Size, zeta potential, IC50 for MDA-MB-231 and MiaPaca cell lines for parent and CD-templated nanoGUMBOS [17].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10303",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cardiomyopathy - Disease of the Heart Muscle",title:"Cardiomyopathy",subtitle:"Disease of the Heart Muscle",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Cardiomyopathies are diseases of the heart muscle with diverse etiologies ranging from myocarditis to gene mutations. They are classified according to morphology and function, and then further categorized based on whether they are familial or non-familial and based on specific etiologies. This book examines the various cardiomyopathies, including arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and dilated cardiomyopathy, as well as their genetic basis.",isbn:"978-1-78985-224-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-223-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-923-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91489",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"cardiomyopathy-disease-of-the-heart-muscle",numberOfPages:496,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3fa88fd83f8f58fb421674a123bd86ed",bookSignature:"Gustav Mattsson and Peter Magnusson",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10303.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6143,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 21st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 19th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 18th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 8th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 7th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"238220",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustav",middleName:null,surname:"Mattsson",slug:"gustav-mattsson",fullName:"Gustav Mattsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238220/images/system/238220.jpg",biography:"Gustav Mattsson, MD, graduated from Uppsala University, Sweden, and is currently working in internal medicine at Gävle Hospital, Sweden. He is active in research at the Centre for Research and Development, Gävleborg, Uppsala University, and has a strong interest in research and scientific writing in the field of cardiology. He is an author of thirty peer-reviewed articles, twenty-four articles with an editorial review, six book chapters, and ten scientific posters. His research interests include cardiomyopathies, arrhythmia, and device therapy.",institutionString:"Uppsala University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Uppsala University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"188088",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Magnusson",slug:"peter-magnusson",fullName:"Peter Magnusson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188088/images/system/188088.png",biography:"Dr. Peter Magnusson earned his MD from Lund University, Sweden, and his Ph.D. from the Karolinska Institute, Sweden. His scientific work mainly involves cardiac arrhythmias, heart failure, cardiomyopathies, and implantable cardiac devices. Dr. Magnusson is a renowned speaker and leader of educational activities for diverse groups of professionals.",institutionString:"Karolinska Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"12",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Karolinska Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"170",title:"Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine",slug:"cardiology-and-cardiovascular-medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"74776",title:"An Overview of the Cardiomyopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95568",slug:"an-overview-of-the-cardiomyopathies",totalDownloads:296,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiomyopathies constitute a heterogeneous group of heart diseases. In fact, cardiomyopathies is a major cause of death either as end-stage heart failure or sudden cardiac death. Even though prognosis is, in many cases, poor there are several approaches to optimal disease management, which improves outcome and implies better quality of life including reduced risk of hospitalization. Differentiation of underlying etiology in individual cases of cardiomyopathies requires careful clinical evaluation. Echocardiography is the cornerstone in initial evaluation and follow-up but cardiac magnetic resonance provides additional value. ECG, biomarkers, detailed history taking and extracardiac features may provide clues to less common entities. While forty years ago cardiomyopathy was defined as heart muscle disease of unknown origin, the underlying pathophysiology has now been elucidated. Indeed, the last decades the genetic explanations have evolved. Advanced treatment with pacemakers, including cardiac resynchronization, implantable defibrillators, and mechanical devices in the most severe cases are nowadays available for many patients. The evidence-based pharmacological approach to heart failure provides multiple interaction of pathophysiological pathways and has improved outcome. In selected cases specific agents are indicated why differential diagnosis is crucial and the genetic link imply cascade screening. This chapter aims to present a comprehensive overview of the cardiomyopathies, categorized into: dilated-, hypertrophic-, restrictive-, arrhythmogenic and unclassified cardiomyopathy.",signatures:"Ida Kåks, Marianna Leopoulou, Gustav Mattsson and Peter Magnusson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74776",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74776",authors:[{id:"238220",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustav",surname:"Mattsson",slug:"gustav-mattsson",fullName:"Gustav Mattsson"},{id:"188088",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Magnusson",slug:"peter-magnusson",fullName:"Peter Magnusson"},{id:"315154",title:"Dr.",name:"Marianna",surname:"Leopoulou",slug:"marianna-leopoulou",fullName:"Marianna Leopoulou"},{id:"332715",title:"Dr.",name:"Ida",surname:"Kåks",slug:"ida-kaks",fullName:"Ida Kåks"}],corrections:null},{id:"76628",title:"Cardiomyopathy: Recent Findings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97092",slug:"cardiomyopathy-recent-findings",totalDownloads:317,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In 1957, Wallace Brigden published an article on the Lancet, such as uncommon myocardial diseases: the non-coronary cardiomyopathy. In this article, he mentioned that “the term cardiomyopathy is used here to indicate isolated noncoronary myocardial disease.” Then “cardiomyopathy” has become a commonly used term in the cardiovascular field, and has been defined and classified by many researchers and academic societies. The basic concept of cardiomyopathy is a group of diseases with mechanical and/or electrophysiological dysfunction of the ventricles, and cardiomyopathy is distinguished with normal ischemic heart disease, valvular disease, and hypertensive heart disease. It can often cause heart failure and cardiac death. In this chapter, we describe the classification, details, and treatment of cardiomyopathy, and iPS cell from pathological myocardium.",signatures:"Yoshihiro Yamada, Keiki Sugi, Hiroyuki Nakajima and Takaaki Senbonmatsu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76628",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76628",authors:[{id:"145208",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaaki",surname:"Senbonmatsu",slug:"takaaki-senbonmatsu",fullName:"Takaaki