Evaluating the Effectiveness of the Strategies for Sustaining Nature-Based Tourism amid Global Health Crises: A Global Perspective

Abstract

Nature-based tourism (NBT) is one of the most rapidly growing segments of the global service economic space. However, as its success and sustainability are dependent largely on human mobility, NBT is susceptible to economic disruptions triggered by the advent of unprecedented hazardous global phenomena. Literary evidence has revealed that certain strategies, such as strict health protocols and guidelines for tourism reactivation, have been implemented by tourist destinations to sustain tourism activities amid disastrous pandemics and epidemics. Health-related and general safety issues have been at the helm of policy and decision making in tourism-related initiatives to enhance the image of ideal tourist destinations. Such events, particularly the COVID-19 pandemic that introduced stringent regulations, have caused the tourism industry and its sub-sets to be completely transformed from being ‘normal sectoral environments characterized by optimistic economic prospects’ to ‘new normal environments characterized by uncertain economic prospects’. According to the business theory, the success of an enterprise is determined by assumptions relating to its environment, the accomplishment of its mission, its service competency, and the utilisation of resources that enable the achievement of its mission. The social exchange theory proposes interactions that create commitment and an enabling environment to build strong relationships under certain conditions. This is applicable to the tourist industry as tourists travel to destinations that adapt to unprecedented conditions on a par with evolving environmental demands.

1. Introduction

The tourism sector is an essential source of foreign exchange earnings, employment, state revenue, nature and environmental conservation, and cultural preservation in both developed and developing nations [1]. To illustrate, this sector accounted for 10.3% of the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 29% of global service exports, and 10.4% of employment security in [2, 3]. Despite being subject to socio-political and socio-economic instability, African regions are prominent tourist destinations due to their natural resources and scenic landscapes. Tourism thus accounted for US$168.5 billion in African states’ revenue, 2.2% towards their GDP growth, and 24.6 million job opportunities on the continent during 2019 [3]. Consequently, the development and sustainability of NBT have been embraced by numerous stakeholders and practitioners involved in the tourism industry [4]. Sustainability refers to development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs [5]. According to Zeitlin and Burr [6], NBT is when tourists travel to nature-based areas for recreational purposes, either because of their uniqueness or tourists’ inclination to visit them. Its activities relate mainly to sustainable tourism and satisfying the needs of tourists who seek to relax, discover, learn, and escape to nature [7]. Sustainable tourism refers to the development of tourism activities that meet the needs of the current generation of tourists as well as those of indigenous people, while specific attention is also given to the conservation and improvement of resources for future tourism development [8]. In this context, NBT remains among the most lucrative forms of tourism as many people travel frequently to various tourist destinations in the quest to experience scenic beauty and enjoy natural resources [2, 3]. However, as it depends largely on human mobility to thrive, NBT is highly susceptible to unprecedented disruptions caused by hazardous global phenomena [9]. For example, the advent of global infectious pandemics such as the Spanish flu (1918 to 1919), the Asian flu (1957), the Hong Kong flu (1968), the Severe Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) (2002 to 2003), and COVID-19 (2019–2021) has adversely impacted NBT and its related sectors [10, 11]. On 30 January 2020, COVID-19 was officially declared by WHO as a global pandemic due to the severe threat it posed to world-wide socio-economic spaces [12].

The pandemic also savagely impacted sectors that largely depend on NBT for economic stimulation such as agriculture, manufacturing, and construction [13]. Its adverse cross-sectoral economic impact was caused mainly by stringent restrictions by state governments the world over to contain its spread and its associated high morbidity and mortality rates. This involved the immediate closure of international borders, grounding of aeroplanes, and restricted human mobility [14]. Empirical findings indicate that emerging infectious diseases and zoonotic spillover are spread mainly by human activities such as travelling and interaction [15, 16]. Consequently, international tourism came to a halt as about 75% of all international borders were completely closed in May 2020 [2]. The impact of the restrictions resulted in about 440 million fewer international tourist arrivals between January and June 2020 [2]. Economic losses due to the pandemic surpassed five times those of the global economic and financial crisis of 2008/2009 [2]. In a best-case scenario, it is estimated that about 7.6 million jobs were lost and that the GDP declined by US$53 billion in 2020, which was a 30% decline compared to 2019. Moreover, there was a 36% decline in international and a 22% decline in domestic tourist arrivals [3]. Nonetheless, empirical evidence [17, 18, 19] reveals that unique tourism recovery action plans were developed and have been implemented in some prominent tourist destinations in China, England, and America as a strategy for sustainable tourism activities amid and after this global crisis.

