB,; Impact Pathway of LR project,; Agro-ecological zoning of KRB,; Identify farmers’ innovations,; Development of principles of comprehensive watershed management and integrated management of water resources in the upstream areas of KRB.

Table 4.

A summary information on KRB main projects in the CPWF program.

3. Highlights of some innovations and thematic outputs of CPWF projects in KRB

3.1 Innovations and value-added studied subjects

• Biophysical similarity analysis was used to map similar areas to out scale the results of KRB projects to other basins in the WANA⁴ region,

• Achieving the method of preparing the map of potential areas for the application of supplementary irrigation (SI) method in the catchments areas and taking into account the base flow of rivers,

• Systematic identification of innovations of local farmers,

• Identification and development of salinity-resistant cultivars of barley, wheat, and sorghum,

• Participatory Technology Development (PTD) for selected technologies effective in improving livelihood resilience, WP, and food production in eight local communities located in two selected pilot research sites in the major provinces of the basin (Honam in the Lorestan province and Merek in the Kermanshah province),

• Development and extension of Azetobacter biological fertilizer in the upstream areas of the catchment (mainly in Lorestan province),

• Development and extension of new chickpea varieties along with autumn cultivation in the upstream areas of the basin (mainly in Kermanshah province),

• Development and extension of salinity resistant cultivars, management methods, and water management technologies to improve WP in saline lands downstream of the basin.

3.2 Thematic outputs from CPWF-KRB projects (for WP and LR main projects)

3.2.1 WP project

3.2.1.1 General

• Identifying and determining the characteristics and location of pilot research sites in the upstream and downstream areas of the basin (joint with the LR project),

• Characterization and development of agro-ecological map of the basin (in collaboration with the LR project),

• Determining and evaluating agricultural WP in the basin (this activity was planned to be done for the Tigris-Euphrates and Amu Darya basins in the region),

• Options for improving WP were developed in rain-fed and irrigated areas both for the farm and basin scales. These options mainly included supplementary irrigation, deficit irrigation, full irrigation, and salinity management.

• Development of zoning map of potential areas for application of supplementary irrigation at upstream and the effects of this measure at downstream of KRB.

• Organizational and policy institutional arrangements and regulations related to water management were documented and analyzed,

• Capacity building in the NARES, along with training human resources in the form of Ph.D. studies,

• Publications (project reports, scientific research and review articles, etc.) and dissemination of the project’s findings.

3.2.1.2 Basin scale

• Assessment of water resources and drought in KRB at the basin scale,

• Assessment of areas prone to supplementary irrigation in upstream areas,

• Upstream developments and their impacts and interactions with the downstream areas,

• Effects of land use on sediment flow,

• Agro-ecological characterization and similarity analysis of KRB.

3.2.1.3 Field-scale

• Improving rainwater productivity using supplementary irrigation,

• Evaluation and improvement of WP in the non-saline southern areas of KRB,

• Evaluation and improvement of WP in the saline and waterlogged southern areas of KRB,

• Cropping options to improve WP under salinity of water and soil resources in the south of KRB,

• Socio-economic factors involved in WP in the southern lands of KRB.

3.2.2 LR project

3.2.2.1 General

• Integration of activities of different disciplines, organizations and institutions in the watershed through conducting participatory research in selected pilot research sites in the basin, participatory development of technologies, and watershed management principles;

• Involvement and active participation of provincial research and extension services in the project, and necessary collaborations with WP project (PN8) in common subjects,

• Development of a map of the African region based on climatic and edaphic similarities with the KRB,

• Analysis and preparation of runoff map in upstream areas of the basin,

• Drought analysis in the upstream areas of the basin,

• Effects of land use changes (1975–2002) on the amount of sediment in the upstream of the basin,

• Detailed studies of monitoring and analysis of runoff and water consumption in Honam and Merek watersheds,

• Development of recommendations for the restoration and management of rangelands and forests in the basin,

• Preparation of spatial GIS-based database for Honam and Merek watershed (in upstream), to support appropriate land analysis, erosion modeling, land use planning and development of decision-making models,

• Spatial GIS-based erosion modeling to investigate the effects of land use change on erosion in the Honam and Merek watersheds upstream of the KRB,

• Development of land suitability map for wheat cultivation for use in decision-making models.