Senbonmatsu"},{id:"356637",title:"M.D.",name:"Keiki",surname:"Sugi",slug:"keiki-sugi",fullName:"Keiki Sugi"},{id:"356852",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshihiro",surname:"Yamada",slug:"yoshihiro-yamada",fullName:"Yoshihiro Yamada"},{id:"356853",title:"M.D.",name:"Hiroyuki",surname:"Nakajima",slug:"hiroyuki-nakajima",fullName:"Hiroyuki Nakajima"}],corrections:null},{id:"74904",title:"Cardiomyopathy Etiologies, Symptoms and Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95566",slug:"cardiomyopathy-etiologies-symptoms-and-management",totalDownloads:268,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiomyopathy can be defined as a structural and functional myocardial disorder that is commonly genetic rather than due to coronary artery, valvular or congenital heart disease. It can be subcategorized into dilated, hypertrophic, restrictive, unclassified, and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia. They can be further subdivided into primary and secondary cardiomyopathy. Primary includes genetics (HOCM, ARVC/D), mixed (DCM, RCM) or acquired (stress-induced, myocarditis) causes; while secondary cardiomyopathy is derived from the involvement of other organ systems. Cardiomyopathies can be identified by echocardiogram to display the anatomic and functional changes related to each subtype including systolic or diastolic dysfunction. In certain instances, cardiac-MRI or CT are used to further elucidate its specific characteristics such as fatty infiltration and focal hypertrophy. Treatment is very diverse and catered to each individual case. This will all be further elaborated on in the following chapter.",signatures:"Waleed Kian, Melanie Zemel, Emily H. Kestenbaum, Wafeek Alguayn, Boris Shvarts, Adam A. Sharb, Dina Levitas, Yousef Kian, Nir Peled and Alexander Yakobson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74904",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74904",authors:[{id:"337634",title:"Dr.",name:"Waleed",surname:"Kian",slug:"waleed-kian",fullName:"Waleed Kian"},{id:"344241",title:"BSc.",name:"Melanie",surname:"Zemel",slug:"melanie-zemel",fullName:"Melanie Zemel"},{id:"344242",title:"BSc.",name:"Emily",surname:"H. Kestenbaum",slug:"emily-h.-kestenbaum",fullName:"Emily H. Kestenbaum"},{id:"344243",title:"Dr.",name:"Wafeek",surname:"Alguayn",slug:"wafeek-alguayn",fullName:"Wafeek Alguayn"},{id:"344244",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Shvarts",slug:"boris-shvarts",fullName:"Boris Shvarts"},{id:"344245",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",surname:"A.Sharb",slug:"adam-a.sharb",fullName:"Adam A.Sharb"},{id:"344246",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousef",surname:"Kian",slug:"yousef-kian",fullName:"Yousef Kian"},{id:"344248",title:"Prof.",name:"Nir",surname:"Peled",slug:"nir-peled",fullName:"Nir Peled"},{id:"344249",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Yakobson",slug:"alexander-yakobson",fullName:"Alexander Yakobson"},{id:"345587",title:"Dr.",name:"Dina",surname:"Levitas",slug:"dina-levitas",fullName:"Dina Levitas"}],corrections:null},{id:"76672",title:"The Role of Neurohormonal Systems, Inflammatory Mediators and Oxydative Stress in Cardiomyopathy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97345",slug:"the-role-of-neurohormonal-systems-inflammatory-mediators-and-oxydative-stress-in-cardiomyopathy",totalDownloads:169,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiomyopathy and more specifically the dilated cardiomyopathy, regardless of severity, is associated with activation of neuro-hormonal, cytokine and oxidative stress signaling pathways that alter the structure and function of cardiac myocytes and non-myocyte cells. These cellular alterations culminate in the morphological changes in cardiac structure termed as cardiac remodeling, a maladaptive process that contributes to further left ventricular dysfunction and heart failure development. This pathological progression is mainly driven by circulating mediators, in particular angiotensin II and norepinephrine. Natriuretic peptides, endothelin-1, vasopressin play also an important role in the progression of the cardiomyopathy. Cardiac inflammation, mediated by cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukins 1 (IL-1) and 6 (IL-6), as well as the oxidative stress were also shown to worsen the cardiac function. Although these pathways have been described separately, they are critically inter-dependent in the response to the development and progression of the dilated cardiomyopathy. This chapter reviews the cellular basis for cardiac remodeling and the mechanisms that contribute to these cellular abnormalities and, more broadly, to the pathophysiology of dilated cardiomyopathy, its progression and its potential treatments.",signatures:"Ronald Zolty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76672",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76672",authors:[{id:"335960",title:"Prof.",name:"Ronald",surname:"Zolty",slug:"ronald-zolty",fullName:"Ronald Zolty"}],corrections:null},{id:"76301",title:"Genetics of Cardiomyopathy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97010",slug:"genetics-of-cardiomyopathy",totalDownloads:384,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiomyopathies (CMs) encompass a heterogeneous group of structural and functional (systolic and diastolic) abnormalities of the myocardium and are either confined to the cardiovascular system or are part of a systemic disorder. CMs represent a leading cause of morbidity and mortality and account for a significant percentage of death and cardiac transplantation. The 2006 American Heart Association (AHA) classification grouped CMs into primary (genetic, mixed, or acquired) or secondary (i.e., infiltrative or autoimmune). In 2008, the European Society of Cardiology classification proposed subgrouping CM into familial or genetic and nonfamilial or nongenetic forms. In 2013, the World Heart Federation recommended the MOGES nosology system, which incorporates a morpho-functional phenotype (M), organ(s) involved (O), the genetic inheritance pattern (G), an etiological annotation (E) including genetic defects or underlying disease/substrates, and the functional status (S) of a particular patient based on heart failure symptoms. Rapid advancements in the biology of cardio-genetics have revealed substantial genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity in myocardial disease. Given the variety of disciplines in the scientific and clinical fields, any desired classification may face challenges to obtaining consensus. Nonetheless, the heritable phenotype-based CM classification offers the possibility of a simple, clinically useful diagnostic scheme. In this chapter, we will describe the genetic basis of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM), LV noncompaction cardiomyopathy (LVNC), and restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM). Although the descriptive morphologies of these types of CM differ, an overlapping phenotype is frequently encountered within the CM types and arrhythmogenic pathology in clinical practice. CMs appear to originate secondary to disruption of “final common pathways.” These disruptions may have purely genetic causes. For example, single gene mutations result in dysfunctional protein synthesis causing downstream dysfunctional protein interactions at the level of the sarcomere and a CM phenotype. The sarcomere is a complex with multiple protein interactions, including thick myofilament proteins, thin myofilament proteins, and myosin-binding proteins. In addition, other proteins are involved in the surrounding architecture of the sarcomere such as the Z-disk and muscle LIM proteins. One or multiple genes can exhibit tissue-specific function, development, and physiologically regulated patterns of expression for each protein. Alternatively, multiple mutations in the same gene (compound heterozygosity) or in different genes (digenic heterozygosity) may lead to a phenotype that may be classic, more severe, or even overlapping with other disease forms.",signatures:"Evan M. Harvey, Murad Almasri and Hugo R. Martinez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76301",authors:[{id:"333238",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugo",surname:"Martinez",slug:"hugo-martinez",fullName:"Hugo Martinez"},{id:"344776",title:"Dr.",name:"Evan M.",surname:"Harvey",slug:"evan-m.