Empirical studies [20, 21] also show that some African countries, under the auspices of WHO, have built resilient socio-economies by effectively implementing appropriate strategies. Although much attention has been paid to the impact of COVID-19 on NBT, there is a paucity of research on the strategies for sustaining this type of tourism amid hazardous global phenomena, especially in developing nations. Adopting a literature synthesis approach (LSA), this chapter aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies that were implement for sustaining NBT amid global health crises. The theoretical basis upon which the concept of ‘sustainable NBT amid global health crisis’ is predicated is presented. The typologies of NBT, their interrelatedness, and factors that influence and sustain NBT amid global health crises are also explored. Concluding remarks based on the literary findings as aligned with the theoretical basis of this investigation are offered. The chapter is concluded with recommendations for future research to address the identified gaps in the existing literature regarding the phenomenon under discussion.

2. Theoretical underpinning

It is undeniable that the environment within which tourism and its sub-sets operate has completely been transformed from ‘a normal sectoral environment characterised by optimistic economic prospects’ to ‘a new normal environment characterised by uncertain economic prospects’ due to the advent of global health crises and their subsequent stringent precautionary measures [22]. In this context, the business theory (BT) posits that the success of a business organisation is determined by assumptions relating to its environment, the accomplishment of its mission, and competencies and resources that enable the fulfilment of its mission [23]. The business theoretical perspective is based on flexibility, hence it makes provision for business organisations to review their key assumptions when unprecedented business opportunities or threats arise [24]. According to this theory, the aspirations of any business venture, including NBT, are based upon strategic intent that is communicated through its vision, mission, and goal statement [25]. It thus provides a foundation for practitioners and policymakers to develop strategies to sustain tourism businesses amid global hazardous phenomena. In tandem with sustainable behaviour, this theoretical perspective elucidates various challenges within the tourism industry [26, 27] and can facilitate the revitalisation of rural areas as it encourages the protection of residents’ quality of life, the preservation of traditional cultures, environmental conservation, employment creation, and income generation [28]. The social exchange theory (SET), which is useful in analysing social behaviour and linking sociology, social psychology, and anthropology [29] also underpins the discourse. SET underscores interactions and commitments [30] that depend on strong relationships under certain conditions, such as tourism operations amid global hazardous phenomena [31]. For example, empirical findings by Gumede and Mdiniso [32] reveal that domestic and international tourists who visited South Africa’s tourist sites during and in the wake of COVID-19 had to comply with this country’s stringent safety protocols. This theory explains human-resource interactions and tourist destination perceptions [33], while it also examines relationships among various residents [34]. This chapter thus argues that, in the wake of unprecedented global health crises, sustainable NBT is predicated upon the business theory as well as the SET of development.

3. Literature review

3.1 Typology of NBT activities and their interrelatedness

Forms of tourism that fall under the ambit of NBT (as illustrated in Figure 1) are safari tourism, wildlife tourism, ecotourism, adventure tourism, agricultural tourism, protected area tourism, desert tourism, marine tourism, and arctic tourism [6, 35, 36, 37, 38].

Figure 1.

The typology of NBT (source: Authors).

3.1.1 Wildlife tourism

Wildlife tourism is when visitors travel to observe wild animal species in their natural habitat [39]. They gain awareness and appreciation, connect with the wild, and learn to conserve natural resources [40, 41]. In many parts of the world, the sustainability of wildlife resources has been advocated as a means of meeting both the human and ecological needs of present and future generations [42]. Korir et al. [39] acknowledge a close alignment between wildlife tourism and ecotourism as both advocate the sustainability of natural resources while considering the socio-economic and socio-cultural well-being of local communities.

3.1.2 Ecotourism

The emergence of ecotourism dates back to the 1980s. The term was coined by a Mexican ecologist, Hector Cebellos-Lascurain [43], who argued that ecotourism was travelling responsibly to relatively fragile destinations for the purpose of studying, admiring, and enjoying natural landscapes, fauna and flora, and cultural resources, while aiming at advancing the socio-economic well-being of local communities [44, 45]. Although a generally acceptable definition of ecotourism is still highly contested [46, 47], the fact that ecotourism falls under the ambit of NBT has gained consensus among many scholars in the tourism discipline [37, 48, 49]. Ecotourism is characterised by: (1) the conservation and protection of natural resources; (2) the reduction of antagonistic impacts on socio-cultural and environmental livelihoods; (3) the education of tourists and locals regarding the conservation of natural resources; and (4) its promotion of nature conservation, the well-being of local people, and its support of locally-based business enterprises [50]. Moreover, it is used as a sustainable development approach to strike a balance between the economic, social, cultural, and environmental sectors [37].