• Livelihood analysis of eight local communities in Merck and Honam sub-catchments and their modeling to assess the effects of policy changes (such as inputs, subsidies and bank loans) on people’s livelihoods,

• Participatory development of technologies to improve WP, food production, and livelihoods resilience in four local communities in two watersheds and preparation of the necessary bases for further research in the field of water management of the local communities. Some of the technologies tested were: autumn cultivation of chickpeas, potato management, mushroom production, rare medicinal plants, production of fast-growing trees (poplar), improvement of wheat and barley cultivars, application of bio fertilizers for wheat and barley, chemical fertilizers management, almond tree pest management, and wheat pest management,

• Conducting field research on women’s issues and their participation and cooperation with projects,

• The use of improved varieties of chickpea and its autumn cultivation doubled the productivity of this crop,

• Application of Azetobacter and Azospirillium fertilizers increased the yield of wheat and barley and rain-fed barley (by 11–36%) and was welcomed by farmers,

• Watershed management principles were prepared and developed for upstream catchments in arid areas,

• Development of Integrated Watershed Management (IWM) Principles,

• Water resources of Merek and Honam catchments,

• Resources and rangeland management,

• Nutrition management,

• Erosion studies,

• Spatial analysis (GIS) based on a spatial decision support system.

3.2.2.2 Participatory development of technologies (PTD)

• Principles and concepts of participatory technology development (PTD),

• Barley seed breeding and improvement in a participatory manner,

• Improving the management of legumes and family of fodder products.

3.2.2.3 Socio-economic and policy-institution issues

• Women’s participation in improving rural livelihood,

• Market access and its effects on low-income from farm residents,

• Rural livelihood zoning, effects of access to water resources and consideration of policy effects upstream of KRB,

• Principles of integrated water resources management and related institutional issues,

• Identify the livelihoods of rural communities, the effects of access to water resources, and policy measures in the upstream areas of the basin;

• The role and participation of women in improving the livelihood of rural communities,

• Market access and its effects on the income of small households in the basin,

• Policy-institutions issues in the basin,

• Principles of integrated water resources management and its institutional issues.

3.2.2.4 Development of integrated watershed management (IWM) principles

One of the project’s important methodologies and outputs was the development of principles of integrated management of upstream watersheds in arid mountainous areas [15, 16]. The logic and hypothesis were that watershed management principles for tropical and temperate regions were well defined and documented. But mountainous areas with arid climates have their own characteristics in terms of climate, geomorphology, and the effects of water access on local communities’ livelihood. Therefore, it is necessary to redefine and adapt these principles for the mentioned areas (such as upstream watersheds in the basins of Iran). The considered criteria and principles were developed under the following categories ([7, 15]): 1) issues and subjects of stakeholders and institutions, 2) issues and subjects of decision-making processes, 3) issues of stakeholder consultation and development of watershed management principles with the help of SWOT analysis, 4) issues of water scarcity and drought, 5) soil issues, 6) soil erosion/soil conservation issues, 7) issues of forest and rangeland ecosystems, 8) issues of areas with irrigated and rain-fed agriculture, 9) land use issues, 10) agronomic and crop selection issues, 11) on issues of participatory technology development, 12) policy matters, 13) livelihood issues, and 14) on gender issues.

4. Climate change impacts on land suitability in KRB

Considering the CPWF objectives, few studies were done on river basin climate change (CC) issues. The study done by Ghaffari et al. [17] on land suitability under current and CC scenarios in the KRB was the main study, and the results are summarized as follows;

Assessing the suitability of an area for crop production requires considerable effort in terms of information collection that presents both opportunities and limitations to decision-makers. Land suitability is assessed as part of a ‘rational’ cropping system, and optimizing a piece of land for a specified use should be based on its attributes. Furthermore, land may be considered either in its present condition or after specified improvements. Although criteria may vary, they are essentially based on climate, soil, topography, and water availability which are the most important categories of natural environmental information required for assessing land suitability.