-harvey",fullName:"Evan M. Harvey"},{id:"344777",title:"Dr.",name:"Murad",surname:"Almasri",slug:"murad-almasri",fullName:"Murad Almasri"}],corrections:null},{id:"76464",title:"The Role of Genetics in Cardiomyopaties: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97242",slug:"the-role-of-genetics-in-cardiomyopaties-a-review",totalDownloads:295,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiomyopathies are defined as disorders of the myocardium which are always associated with cardiac dysfunction and are aggravated by arrhythmias, heart failure and sudden death. There are different ways of classifying them. The American Heart Association has classified them in either primary or secondary cardiomyopathies depending on whether the heart is the only organ involved or whether they are due to a systemic disorder. On the other hand, the European Society of Cardiology has classified them according to the different morphological and functional phenotypes associated with their pathophysiology. In 2013 the MOGE(S) classification started to be published and clinicians have started to adopt it. The purpose of this review is to update it.",signatures:"Luis Vernengo and Haluk Topaloglu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76464",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76464",authors:[{id:"75404",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Vernengo",slug:"luis-vernengo",fullName:"Luis Vernengo"},{id:"344821",title:"Prof.",name:"Haluk",surname:"Topaloglu",slug:"haluk-topaloglu",fullName:"Haluk Topaloglu"}],corrections:null},{id:"76506",title:"The Z-Disk Final Common Pathway in Cardiomyopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97532",slug:"the-z-disk-final-common-pathway-in-cardiomyopathies",totalDownloads:302,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The sarcomeres represent the essential contractile units of the cardiac myocyte and are bordered by two Z-lines (disks) that are made by various proteins. The cardiac Z-disk is recognized as one of the nodal points in cardiomyocyte structural organization, mechano-sensation and signal transduction. Rapid progress in molecular and cellular biology has significantly improved the knowledge about pathogenic mechanisms and signaling pathways involved in the development of inherited cardiomyopathies. Genetic insult resulting in expression of mutated proteins that maintain the structure of the heart can perturb cardiac function. The primary mutation in the cardiac contractile apparatus or other subcellular complexes can lead to cardiac pathology on a tissue level, resulting in organ and organism level pathophysiology. The “final common pathway” hypothesis interpreting the genetic basis and molecular mechanisms involved in the development of cardiomyopathies suggests that mutations in cardiac genes encoding proteins with similar structure, function, or location and operating in the same pathway, are responsible for a particular phenotype of cardiomyopathy with unique morpho-histological remodeling of the heart. This chapter will describe genetic abnormalities of cardiac Z-disk and related “final common pathways” that are triggered by a Z-disk genetic insult leading to heart muscle diseases. In addition, animal models carrying mutations in Z-disk proteins will be described.",signatures:"Enkhsaikhan Purevjav and Jeffrey A. Towbin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76506",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76506",authors:[{id:"231585",title:"Prof.",name:"Enkhsaikhan",surname:"Purevjav",slug:"enkhsaikhan-purevjav",fullName:"Enkhsaikhan Purevjav"},{id:"345566",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeffrey A.",surname:"Towbin",slug:"jeffrey-a.-towbin",fullName:"Jeffrey A. Towbin"}],corrections:null},{id:"74477",title:"Update on Genes Associated with Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95332",slug:"update-on-genes-associated-with-arrhythmogenic-cardiomyopathy",totalDownloads:335,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy is a rare genetic entity characterized by progressive fibro-fatty replacement of myocardium leading to malignant arrhythmias, syncope, and sudden cardiac death. Mostly it affects the right ventricle, but cases have also been described with biventricular and even isolated left ventricular involvement. The disease affects mainly young males and arrhythmias are usually induced by exercise. Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy has a genetic origin and is basically caused by deleterious alterations in genes encoding desmosomal proteins, especially plakophilin-2. To date, more than 400 rare genetic alterations have been identified in 18 genes, mainly with autosomal dominant inheritance, but some recessive forms have also been reported (Naxos disease and Carvajal syndrome). A comprehensive genetic analysis identifies a rare variant as potential cause of the disease in around 60% of patients, suggesting the existence of unknown genes as well as other genome alterations not yet discovered. Genetic interpretation classifies some of these rare variants as ambiguous, playing an uncertain role in arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. This makes a proper translation of genetic data into clinical practice difficult. Moreover, incomplete penetrance and variable phenotypic expression makes it difficult to arrive at the correct diagnosis. In the present chapter, we focus on recent advances in the knowledge regarding the genetic basis of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy.",signatures:"Marta Vallverdú-Prats, Mireia Alcalde, Georgia Sarquella-Brugada, Sergi Cesar, Elena Arbelo, Josep Brugada, Ramon Brugada and Oscar Campuzano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74477",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74477",authors:[{id:"54165",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",surname:"Brugada",slug:"ramon-brugada",fullName:"Ramon Brugada"},{id:"54168",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Campuzano",slug:"oscar-campuzano",fullName:"Oscar Campuzano"},{id:"218478",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgia",surname:"Sarquella-Brugada",slug:"georgia-sarquella-brugada",fullName:"Georgia Sarquella-Brugada"},{id:"218479",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergi",surname:"Cesar",slug:"sergi-cesar",fullName:"Sergi