3.1.3 Adventure tourism

Hall ([51], p. 143) considers adventure tourism “a broad spectrum of outdoor touristic activities that are commercialised and involve interaction with the natural environment [that is] characterised by an element of risk”. Adventure tourists participate in physical and adventurous adrenalin-rush activities in exotic outdoor settings and often require specialised equipment [52, 53, 54]. It is categorised as both soft adventure tourism and extreme or hard adventure tourism [55]. The former requires high levels of safety [56] with attractions such as nature watching, fishing, canopy tours, and visits to volcanoes [57]. Due to its emphasis on wildlife tourism, safaris, and 4x4 drives, the tourist economy in eastern and southern Africa is predominantly based on soft adventure tourism [58]. The latter sub-category incorporates activities that require strenuous physical exertion and present potential risks to life and limb ([58], p. 33) such as surfing, horse riding, ice climbing, sky diving, scuba-diving, mountaineering, bungee jumping, kayaking, snowboarding, skiing, and river rafting [53]. Africa has some of the world’s most iconic tourism destinations due to numerous adventure tourism sites scattered across the continent such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania (trekking and mountaineering), the Red Sea in Egypt (scuba-diving), the Victoria Falls (bungee jumping, white-river rafting, elephant safaris), and the Aliwal Shoal and Kleinbaai/Gansbaai coast in South Africa (scuba diving and Great White Shark cage diving) [58].

3.1.4 Agricultural tourism

Agricultural tourism, also known as agritourism, has been enjoyed globally since the early twentieth century [59]. The development of agritourism has been fostered by policies that established specific guidelines, obligations, and incentives aimed at assisting and encouraging farmers to diversify their entrepreneurial portfolios through tourism and hospitality services [60]. Phillip et al. [61] propose five typical operations of this form of tourism: (1) Non-working farm agritourism (visiting non-working farms to enjoy the scenery, for bird-watching, or for their historical significance); (2) Working farm or passive contact agritourism (visiting a working farm for non-agricultural-related purposes); (3) Working farm or indirect contact agritourism (visitors enjoy agricultural products such as fresh produce or meals on site); (4) Working farm or direct contact/staged agritourism (visitors are offered direct farming experiences through staged scenarios and predetermined tours, such as visiting an operating cider mill); and (5) Working farm direct contact or authentic agritourism (visitors participate in agricultural activities such as harvesting berries or milking cows in exchange for food and accommodation).

3.1.5 Protected area tourism

NBT has become an important factor in the management of protected areas (PAs) [62]. PAs have been used in many parts of the world as a strategy for conserving natural resources, facilitating socio-cultural and socio-economic development, generating symbiosis between humans and animal species, and preventing various threatened and endemic species from becoming extinct [63, 64]. The International Union for Conservation of Nature [65] describes a PA as “an area of land or sea that is specifically dedicated to the protection of biological diversity and natural and associated cultural resources, [while it is] managed through legal or other effective means. PAs can be categorised into six types according to their key purpose: (1) wilderness protection, (2) ecosystem protection and recreation, (3) the conservation of specific natural features, (4) conservation through management intervention, (5) landscape or seascape conservation and recreation, and (6) the sustainable use as a natural ecosystem [66]. The fortress approach (i.e., using fences) is deemed an anti-human welfare initiative, yet it prevails in the policy framework for the management of PAs [67]. This is a prominent negative aspect of PAs, particularly as local residents perceive the use of fences as a colonial or European model that is used to ostracise them from participating in and/or benefiting from protected area tourism activities. However, consensus was reached at the World Park Congress in Bali in 1982 to address these concerns through a policy framework to sustain PAs equitably, especially in developing countries [68].

3.1.6 Desert tourism

Atkinson ([69], p. 200) defines desert tourism as “a process whereby a specific group of people travels to unusual places that offer special activities or attractions”, whereas Laing and Crouch ([70], p. 325) consider it a branch of ‘bounded tourism’ to places that are geographically and socio-culturally situated at the margins of the world, or somewhere beyond human experience. Activities include walking in the desert; visiting attractions; studying vegetation, animal life, and morphological forms; or engaging in sport activities. Desert regions have become popular tourist destinations for individuals who are eager for exclusive discoveries and sensations [71, 72]. Due to the unique environmental and geographical conditions of desert regions, they are classified under ecotourism [73]. According to Eshraghi et al. ([72], p. 40), a desert is “an arid region of the planet where the existence of animal and/or plant species is limited or virtually absent”. It is argued that deserts should be preserved for both local and regional development [74] as they contribute significantly to job creation and socio-economic development through ecotourism [72]. Tour guiding, research, and facility management are among the most common jobs in desert tourism. Local people are often suitable candidates for desert tourism-related jobs as they know the local environment well and therefore become an ideal source of information [72]. Desert tourism, also referred to as geo-tourism, has become a popular and lucrative form of NBT in a range of specialised tourism markets [75] such as sports, psychology, adventure, and medicine [74].

3.1.7 Marine tourism

Marine tourism focuses on active and passive leisure and holiday pursuits in coastal waters, at shorelines, and in their immediate vicinities [76]. According to Tourism Business Africa (TBA) [77], marine tourism involves three activities: (1) boating and cruising (yachting, cruising, and ferrying); (2) sport and recreation (diving, swimming, and sailing); and (3) leisure and adventure (visits to marine PAs, whale-watching, and shark diving). Marine tourism is also among the fastest growing economic segments of NBT [78].