The CC study in KRB describes a climate-soil-site model to assess CC impacts on land suitability for dryland winter wheat, focusing on the potential effects of temperature increase and rainfall variables on the land suitability in KRB. Assessments were made for the current climate condition and future climate scenarios by 2025 with GIS maps generated through a Simple Limitation Approach (SLA). Ghaffari et al. [17] used topography maps (10 m resolution), 25 years of climate data (1973–1998), physiological and phonological crop parameters, CC scenarios, soil management domain (SMD), and a simple limitation approach (SLA).

In Table 5, results of the projection of impacts of CC on land suitability classes for dryland winter wheat in upstream areas of KRB are provided.

T:temperature/P: precipitation	No Change	0.0 °C; +20%	0.0°C; −20%	+1.5°C; 0%	+1.5°C; +20%	+1.5 °C; −20%
Highly suitable (HS)	8.7	28	−91	6	53	−91
Moderately suitable (MS)	7.6	154	39	176	69	39
Marginally suitable (MG)	28	−50	15	−46	−25	18
Unsuitable (U)	55.7	0	1	−2	−5	0

Table 5.

Percentage area of suitability classes for dryland winter wheat by CC scenarios in KRB upstream [17].

It was concluded that by increasing temperature alone, it would be expected that highly and moderately suitable areas increases in the KRB. Increasing temperature and increasing precipitation increase highly and moderately suitable areas. Decreasing precipitation alone or increasing temperature will lower highly and moderately suitable areas. The main reason for this is water stress risk, not the direct effect of temperature [17].

5. CPWF approaches for continuing of the river basin management in phase 2

As mentioned earlier, the CPWF’s aim was to identify a set of agricultural solutions (technical, socio-economic, and organizational-institutional) related to water management that can lead to greater resilience of local communities in catchments and protect the environment. It was expected that these strategies would lead to a significant increase in agricultural WP to help solve the “water crisis for food” problem in the world. Therefore, the selected research topics and priorities in phase 2 of the CPWF program (2009–2012) were: Compliance with the CPWF’s research agenda in the areas of research topics or basin priorities; to be interdisciplinary and include cross-scale analysis and adaptation (social, ecological); help to improve the interrelationships of water, poverty, productivity, and ecosystems and within a global change context; address issues of rainfall management improvement, benefit sharing, multiple uses of water, drivers, and change processes.

In general, the research priorities for the implementation of Phase 2 of the CPWF program were as follow:

1. Upgrading of rain-fed agricultural systems

   Research on this topic aims to increase food security and alleviate poverty by further increasing rainwater for food production in rain-fed agricultural production systems.

2. Benefits sharing

   This research focuses on livelihood and income promotion, equity, and agricultural sustainability based on catchment/area boundaries.

3. Multipurpose use of water

   This will focus on improving water storage capacity and distribution systems, such as irrigation networks and small reservoirs for food security and poverty alleviation.

4. Drivers and processes of change

   This research theme is formed on the knowledge produced by the three previous research themes (A to C). Its approach is based on recognizing the opportunities and threats to people’s livelihoods resulting from changes in how they use water to produce food (including livestock and aquatic ecosystems).

5. Other research fields (remained 20%)

Includes research into the potential effects of climate change (CC) on food production, hydrological issues and degradation of natural resources, community livelihoods, and the development of strategies to improve and enhance resilience in selected benchmark basins in phase 2 of the program.

The selection criteria for the benchmark basins in Phase 2 of the CPWF program were based on Phase 1 experiences and recommendations from the external evaluation of Phase 1 in 2007. The criteria were as follows:

• More focus on the effects of the implementation of the program in the next ten years at the basin scale and through the guidance and coordination of selected projects focused on several key issues and among a smaller number of benchmark basins,

• Focus on basins among low-income countries while coordinating with the needs and priorities of CPWF funding providers and donors,

• Overall, CPWF research should ensure that it leads to the creation and production of global achievements and international public goods (IPGS).