Cesar"},{id:"341367",title:"MSc.",name:"Marta",surname:"Vallverdú-Prats",slug:"marta-vallverdu-prats",fullName:"Marta Vallverdú-Prats"},{id:"341368",title:"Dr.",name:"Mireia",surname:"Alcalde",slug:"mireia-alcalde",fullName:"Mireia Alcalde"},{id:"341370",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Arbelo",slug:"elena-arbelo",fullName:"Elena Arbelo"},{id:"341372",title:"Prof.",name:"Josep",surname:"Brugada",slug:"josep-brugada",fullName:"Josep Brugada"}],corrections:null},{id:"75133",title:"Naxos Disease: Current Knowledge and Future Advances",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96020",slug:"naxos-disease-current-knowledge-and-future-advances",totalDownloads:307,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Naxos disease is a genetic cardiocutaneous syndrome manifesting with a cardiomyopathy that belongs in the arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) spectrum and follows an autosomal recessive pattern. It manifests with wooly hair, keratosis of the extremities and right ventricular dysfunction. It is accompanied by risk of arrhythmias as well as sudden cardiac death (SCD), even at a young age. Furthermore, the disease often progresses to right ventricular heart failure, but can also affect the left ventricle. Patient management follows current guidelines on ARVC and principles for heart failure management. Bioengineering and research about pluripotent stem cells seem to have potential to improve future management of the disease. This chapter covers current knowledge on Naxos disease regarding clinical features, epidemiology, pathogenesis, guidelines on patient management and provides insights in research frontlines.",signatures:"Marianna Leopoulou, Gustav Mattsson, Ida Kåks and Peter Magnusson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75133",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75133",authors:[{id:"238220",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustav",surname:"Mattsson",slug:"gustav-mattsson",fullName:"Gustav Mattsson"},{id:"188088",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Magnusson",slug:"peter-magnusson",fullName:"Peter Magnusson"},{id:"315154",title:"Dr.",name:"Marianna",surname:"Leopoulou",slug:"marianna-leopoulou",fullName:"Marianna Leopoulou"},{id:"335178",title:"Dr.",name:"Ida",surname:"Kåks",slug:"ida-kaks",fullName:"Ida Kåks"}],corrections:null},{id:"76233",title:"Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96855",slug:"arrhythmogenic-right-ventricular-cardiomyopathy",totalDownloads:290,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Arrythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) is a genetic form of cardiomyopathy causing fibro-fatty replacement of the myocardium. Although usually transmission is autosomal dominant, 12 genes encoding cardiac desmosomes have been found to be closely linked to this disease process shifting the congenital disease theory to a genetic one. The categorisation of ARVC as a myocyte adhesion disorder was first suggested by a molecular genetic study involving patients with Naxos disease. Misnomeric to only affect the right ventricle, ARVC also affects the left ventricle - culminating into biventricular failure as a long term prognosis. Epidemiology is well established with a male to female preponderance. It is currently the second most common cause of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in population < 35 yrs. Pathological basis of the varied clinical presentation is explained at the molecular level with myocardial atrophy, fibro-fatty replacement and chamber dilatation. Diagnosing the condition by ruling out the pitfall differentials is an enormous challenge due to the broad phenotypic spectrum including syncope on one end and SCD on the other. Task Force Criteria combines electrocardiography (ECG), echocardiography (ECHO), cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMRI), myocardial biopsy for diagnosis; early detection, family screening and risk stratification being the cornerstones. Therapeutic options although limited due to the progressive nature of the disease is based on preventing life threatening arrhythmias encompassing primary and secondary prevention - Implantable cardioverter -defibrillator (ICD) implantation, radiofrequency ablation and heart transplantation are the main ones.",signatures:"Sukanya Ghosh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76233",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76233",authors:[{id:"333139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sukanya",surname:"Ghosh",slug:"sukanya-ghosh",fullName:"Sukanya Ghosh"}],corrections:null},{id:"75983",title:"Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: Genetics, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Clinical Course and Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97033",slug:"hypertrophic-cardiomyopathy-genetics-pathogenesis-diagnosis-clinical-course-and-therapy",totalDownloads:357,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a genetic disorder of cardiac myocytes that is characterized by cardiac hypertrophy, unexplained by the loading conditions, a non-dilated left ventricle and a normal or increased left ventricular ejection fraction (LV-EF). Prevalence of HCM has been estimated at 0.16% to 0.29% (≈ 1:625–1:344 individuals) in the general adult population. HCM represents the most common genetic heart disease and represent an archetypical single gene disorder with an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance and historically termed a “disease of the sarcomere”. The precise mechanisms by which sarcomere variants result in the clinical phenotype have not been fully understood. Mutant sarcomere genes trigger several myocardial changes, leading to hypertrophy and fibrosis, which ultimately result in a small, stiff ventricle with impaired systolic and diastolic performance despite a preserved LV-EF. The most common differential diagnosis challenges in the presence of hypertrophic heart disease are represented by: athlete’s heart, hypertensive heart and other cardiomyopathies mimicking HCM. A multimodality approach using ECG, echocardiography, CMR, cardiac computed tomography (CCT) and cardiac nuclear imaging provides unique information about diagnosis, staging and clinical profiles, anatomical and functional assessment, metabolic evaluation, monitoring of treatment, follow-up, prognosis and risk stratification, as well as preclinical screening and differential diagnosis. HCM may be associated with a normal life expectancy and a very stable clinical course. However, about a third of patients develop heart failure (HF); in addition, 5–15% of cases show progression to either the restrictive or the dilated hypokinetic evolution of HCM, both of which may require evaluation for cardiac transplantation. The clinical course of HCM has been classified into four clinical stages: non-hypertrophic, classic, adverse remodeling and overt dysfunction phenotype. No evidence-based treatments are available for non-hypertrophic HCM patients (pre-hypertrophic stage), on the other hand in classic HCM, adverse remodeling and overt dysfunction phenotype, pharmacological or interventional strategies have the target to improve functional capacity, reduce symptoms, prevent disease progression. Therapeutic approach mainly differs on the basis of the presence or absence of significant obstructive HCM. Adult patients with HCM report an annual incidence for cardiovascular death of 