3.1.8 Arctic tourism

Arctic tourism focuses on high-latitude areas where tourists experience extreme environments and landscapes, exotic wildlife, and the cultural heritage of indigenous communities [79]. Visiting the Artic has significantly increased in recent years [80], to the extent that NBT has become the main economic driver in several small Scandinavian Arctic communities [79]. Consequently, arctic tourism has become an academic focal point [81] as it now attracts great public attention [82]. Two challenges are associated with the operationalisation and conceptualisation of arctic tourism: (1) It is characterised by difficult access to locations in fragile environments [83], and (2) it is highly seasonal in nature [84, 85]. Its seasonality poses challenges particularly in peripheral destinations that accommodate visitors in peak seasons, which means that they are unused or underused during off-seasons [86, 87]. Hall and Saarinen [88] and Maher ([80], p. 2) agree that a single definition for arctic tourism is virtually impossible, but Lee et al. ([89], p. 2) define arctic tourism as “any tourism-relevant activities associated with business, communities, organisations, or other stakeholders in the arctic region [that] include the areas and regions as per the consideration of relevant phytogeographic, climatic, geomorphological, latitudinal, and geopolitical criteria”. An important point is that, similar to other types of NBT, the exponential growth of arctic tourism depends largely on the sustainability of natural resources.

3.2 Factors that influence NBT

NBT is impacted by economic, human, and environmental factors [37, 79, 90, 91].

3.2.1 Economic factors

NBT is associated with significant economic activity that has recently grown even more rapidly than tourism in general [92]. Silverberg et al. [93] affirm that NBT bestows substantial economic benefits on host destinations. Where some aspects of nature serve as a main tourist attraction [94], NBT is particularly capable of providing numerous economic spin-offs to local communities [79]. Swemmer et al. ([95], p. 6) term them ‘non-ecological benefits’ as they encompass foreign exchange earnings, employment, and government revenue [1, 96]. As a result, NBT is a popular strategy that various states, including developing countries, use to achieve economic growth through the non-destructive use of natural resources [94, 97]. Numerous visitors flock to national parks and PAs annually, which directly contributes to the socio-economic development of host destinations [98]. According to the Center for Responsible Travel [99], NBT contributed 20% towards the world economy in 2018. In the same year, wildlife tourism made a direct contribution of about US$120.1 billion to the global GDP and US$343.6 billion to the total economic contribution [100]. Australia received about 68% of international visitors who engaged in NBT-related activities during 2016, the same year in which China contributed 17%, the United Kingdom (UK) 11%, New Zealand 10%, and the United States of America (USA) 9% of the total share of NBT to the global market [101]. Various countries on the African continent (e.g., Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Namibia, Rwanda, Madagascar, Botswana, and South Africa) rely mainly on wildlife tourism for foreign exchange earnings and employment growth [102, 103]. For example, Botswana attracts high-end international and domestic tourists due to the abundance of its wildlife and wilderness attractions [104], and the travel and tourism sector created about 26,000 jobs for local people in this country in 2019 [103]. During 2018, NBT contributed about 10% towards the Tanzania’s GDP and created about 19% of jobs in Namibia [101]. In South Africa, it generated about the same GDP income as that generated by farming, forestry, and fishery [101]. NBT is thus an important contributor to various countries’ economic growth [105] and it is estimated that a significant portion of the global tourism GDP (10%) is attributed to NBT activities [106]. It is noteworthy that youths between the ages of 15 to 29 years account for 33% of the total number of tourists who engage in NBT-related activities worldwide. This is an indication that the sector is likely to experience significant growth in future tourism initiatives [101].

3.2.2 Human factors

Human factors that influence NBT include motivation, perceptions, satisfaction, destination image, and loyalty [107]. Etymologically, the word ‘motive’ stems from the Latin verb ‘movere’, meaning to move [108]. Palacios-Florencio et al. ([109], p. 997) define motivation as “an internal factor that directs and integrates a person’s behaviour for potential satisfaction”. However, this chapter expounds motivation based on Altunel and Erkurt’s ([110], p. 215) view that satisfaction is the overall feeling of being impressed, which is measured in terms of the “perceived discrepancy between pre-travel expectations and post-travel experience derived from tourists’ first-hand encounters with an NBT destination”. Being motivated for travel can thus be understood as those needs “that predispose a potential tourist to consider participating in a touristic activity” (Pizam et al. [111], cited in Yuan and McDonald [112], p. 42). Tourist motivation thus refers to internal factors “that can affect tourists’ behaviour by influencing their trip evaluation” ([109], p. 997).