However, despite not selecting the KRB catchment in the second phase of the CPWF program for various reasons and according to the criteria presented above, the proposed research activities for future research in this basin were presented as follows [18]:

• Continue research on improving WP in the KRB,

• Paying attention to issues of adaptation to climate change and drought in the basin,

• Considering the priorities and strategies of water allocation in the basin,

• Environmental effects of water management and construction of dams, especially in the upstream areas of the basin,

• Research on fisheries and livestock production issues,

• Further activities in the field of spatial modeling and decision-making systems for planning and development,

• Continuation of activities and research related to PTD,

• Continuation of development activities and capacity building of existing organizations in local communities,

• Out scaling of technologies and other achievements of the projects,

• Evaluation of projects and analysis of their impacts from institutional and technological aspects,

• Establish a communication network with other CPWF benchmark basins, especially the Ganges, Mekong, Nile, and Andes basins, regarding WP improvement technologies and resource management methods.

6. Discussions

The CPWF program was a new approach by the CGIAR system to collaborative and multidisciplinary research that was implemented in two phases and in several selected benchmark basins worldwide.

The implementation of the CPWF program, with the contribution of national and international research institutes and centers, had a lot of capacity building for experts and faculty members at the national level (NARES). In addition to the scientific and research results, practicing the spirit of multidisciplinary and collaborative cooperation with each other, training and capacity building, identifying the KRB and Iran in international forums and events, recognizing international researchers and professors, and the possibility of working together were other benefits of the CPWF program in KRB.

A comparison between the approach and work organization used by the CPWF program in KRB with the other similar international joint projects, studied in Iran country, e.g., the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and the Wetlands Conservation Project, with the support of the government of Japan and FAO-SIDA, in the Urmia Lake in the northwest of Iran, and on issues such as water accounting, improvement of WP, drought management, etc., indicate that:

• The CPWF program focused more on the research-development approach, while other projects, especially in recent years, have more of an implementation-extension nature (such as the implementation of the Urmia Lake Rehabilitation Project) than scientific field research,

• The CPWF program was implemented with foreign exchange resources and local in-kind resources. It differs from other projects in that the CPWF donors allocate their budget to the international institutions participating in the program and the cash flow is optimally allocated to the projects by confirming the proper progress of the work through them.

• Another advantage of the CPWF program was foreign parties’ direct scientific and technical participation in its approved projects. In other words, international researchers directly participate in the scientific-executive and supervisory activities of the projects, and it was worked in the form of direct cooperation with the organization and the team of national collaborators. In other projects, however, international organizations usually play only the role of budget allocators and do not have much technical or advisory involvement in the technical and scientific issues of the project until the project is completed and the final work report is received and assessed.

• The CPWF program in the KRB was made up of and used to the advantage of many international stakeholders including international institutions, renowned universities in developed countries, various international associations and institutions, and well-known international professors carrying out project activities and having direct participation and contribution. While in other projects, this international participation and support are usually very low and to the extent of one or two major scientific organizations that mostly play the role of administrative and financial support rather than a scientific and project management contributor.

• The CPWF program was structured and its implementation was followed by a step-by-step review and scientific-technical reports and work progress during project implementation. Examples were the convening of steering committee meetings, technical committee meetings, publishing mid-term and timely articles and reports, and so on. The program was also very efficient and systematic in sharing its data and information and creating a database and network to inform stakeholders of the results of its stages. Networking is much emphasized in this program. For example, during the implementation and completion of projects, the program held several specialized workshops, conferences and international forums in different countries to inform the results. Such an integrated networking system, informing, monitoring and delivering timely outputs, is usually much less common in other similar international projects in Iran.