1–2%, with sudden cardiac death (SCD), HF and thromboembolism being the main causes of death; the most commonly recorded fatal arrhythmic event is spontaneous ventricular fibrillation. For this reason, SCD risk estimation is an integral part of clinical management of HCM. International guidelines suggest the evaluation of several risk factor for SCD based on personal and family history, non-invasive testing including echocardiography, ambulatory electrocardiographic 24 hours monitoring and CMR imaging in order to identity those patients most likely to benefit implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) implantation. The present chapter summarize genetics, pathogenesis, diagnosis, clinical course and therapy of HCM as well as novel therapeutic options.",signatures:"Davide Lazzeroni and Claudio Stefano Centorbi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75983",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75983",authors:[{id:"335128",title:"Dr.",name:"Davide",surname:"Lazzeroni",slug:"davide-lazzeroni",fullName:"Davide Lazzeroni"},{id:"345854",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio Stefano",surname:"Centorbi",slug:"claudio-stefano-centorbi",fullName:"Claudio Stefano Centorbi"}],corrections:null},{id:"77745",title:"Fabry Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99142",slug:"fabry-disease",totalDownloads:256,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fabry disease (FD) is a lysosomal storage disorder where deficient or completely absent activity of the enzyme α-galactosidas A leads to accumulation of globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) and other glycosphingolipids in lysosomes. The condition is rare, approximately 1:50,000, although underdiagnosis seems frequent. The condition can affect multiple organ systems, including the skin, nervous system, kidneys, and heart. Early manifestations include skin lesions (angiokeratoma), neuropathic pain, and gastrointestinal symptoms. Later on, FD can result in cardiomyopathy, kidney failure, and stroke. Both lifespan and health-related quality of life are affected negatively by FD. Patients are divided into a classical or a non-classical phenotype based on presentation, where the diagnosis of classical FD requires that a set of specific criteria are met. Patients with non-classical FD often have a less severe disease course, sometimes limited to one organ. The hereditary pattern is X-linked. Thus, men are in general more severely affected than women, although there is an overlap in symptomatic burden. Two types of specific treatment options are available: enzyme replacement therapy and pharmacological chaperone therapy. In addition to this, management of each organ manifestation with usual treatment is indicated.",signatures:"Ida Kåks and Peter Magnusson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77745",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77745",authors:[{id:"188088",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Magnusson",slug:"peter-magnusson",fullName:"Peter Magnusson"},{id:"335178",title:"Dr.",name:"Ida",surname:"Kåks",slug:"ida-kaks",fullName:"Ida Kåks"}],corrections:null},{id:"74662",title:"Cardiomyopathy: Getting Bigger All the Time - Lessons Learned about Heart Disease from Tropomyosin",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95509",slug:"cardiomyopathy-getting-bigger-all-the-time-lessons-learned-about-heart-disease-from-tropomyosin",totalDownloads:287,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In 1990, John and Christine Seidman uncovered the genetic association between mutations in sarcomeric contractile proteins and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Since then, the increase in knowledge and understanding of this disease has increased exponentially. Although pathologies associated with the various cardiomyopathies are vastly different, in some cases, the same proteins are causative, but with different genetic mutations. The focus of this article will be on hypertrophic and dilated cardiomyopathies, which are often caused by mutations in sarcomeric contractile proteins. Tropomyosin, a thin filament protein, serves as a paradigm to illustrate how different mutations within the same protein can generate the hypertrophic or dilated cardiomyopathic condition. As such, the significant advances in information derived from basic science investigations has led to the development of novel therapeutics in the treatment of these pathological diseases. This article will illustrate linkages which occur to bridge scientific advances to clinical treatments in cardiomyopathic patients.",signatures:"David F. Wieczorek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74662",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74662",authors:[{id:"31675",title:"Prof.",name:"David F.",surname:"Wieczorek",slug:"david-f.-wieczorek",fullName:"David F. Wieczorek"}],corrections:null},{id:"78796",title:"Clinical Management of DMD-Associated Cardiomyopathy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98919",slug:"clinical-management-of-dmd-associated-cardiomyopathy",totalDownloads:181,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Over the past decade, cardiomyopathy has become the leading cause of mortality among patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). The majority of DMD patients over the age of 18 experience some degree of cardiac involvement. The primary cardiac manifestations of DMD include progressive left ventricular (LV) wall stress leading to LV dilatation and wall thinning, and the development of cardiac fibrosis, all of which culminate in decreased LV contractility and reduced cardiac output. Mortality in these patients is predominantly related to pump failure and fatal arrhythmias leading to sudden cardiac death. While basic guidelines for the management of cardiomyopathy in DMD patients exist, these recommendations are by no means comprehensive, and this chapter aims to provide further insight into appropriate clinical diagnosis and management of DMD-associated cardiomyopathy. Notably, earlier and more frequent cardiac assessment and care can allow for better outcomes for these patients. Pharmacological treatments typically include an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin II receptor blocker, beta-adrenergic receptor blockers, mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, and corticosteroids. Non-pharmacological therapies include automated implantable cardioverter defibrillators and left ventricular assist devices, as well as in rare cases cardiac transplantation. Additionally, many emerging therapies show great promise for improving standards of care. These novel therapies, based primarily on applied gene therapy and genome editing, have great potential to significantly alter the DMD care landscape in the near future.",signatures:"Theo Lee-Gannon, Hannah Lehrenbaum, Rahul Sheth and Pradeep P.A. Mammen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78796",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78796",authors:[{id:"336530",title:"Dr.",name:"Pradeep P.A.",surname:"Mammen",slug:"pradeep-p.a.