For the purpose of this chapter, tourist motivation is examined in terms of ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors. ‘Push factors’ refer to the socio-psychological constructs of tourists and their home environments that predispose them to travel, whereas ‘pull factors’ are the socio-psychological constructs of tourists that attract them towards a particular destination after a decision to travel has been made [113]. Metin ([101], p. 186) argues that, “regardless of tourism diversity in general, tourist motivation can be examined and/or explained within three basic theoretical frameworks”, namely those of Maslow [114], Iso-Ahola [115], and Crompton [116]. Maslow’s [114] theory expounds the notion that humans need to meet their basic biological and physiological needs, while Iso-Ahola’s [115] theory perceives the basic leisure behaviour of individuals as a ‘search and escape’ model. Crompton’s [116] theory views tension between individuals’ equilibrium and expectations to be prompted by the imbalance theory that reflects the desire for inhabitation. Luo and Deng [117] identify four different incentives that motivate tourists to travel to nature-based tourism destinations, namely the motive to experience the environment, incentives to relax in pleasant surroundings, wanting to maintain special interests and/or skills (e.g., diving or fishing), and wanting to be healthy and fit. Destination marketing can therefore be improved when the needs and motives of prospective and experienced clientele are well understood [118]. However, Mechinda et al. [119] acknowledge that situational factors can hinder the flow of visitors to destinations, arguing that this is exacerbated when visitors publicly criticise destinations that did not meet their expectations [120].

For a destination to stand apart from its competitors and attain competitive advantage, its management should have a correlative perception [121] and an image of the quality its prospective visitors desire [122]. Competitive advantage is defined by Išoraitė ([123], p. 1) as “a significant advantage over competitors due to the cost allocation and the results of the operation which depend largely on the destination’s positioning strategy”. According to Haarhoff and de Klerk [124], destination positioning is a process used by a destination to ensure that it prioritises the needs and/or wants of its potential clientele. According to Dash [125], seven concepts explain competitive advantage: superior performance, strategy, core competences, innovation, configuration, co-ordination or integration, and responsiveness.

Various strategies are required to achieve competitive advantage. Core competencies and distinctive awareness, skills, and the organisation of activities that distinguish a destination (i.e., destination positioning) and make it better than that of its competitors (i.e., competitive advantage). Other core skills are innovation (adapting to global change in line with tourists’ demands and the ability to thrive amid unprecedented crises), configuration (the way a destination configures value-adding actions), coordination or integration (the way in which a destination coordinates value-adding actions), and responsiveness (the capability to timeously respond to local requirements). Competitive advantage is thus the necessary edge required to understand tourists’ preferences as they become more educated and informed about ideal tourism goods and services [126]. Tourists expect good products and service and use familiarity, previous experience, a sense of value, and motivation to make judgements about a destination [127]. Moreover, tourists’ perceptions are subjective in nature, are unique to each tourist [124], and influence their attitudes towards and level of satisfaction with a particular tourist destination.

Satisfaction is a key variable in sustaining tourism activities [128] as it is the extent to which tourist’ fulfilment of pleasure occurs. It refers to their acceptance (or not) of an experience, product, or service and how it has met their desires and expectations [129]. Tourist satisfaction occurs when pre-travel expectations are met by travel experiences and by comparing expectations before and after tourism product consumption [130]. In essence, tourist satisfaction is achieved when experiences surpass expectations [130], while dissatisfaction occurs when tourists experience displeasure [131]. Quality tourism experiences are therefore crucial [132] as they reinforce a positive attitude towards a tourist destination and increase the potential for the repurchase of a tourism product [133]. It is also a cost-effective approach towards maintaining a tourism business [134] as attracting new tourists may cost more than keeping experienced ones [135]. It also leads to word-of-mouth recommendations that improve tourist turnout [136].

Tourist satisfaction measurement became a frequent application in market research in the 1990s. The main purpose of measuring tourist satisfaction is to establish how well the supplier of a particular destination responds to the needs of its clientele so that the service or goods may be improved [130]. Using the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) and the European Customer Satisfaction Index (ECSI), overall tourist satisfaction can be measured to determine expectation, efficiency, service quality, social value, play, aesthetics, perceived value for money, perceived risk, value of time and effort spent, and destination image [137]. Perceived value can be understood as the comparison of costs against the benefits of visitors’ enjoyment during a tourism experience [138]. It is evident that tourist satisfaction is based on two dimensions, namely, visitors’ expectations pre-travel and their perceptions of delivered services post-travel based on their actual experiences.

Tourist perceived destination image is a powerful marketing tool for marketing organisations (DMOs) to influence tourists’ decisions regarding visiting or revisiting a particular tourist destination [139]. Although the concept of destination image has evolved over the years, researchers now share a similar perspective regarding its invaluable influence on tourist destination choice [140]. Haarhoff and de Klerk ([124], p. 202) define destination image as “some beliefs, ideas, and impressions that a potential and/or experienced visitor has of a particular tourist destination [and its] features as are held in the tourist’s memory”. Every destination is characterised by a unique positive or negative image that influences tourists’ decision to visit/revisit it or not [139]. Gumede and Ezeuduji [141] contend that tourists are inclined to travel or not based on their positive or negative perceptions, while some may be indifferent based on a mixture (both positive and negative) of their perceptions. However, destination image may be descriptive or evaluative (multidimensional) as it is influenced by a multitude of factors based on tourists’ perspectives [142, 143]. These factors include cognitive images (a destination’s physical infrastructure), distinctive images (a destination’s unique features such as culture, customs, rituals), and affective images (emotional attributes such as its hospitability), external information sources (perception of a destination shared by experienced tourists), socio-demographic attributes (tourists’ age and first-hand experience of a destination, e.g., its ambience).