Significant outputs of CPWF in KRB could be mentioned as: Development of supplementary irrigation in rain-fed agricultural systems in upstream of KRB, provide necessary solutions and measures to further disseminate the results and apply new methods and cropping patterns of agricultural crops in the downstream areas of the basin, application of land drainage technologies and salinity management in saline lands downstream of KRB, transition from one dimensional and researcher-oriented agricultural research to demand-driven research, as well as the development of technologies related to providing more participation of farmers in research process, establishing a balance between rural development and food security goals in terms of protection of soil and water resources and sustainability of mountainous watersheds in arid and semi-arid regions, development and promotion of production and marketing of chickpeas in order to increase farm income and ultimately the income of watershed residents, and mainstreaming of participatory development of technologies in agriculture.

However, the KRB was not selected in phase 2 of the CPWF program. This was a failure and had many reasons that are out of this chapter’s scope. The reasons for not selecting KRB for phase 2 are presented in detail by Heydari et al. [9].

Continuation of the work and dissemination of the results of the CPWF program in the KRB, or so-called out-scaling and up-scaling of the results to policy-makers and planners, was one of the things which should have been continued after the completion of the program. However, this task was followed to some extent but not fully, and stopped after a while so its issues should be investigated. This shortcoming occurs for most R&D projects in most developing countries, including Iran.

However, the project archives and databases (documented fully in [9]), as well as its many national and international research reports and published articles (e.g., [3, 5, 6, 7, 10]), along with the information presented in this chapter, could be used as important resources for future use.

The present collection can be a good roadmap to explain the process of water and food challenges in KRB and to continue the road in this basin and other basins in Iran country and even similar basins in the region such as the Amu Darya in Central Asia and the Tigris-Euphrates in the Middle East.

As a result, the following common issues and strategies can be used as key indicators for multidisciplinary and multi-scale studies in similar studies in related basins:

6.1 Basin scale issues

Water resources and drought, areas prone to supplementary irrigation, upstream impacts and interactions on the downstream basin, land use effects on sediment flow in the basin, agro- ecological characterization, and similarity analysis of the basin.

6.2 Assessment and evaluation of options for improving WP in the basin

Rainwater productivity improvement by using supplementary irrigation, evaluating and improving WP in irrigated lands (saline areas with salinity and drainage limitations), recognizing and presenting agricultural options to improve WP under salinity of water and soil resources, socio-economic factors affecting WP in the basin.

6.3 Improving the resilience and livelihood of local communities in the basin

Integrated watershed management (including: water resources of the pilot sites, rangeland resources and its management, soil fertility management, soil erosion studies, and spatial decision support system); participatory technology development (PTD) in the basin (including: mainstreaming of the principles and concepts of participatory technology development, seed modification of common and major crops under participatory method, and improving the management of common and major crops); socio-economic and policy-institution issues (including women’s participation in improving rural livelihoods, market access and its effects on low-income farm residents, rural livelihood zoning, effects of access to water resources, and policy considerations in upstream developments; policy-making and organizational-institutional issues, and the principles of integrated water resources management and its related institutional aspects).

7. Conclusions

The CPWF program was a new approach to the CGIAR system to participatory and multidisciplinary research that was implemented in two phases and several selected basins in several global basins, including the KRB in Iran.

Methodology and the achieved results are a proper roadmap for water management in KRB and under increasing water scarcity and climate change conditions that can be used to continue the research and development in this basin and other similar basins in Iran. It can also be applied to other parts of the worlds, such as the Amu Darya basin in Central Asia and the Tigris-Euphrates basin in the Middle East.

Based on the results of the various projects mentioned above as well as the opinions of basin stakeholders and implementers, policies, plans, and various measures were extracted and suggested as outcome of CPWF in KRB.

The CPWF projects in KRB has been an example for biophysical similarlity analysis used for similar areas mapping to out-scale the results of projects to other similar basins in the Asia WANA region, potential area mapping for supplimentory irrigation, systematic identification of innovations of local farmers, participatory technology development, formulation of future research needs and activities, and etc.