-mammen",fullName:"Pradeep P.A. Mammen"},{id:"336534",title:"Mr.",name:"Theo",surname:"Lee-Gannon",slug:"theo-lee-gannon",fullName:"Theo Lee-Gannon"},{id:"336535",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",surname:"Sheth",slug:"rahul-sheth",fullName:"Rahul Sheth"},{id:"336537",title:"Dr.",name:"Hannah",surname:"Lehrenbaum",slug:"hannah-lehrenbaum",fullName:"Hannah Lehrenbaum"}],corrections:null},{id:"76015",title:"Cardiomyopathy in Duchenne Muscular Distrophy: Clinical Insights and Therapeutic Implications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97022",slug:"cardiomyopathy-in-duchenne-muscular-distrophy-clinical-insights-and-therapeutic-implications",totalDownloads:236,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Duchenne muscular dystrophy cardiomyopathy (DMD-DCM) is characterized by progressive ventricular dilation and dysfunction that can begin at any age and worsens over time. Thanks to the lengthening of life expectancy due to better management of respiratory involvement, end-stage heart failure (HF) is becoming the main cause of death for DMD patients. Therefore, from the time of DMD diagnosis, every effort should be focused to early detect the onset and the worsening of the DMD-DCM, with the aim of starting and modulating the therapy to slow the progression of cardiac dysfunction. In cardiac evaluation, biomarkers, electrocardiograms, and echocardiograms must be considered, but cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) is now acquiring a leading role due to its sensitivity in the earlier identification of cardiac involvement. The management of DMD-DCM at end stage is a difficult challenge that requires a multidisciplinary team composed of clinical cardiologists, electrophysiologists, cardiac surgeons, neuromuscular specialists, and psychologists. Because of the lack of specific drugs for DMD, we will review the actual cardiovascular armamentarium including drugs used for HF.",signatures:"Rachele Adorisio, Erica Mencarelli, Nicoletta Cantarutti and Maria Grandinetti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76015",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76015",authors:[{id:"338239",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachele",surname:"Adorisio",slug:"rachele-adorisio",fullName:"Rachele Adorisio"},{id:"345855",title:"Dr.",name:"Erica",surname:"Mencarelli",slug:"erica-mencarelli",fullName:"Erica Mencarelli"},{id:"345856",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicoletta",surname:"Cantarutti",slug:"nicoletta-cantarutti",fullName:"Nicoletta Cantarutti"},{id:"345857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Grandinetti",slug:"maria-grandinetti",fullName:"Maria Grandinetti"}],corrections:null},{id:"76755",title:"Peripartum Cardiomyopathy: The Hidden Enemy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97610",slug:"peripartum-cardiomyopathy-the-hidden-enemy",totalDownloads:270,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is the most common cardiomyopathy in pregnancy. It is potentially life-threatening. It is, diagnosed in women without a history of heart disease 1 month before delivery or within 5 months. It is marked by heart failure and left ventricular dyshfunction. The evolution is favorable. LV function improves within 6 months in the majority of patients, but long-lasting mortality and morbidity are not infrequent. Recent work suggests the critical toxic role for late-gestational hormones on the maternal vasculature and the genetic underpinnings of PPCM. Complications include different types of supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias, heart failure and ischemic stroke. The brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) can be used to risk stratify women for adverse events. Management of peripartum cardiomyopathy is based on treatment of heart failure. The addition of bromocriptine seemed to improve LVEF. Close monitoring of pregnant women with cardiomyopathy by multidisciplinary team is recommended.",signatures:"Fatima Zahra Merzouk, Sara Oualim and Mohammed Sabry",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76755",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76755",authors:[{id:"339805",title:null,name:"Sara",surname:"Oualim",slug:"sara-oualim",fullName:"Sara Oualim"},{id:"356403",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatima Zahra",surname:"Merzouk",slug:"fatima-zahra-merzouk",fullName:"Fatima Zahra Merzouk"},{id:"357221",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Sabry",slug:"mohammed-sabry",fullName:"Mohammed Sabry"}],corrections:null},{id:"78096",title:"Myocarditis and Inflammatory Cardiomyopathy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98998",slug:"myocarditis-and-inflammatory-cardiomyopathy",totalDownloads:196,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Activation of the inflammatory system occurs in most patients with advanced heart failure, regardless of etiology, and contributes to the pathophysiological milieu and the progression of the disease. The term inflammatory cardiomyopathy (ICM) refers to a group of disorders for which an acute or chronic myocardial inflammation is the central cause of abnormal cardiac structure or impaired cardiac function. The most common cause of inflammatory cardiomyopathy is lymphocytic myocarditis, which is most usually triggered by a viral infection, and occasionally by other infectious agents. Rare causes of specific inflammatory cardiomyopathies include cardiac sarcoidosis, giant cell myocarditis and eosinophilic myocarditis. Inflammatory cardiomyopathy can also occur in connection with autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Typical manifestations of inflammatory cardiomyopathy include chest pain, heart failure, and arrhythmias, but these symptoms and signs are unspecific. Although non-invasive diagnostic methods are emerging, the gold standard of diagnosis is the histological examination of an endomyocardial biopsy. Owing to the invasive nature of this technique and a modest diagnostic sensitivity, its use is limited. Therefore, the identification of inflammatory cardiomyopathy is elusive and the true incidence of the condition remains unknown. In most cases of lymphocytic myocarditis, recovery occurs within a few weeks following supportive treatment. In patients with cardiac sarcoidosis, giant cell myocarditis or eosinophilic myocarditis the use of immunosuppressive treatment is recommended, as is the case in myocarditis associated with autoimmune disorders. Such interventions may also have beneficial effects in chronic viral myocarditis once the virus has been cleared. In severe cases, treatment with mechanical circulatory support and/or heart transplantation may be required. Randomized intervention trials including antiviral, immunomodulating, or immunosuppressive agents are lacking. Similarly, new molecular-based methods and therapies tailored to specific pathogeneses have a potential to improve diagnosis and outcomes in patients with inflammatory cardiomyopathy. Still, such techniques and interventions are to be evaluated in adequate randomized controlled studies.",signatures:"Emanuele Bobbio and Kristjan Karason",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78096",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78096",authors:[{id:"334279",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Kristjan",surname:"Karason",slug:"kristjan-karason",fullName:"Kristjan Karason"},{id:"334282",title:"Dr.",name:"Emanuele",surname:"Bobbio",slug:"emanuele-bobbio",fullName:"Emanuele Bobbio"}],corrections:null},{id:"75993",title:"Cardiac Amyloidosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97129",slug:"cardiac-amyloidosis",totalDownloads:275,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Amyloidosis