Ezeuduji and Mhlongo [144] maintain that destination brand image is a composite of impressions obtained by experienced and potential tourists regarding a particular destination from various sources. However, some authors [145, 146] focus on how cognitive and affective factors impact the choice of a destination. They argue that tourists are motivated by a sense of the cognitive and affective benefits of visiting a destination. However, even though cognitive benefits are perceived as important, negative emotional responses are more likely to impact the decision to visit or re-visit a destination or not [146]. Moreover, a destination with a strong image is more likely to be considered by either potential or experienced tourists for visits and revisits [147]. It has been suggested that cognitive benefits are considered during the initial choice process, while affective benefits are considered during the evaluation stage of a destination selection process [145]. Overall, the cognitive-affective factor is fundamental in tourists’ decision-making regarding suitable destinations [145, 146]. Therefore, any NBT destination that aspires to be an appealing brand needs to ensure that it positions itself by prioritising the needs of potential clientele [148]. Moreover, images that are portrayed on marketing platforms must be based on fact and not on idealistic publicity.

Tourist loyalty is a strong basis for the success, sustainability, and competitive advantage of NBT destinations and is used to measure tourist destination attachment [149]. This concept receives considerable attention by DMOs and is a main source for repeat visits and recommendations to friends and relatives [150]. Several authors [151, 152] perceive loyalty as a deep commitment that motives repeat visits and patronises brand products and service purchases over those offered by competitors. Tourists’ satisfaction and loyalty are cost-effective in the sense that repeat visits reduce the cost of marketing compared to attracting first-time visits [153]. Various authors [149, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159] identify four key components as good tourism outcomes, namely memorable experiences, satisfactory consumption, attachment, and satisfaction. These outcomes are ascribed to a destination’s distinctive functional attributes such as climate, history, culture, and heritage [143, 160, 161] as they evoke the interest of many tourists who apparently develop certain attitudes and/or behaviour because of satisfaction with services offered by a destination [151]. Rajesh [143] affirms that tourists’ positive impression and subsequent loyalty result from essential prerequisites such as climate, history, facilities, and gastronomy. Three approaches are used to measure tourists’ loyalty, namely the behavioural approach, the attitudinal approach, and the composite approach [162, 163].

The behavioural approach measures tourists’ loyalty in terms of repeat or frequent purchases of the same brand. Attitudinal approach measures tourists’ loyalty in terms of psychological commitment and statement of preference, whereas the composite approach measures tourists’ loyalty in terms of a combination of their behaviour and attitude, which is favoured by Chen et al. [149] and Chen and Gursoy [164]. Konecnik and Gartner [165] argue that tourists who repeatedly purchase a particular brand must have developed trust and a positive attitude towards it, and this suggests that loyalty is always built on trust, which in the tourism industry is the tendency of visitors to willingly purchase a brand’s offerings without considering possible or subsequent costs or benefits from their action [165].

Empirical research [166, 167] on tourists’ attitudes has confirmed that there is a positive relationship between attitude and destination attachment. However, building trust with tourists can be a challenging responsibility for DMOs because trust in the tourism industry manifests either through attitude or behaviour towards a brand symbol [168], which completely differs from interpersonal trust [169]. As trust in destination marketing has not been widely explored in research [151], Ekinci et al. [156] propose that winning tourists’ loyalty in a very competitive tourism environment may require DMOs to channel their focus towards developing strategies. In turn, tourist-brand trustworthy relationships, or reciprocity between a tourist and a destination could be built. With similar importance as in a destination’s image, a tourist-brand trustworthy relationship also needs to be built based upon facts rather than idealistic publicity. A destination’s characteristics, such as satisfactory services, may determine tourists’ decision to trust it.

Various authors [170, 171, 172] have concluded that individuals, organisations, and destinations are trusted based on an established reputation, their predictability, and their competence. In tourism, memorable experiences refer to experiences that tourists recall post tourist-destination engagement [173]. Creating memorable experiences that will elicit tourists’ loyalty remains a main challenge and a primary aspiration for most NBT destinations [174]. This pressing challenge has been prompted by a highly competitive and inconsistent tourism environment due to recent changes in demography, socio-economic stability, technology, and tourists’ demands [175]. Although traditional or hard factors such as infrastructure, economy, accessibility, and financial incentives play a pivotal role in sustaining NBT [158, 176], it has been difficult, and sometimes impossible, to differentiate among destinations based on these factors [177].

In light of the above, branding a destination in a manner that strengthens tourists’ emotional attachment to it has become an essential tool in achieving competitive and marketing objectives [169]. Tourists’ emotional attachment to a destination is described by Kyle et al. ([178], p. 155) as an “affective bond developed between a tourist destination and its visitors as a result of positive and memorable experiences”. Destination consumption is viewed by Campbell [179] as a process whereby tourists select, purchase, use, maintain, repair, and dispose of any product or service offered by an ideal tourist destination. Destination attachment relates to a process whereby the experience gained by tourists regarding a destination’s physical and social attributes results in strengthening the emotional destination-tourist bond [149]. Destination attachment thus serves as an antecedent of destination loyalty. Yuksel et al. [180] affirm that an emotional connection to a destination enhances the likelihood that tourists will demonstrate loyalty towards it and disseminate positive evaluation to potential tourists.

3.2.3 Environmental factors

Environmental preservation is a crucial reason for the increased demand of NBT [181]. Numerous factors influence ‘environmental consciousness’ ([182], p. 33). First, a significant proportion of the global population has become aware of threatening environmental mega trends such as global warming, ozone depletion, pesticide contamination, overpopulation, and deforestation. Secondly, the media have paid extensive attention to these threatening environmental mega trends through disproportional coverage supported by themed publications, including the Brundtland report. Thirdly, environmental awareness has further been strengthened by a series of high-profile environmental disasters and, finally, states have placed the environment on their international agenda. Teigland [183] associates increased environmental awareness with more emphasis on post-materialistic values and connectedness with the environment, particularly by the younger generation.

3.3 NBT amid global health crises

The susceptibility and sensitivity of NBT to unprecedented conditions have been exposed by the global outbreak of COVID-19 [184]. Restrictions imposed by state governments in line with the WHO’s guidelines to contain further spread of the pandemic have adversely impacted human and NBT development in many parts of the world [37]. Although it is believed to be less fatal compared to other health crises such as Ebola, the pandemic instigated extensive fear and uncertainty regarding health, the economy, and social life [29, 185, 186]. Tourism and international travel immediately came to a halt as the tourism industry functions on the concentration of people [109, 187]. Recent research [15, 16] has revealed that human mobility is the main super spreader of global pandemics, particularly COVID-19. The socio-economic loss suffered by the tourism and related sectors due to COVID-19 has been estimated to be five times the impact of the global economic and financial crisis of 2008/2009 [2]. This loss has been triggered by the fact that the pandemic has rapidly spread across all nations [186] and affected people of all walks of life. In 2020, international travel declined by approximately 93% compared to 2019 and about 100 million tourism-related jobs were lost in that year [2]. Apart from its socio-economic devastation, the pandemic also adversely impacted the sustainability of natural resources worldwide.

In Brazil, 334 federally managed PAs were closed to visitation in March 2020. Although most were reopened between August and October during the same year, a loss of about 5 million tourism receipts had already been suffered [188]. Based on the country’s 2018 tourism economic contribution, a decline in tourism receipts would result in a loss of US$ 1.6 billion in sales for businesses either directly or indirectly working with tourism around PAs. In addition, about 55,000 full- and part-time jobs would be lost leading to a loss of US$140 million to employees and businesses, and in about a US$575 million deficit in the country’s GDP [189]. In the United States of America (USA), about 404,000 fewer visitors were reported at Arches National Park (ANP) between March and May 2020. Communities adjacent to national parks were the hardest hit in terms of job losses [190]. However, increased tourist receipts were reported when these national parks reopened [191]. In Indonesia, both the tourism industry and local communities experienced severe job losses due to lockdown restrictions and the subsequent closure of all tourist destinations in April 2020. However, tourist receipts gradually increased in June 2020 due to easing of restrictions and re-opening of natural area tourism sites [191]. In Ecuador, dramatic economic impacts were experienced by the tourism industry and local communities as PAs were closed to tourism between July and September 2020. However, tourism receipts started to increase from July 2020 due to the end of shutdown [191].

NBT is the mainstay of Costa Rica’s economy as tourism revenue accounted for 30% of the country’s GDP in 2018. However, the country’s tourism industry was disrupted by the pandemic and visits to PAs ended abruptly in March 2020. Although PAs were re-opened in June 2020, visits had declined by nearly 80% due to restrictions on international travel [191]. Closure and the prohibition of visits to PAs due to the pandemic also halted Namibia’s tourism industry [192]. Initial estimates suggested that the country’s communal conservancies had lost about US$10 million in direct tourism revenue, threatening funding for about 700 game guards and about 300 conservancy management employees and the viability of about 61 joint venture tourism lodges employing about 1400 community members [193].

These and many more adverse socio-economic consequences of the pandemic, such as job losses, have prompted ecocide activities in many parts of the world [194]. For example, a spike in poaching activities was recorded in Morocco between March and April 2020, while shepherds took advantage of the country’s lockdown to graze their livestock in PAs where vegetation cover was better than in unprotected areas due to overgrazing and drought [194]. In some areas, local communities were forced to rely heavily on reverting to natural resources such as hunting wildlife for meat to sustain their livelihoods. Increased poaching of the iconic rhino and elephant also occurred as their horns and ivory tusks were smuggled in exchange for cash [191].

3.4 Strategies for sustaining NBT amid global health crises

Sustaining tourism activities amid the COVID-19 pandemic and its subsequent restrictions was a main concern for governments and stakeholders involved in the tourism industry [194]. Recovery and sustainability cannot be achieved in isolation, but only through collaborative effort [191]. An example of this is that, under the auspices of state governments and various stakeholders, the tourism industry has recovered remarkably from unprecedented major global crises such as the 2015 Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), the 2008/2009 economic crisis, and the 2003 severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) by implementing unique tourism recovery action plans (Butler, 2020); [17, 18, 19]. Strict health protocols and procedures (e.g., the use of face masks and alcohol-based sanitizers, adhering to social distancing, and vaccination roll-out) were applied by tourist destinations across the globe to contain the spread of the pandemic [191, 195]. Other measures such as emergency grants, loan waivers, guidelines for tourism reactivation, guidelines for responsible recreation, increased infrastructure cleaning, and conservancy management guidelines have been implemented to sustain NBT activities amid and in the aftermath of COVID-19. It is therefore envisaged that the negative impacts of the pandemic will be outweighed by positive ones, leading to a ‘net benefit’ for the tourism industry [196]. NBT destinations can improve and develop their tourism activities even better than before based on the lessons learnt, the consequent decisions taken, and the strategies implemented to sustain tourism activities in the future [37].

4. Methods

4.1 The literature synthesis approach in research

Literature review as a research approach is a systematic method of collecting and synthesising previously researched areas [197]. This approach (commonly referred to as LSA) has been adopted, among many others, in the business [198, 199] and tourism [141] spheres. A systematic review of literature, when conducted effectively, establishes a firm foundation for advancing knowledge and facilitating theory development [200]. Snyder [201] iterates that, “with a power that no single study has, a literature review can address research questions by integrating perspectives from a variety of empirical findings”. The general aim of using LSA was to critically analyse and evaluate new and emerging strategies “for sustaining NBT amid COVID-19”, as proposed by Snyder [201]. Torraco [202] and Snyder [201] caution that the manner in which relevant literature is selected and LSA is applied must be transparent. The literature presented in this chapter was thus integrated, examined, and critiqued to arrive at sensible conclusions regarding the phenomenon under investigation. The selection was based on pertinence [to the studied phenomenon], rigour [adherence to internationally acceptable standards], and significance [meeting scholarly expectations].

5. Discussion, conclusion and recommendation

This chapter aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies for sustaining NBT amid COVID-19 using LSA. By utilising interrelated typologies, NBT is an essential pillar for socio-economic growth, environmental conservation, and the preservation of culture around the world [1, 6, 35, 36, 37, 38, 79]. All the tourism forms listed earlier under the ambit of NBT promote awareness, appreciation, connection to, and the conservation of natural resources, while they also contribute towards socio-economic growth and socio-cultural preservation [40, 41]. The growth and sustainability of NBT are influenced mainly by economic, human, and environmental factors [37, 79, 90, 91]. As its growth and sustainability depend mainly on human mobility, NBT is highly susceptible to severe impacts and operational disruptions when hazardous global phenomena occur [203, 204, 205]. COVID-19 thus adversely impacted NBT in terms of ecological and non-ecological benefits [194]. Tourist destinations responded in unique ways to the impact of COVID-19, but some responses were inevitably characterised by marauding and ecocide [194]. However, most NBT activities have been reinstated to full capacity in the aftermath of COVID-19. This was possible due to satisfactory compliance with health protocols, high vaccination roll-outs, declining morbidity and mortality rates, and urgent economic recovery. Against this backdrop, it is heartening to conclude that the strategies implemented to sustain NBT have been reinstated to full capacity in many parts of the world. As the business theory maintains, the aspirations of any business venture, including NBT, should be based on its strategic intent that is communicated through its vision, mission, and goal statement [24, 25]. The recovery and sustainability of NBT cannot be achieved in isolation, but only through collaborative effort [191]. In this context, the SET underscores the importance of strong relationships and collaboration among stakeholders as the key to addressing situations and events that threaten the sustainability of tourism endeavours [30, 31]. To conclude, it is argued that broader insight might be gained into the effectiveness of strategies for sustaining NBT amid hazardous global events if empirical data are obtained by means of the mixed methods approach. It is therefore recommended that future research explores and analyses stakeholders’ perspectives on the long-term effectiveness of strategies for sustaining NBT amid hazardous global health crises. Snyder [201] espouses that a systematic literature review is an excellent mechanism for synthesising findings and uncovering areas for future research.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by a grant from the University of Zululand [Grant no, C978].

Declaration of conflict of interest

The authors declare that the chapter was prepared in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Credit authorship contribution statement

Thembinkosi Keith Gumede: Manuscript drafting & funding acquisition. Antonia Thandi Nzama: Writing-review & editing. Joyce Mnesi Mdiniso: Writing-review & editing.