represents a heterogeneous group of disorders caused by amyloid fibril deposition in the extracellular space in different organs. Among the many types of amyloidosis cardiac involvement occurs almost exclusively with immunoglobulin light chain amyloidosis (AL amyloidosis) or transthyretin amyloidosis (ATTR amyloidosis). When present cardiac amyloidosis (CA) has a significant impact on disease prognosis. The typical clinical presentation in CA is that of a restrictive cardiomyopathy. Clinical suspicion of CA is based on clinical, laboratory and electrocardiographic findings. The diagnosis is confirmed using echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, biopsy, and/or bone scintigraphy. A precise definition of amyloidosis type is essential for choosing the specific treatment for this condition. Treatment of CA has two components: general treatment of congestive HF, and specific treatment of the underlying protein misfolding disorder.",signatures:"Csilla Andrea Eötvös, Giorgia Pastiu, Iulia Zehan, Cerasela Goidescu, Roxana Chiorescu, Roxana Lazar, Florina Frîngu, Raluca Tomoaia, Monica Pop, Adrian Molnar, Sorin Pop and Dan Blendea",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75993",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75993",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"76401",title:"Reversible Cardiomyopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97309",slug:"reversible-cardiomyopathies",totalDownloads:305,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiomyopathy includes a diverse and heterogeneous group of disorders affecting the myocardium and eventually leading to cardiac dysfunction. Cardiomyopathy is the leading cause of hospitalization in patients older than 65 years of age and it is an important cause for enormous healthcare expenditure. All reversible cardiomyopathies can be associated with cardiomegaly, systolic heart failure, structural changes, and an increase in mortality, but when the offensive agent is identified and stopped, these conditions tend to stop their progression and reverse. The prognosis of reversible nonischemic cardiomyopathies is better than ischemic or other nonreversible cardiomyopathies. Additionally, it is important to diagnose etiology of HF early and precisely to determine prognosis and effective treatment. Most patients with reversible cardiomyopathy present with clinical picture similar to that of systolic heart failure. Here in this book chapter, we discuss about different types of reversible cardiomyopathy including pathogenesis, clinical picture, diagnosis and treatment.",signatures:"Niel Shah, Miguel Rodriguez-Guerra, Muhammad Saad, Anthony Kang and Timothy J. Vittorio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76401",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76401",authors:[{id:"333788",title:"Dr.",name:"Timothy",surname:"Vittorio",slug:"timothy-vittorio",fullName:"Timothy Vittorio"},{id:"357522",title:"M.D.",name:"Niel",surname:"Shah",slug:"niel-shah",fullName:"Niel Shah"},{id:"357523",title:"M.D.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Rodriguez-Guerra",slug:"miguel-rodriguez-guerra",fullName:"Miguel Rodriguez-Guerra"},{id:"357524",title:"M.D.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Saad",slug:"muhammad-saad",fullName:"Muhammad Saad"},{id:"357525",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",surname:"Kang",slug:"anthony-kang",fullName:"Anthony Kang"}],corrections:null},{id:"77100",title:"Ischemic Heart Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97515",slug:"ischemic-heart-disease",totalDownloads:205,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"All over the world ischemic heart disease remains as the leading cause of death, followed by stroke. Ischemic heart disease, also called coronary artery disease has a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations from the acute coronary syndromes which include, unstable angina pectoris and acute myocardial infarction with and without elevation of the ST segment and chronic coronary disease. In patients with diabetes mellitus the cardiovascular complications mainly ischemic heart disease, are the main cause of morbidity and mortality. However, in population-based studies, the risk of heart failure in patients with diabetes mellitus is significantly increased following adjustment for well-established heart failure risk factors such as hypertension or ischemic heart disease. Ischemic heart failure angiographically diagnosed is associated with a shorter survival than non-ischemic heart failure. Coronary artery disease is independently associated with higher mortality.",signatures:"Saraí López De Lucio and Marco Antonio López Hernández",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77100",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77100",authors:[{id:"138831",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",surname:"López Hernández",slug:"marco-antonio-lopez-hernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio López Hernández"},{id:"335144",title:"Mrs.",name:"Saraí López",surname:"De Lucio",slug:"sarai-lopez-de-lucio",fullName:"Saraí López De Lucio"}],corrections:null},{id:"76092",title:"Gene Therapy for Heart Disease: Modified mRNA Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97184",slug:"gene-therapy-for-heart-disease-modified-mrna-perspectives",totalDownloads:276,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Ischemic heart disease (IHD) presents a gigantic clinical challenge that demands effective therapeutic approaches. With increasing knowledge of the basic molecular mechanisms guiding the progress of this disease, it is now possible to target the key pathological players through gene therapy. Modified mRNA-based gene delivery presents a promising alternative to traditional gene therapy, because modRNA approaches have high potency, non-immunogenicity, greater efficiency and controlled nucleic acid transfer to the body. However, until recently the therapeutic applications of mRNA have been limited, as naturally occurring mRNA is rapidly degraded and cleared from the circulation. In this chapter, we outline the compositional changes made to mRNA to enhance its translational capacity and discuss the available carrier molecules currently being employed to deliver modRNA to the heart. We provide a detailed overview of modRNA applicability for cardiac repair and regeneration and consider future directions for novel delivery methods that can facilitate its cardiac therapeutic use.",signatures:"Lior Zangi, Ravinder K. Kaundal and Keerat Kaur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76092",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76092",authors:[{id:"337615",title:"Dr.",name:"Keerat",surname:"Kaur",slug:"keerat-kaur",fullName:"Keerat Kaur"},{id:"348954",title:"Dr.",name:"Lior",surname:"Zangi",slug:"lior-zangi",fullName:"Lior Zangi"},{id:"348957",title:"Dr.",name:"Ravinder K.",surname:"Kaundal",slug:"ravinder-k.-kaundal",fullName:"Ravinder K. Kaundal"}],corrections:null},{id:"74681",title:"Possibility of the Subcutaneous Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator for Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death in Patients with Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95546",slug:"possibility-of-the-subcutaneous-implantable-cardioverter-defibrillator-for-prevention-of-sudden-card",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The EMBLEM™ entirely subcutaneous implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (S-ICD) system (Boston Scientific, Marlborough, Massachusetts, USA) was introduced as a new alternative to the conventional transvenous implantable cardioverter-defibrillator and has been expected to reduce device-related complications, especially in young patients who require long-term lead placement. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) is a well-known hereditary disease recognized as a cause of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in young adults. However, the precise clinical role of S-ICD in patients with ARVC remains to be defined because of the low QRS amplitude of subcutaneous electrocardiogram (S-ECG) followed by the high incidence of inappropriate shock (IAS) delivery due to oversensing. It is well known that the sensing of S-ICD is largely dependent on the QRS/T ratio of S-ECG. The decrease in the QRS amplitude is more likely to lead to oversensing such as T wave or myopotential oversensing. In patients with ARVC, the decrease in the QRS amplitude due to degeneration of the right ventricular myocardium progresses overtime. In this chapter, we would like to discuss the usefulness of S-ICD lead repositioning for young adult patients with ARVC based on our experience of patients with IAS.",signatures:"Shingo Sasaki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74681",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74681",authors:[{id:"335123",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Shingo",surname:"Sasaki",slug:"shingo-sasaki",fullName:"Shingo Sasaki"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6209",title:"Endothelial Dysfunction",subtitle:"Old Concepts and New Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6e76bbf7858977527679a6e6ad6a173",slug:"endothelial-dysfunction-old-concepts-and-new-challenges",bookSignature:"Helena Lenasi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6209.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68746",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",surname:"Lenasi",slug:"helena-lenasi",fullName:"Helena Lenasi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6373",title:"Myocardial Infarction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"10bca0bf18d68ec3c1641dbc3a1ae899",slug:"myocardial-infarction",bookSignature:"Burak Pamukçu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70686",title:"Dr.",name:"Burak",surname:"Pamukçu",slug:"burak-pamukcu",fullName:"Burak Pamukçu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7556",title:"Dyslipidemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dfd1faefe925f0f8335c42cdb36256c1",slug:"dyslipidemia",bookSignature:"Samy I. McFarlane",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7556.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"53477",title:null,name:"Samy I.",surname:"McFarlane",slug:"samy-i.-mcfarlane",fullName:"Samy I. McFarlane"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6777",title:"Advances in Extra-corporeal Perfusion Therapies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1e52fb6e834ada962495c512111f684e",slug:"advances-in-extra-corporeal-perfusion-therapies",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6777.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael S.",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. 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However, in order to be generally applicable, most materials should have several key properties. These desired properties include, but are not limited to (1) simplicity of preparation (e.g. development involves simply mixing two chemical solutions), (2) tunability (easy introduction of uniform multifunctionality through simple variations), and (3) limited or no toxicity (can be easily designed using materials that are already Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved). As an example of the latter material, the near infrared (NIR) dye, indocyanine green, for near infrared fluorescence measurements has received early approval by the FDA [7].
On the basis of the above considerations, a wide variety of materials and nanomaterials have been developed and employed for bioanalytical and environmental measurements. In regard to nanomaterials, studies reveal that in general primary properties such as spectra, colorimetric response, and magnetism are size dependent and somewhat tunable. Some of these materials, including carbon dots and silicon dots, exhibit very low cytotoxicities. However, other nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and quantum dots have considerably higher toxicities. In some cases, e.g. P-dots and nanogels [8, 9, 10], toxicity depends on the type of polymer used. Aqueous co-ordination complexes are another category of materials and nanomaterials with variable toxicities that have recently been used for analytical and environmental applications [11, 12].
We believe that when one does an exhaustive examination of the literature and considers the inherent properties identified above for improved analytical measurements, a logical conclusion is that ILs, GUMBOS, and nanomaterials derived from GUMBOS (nanoGUMBOS) represent novel classes of materials that best satisfies all of the above properties. Both ILs and GUMBOS are based on use of organic salts. Examples of typical ions used in these salts (ILs and GUMBOS) are shown in Figure 1.
Typical cations and anions used for ILs/GUMBOS production.
These materials are continually being explored for improved analytical measurements. In fact, the literature on development of novel methodologies based on use of ionic liquids (ILs), a group of uniform materials based on organic salts (GUMBOS), and nanoGUMBOS is increasing at an ever-expanding rate. For example, numerous studies from the literature can be cited for utility of such materials in diverse areas such as antibiotics [13, 14, 15], cancer therapy [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24], hydrogels [25, 26], cellular imaging [27, 28], chirality [29, 30, 31, 32, 33], dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) [34, 35, 36], extractions [37, 38, 39], gel electrophoresis [40, 41], detection of reactive oxygen species [42], liquid crystals [43], mass spectrometry [44], nanomaterials [45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52], optoelectronics [53, 54, 55, 56], sensors [57, 58, 59, 60, 61], separation science [62, 63], spectroscopy [64, 65, 66, 67], volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75], as well as a number of patents and patent applications [76, 77, 78]. Figure 2 provides an abbreviated summary of numerous applications of ILs and GUMBOS.
Applications of ILs/GUMBOS in different research areas.
We note that GUMBOS and nanoGUMBOS are solid phase organic salts (m.p. > 25 °C and < 250 °C) and ILs are typically liquids or low melting solids (m.p. < 100 °C). See Figure 3 below for differentiation between ILs and GUMBOS in terms of melting points. Therefore, some GUMBOS (and nanoGUMBOS) materials fit into the general category of frozen ILs since ILs from 100 °C down to 25 °C are solids. However, many GUMBOS materials are outside the generally accepted temperature range for ILs. Accordingly, a new, more general term of GUMBOS, as defined above, was adopted to apply to this entire class of solid phase organic salts. To date, numerous strategies for this kind of chemistry have been developed. In this chapter, we desire to discuss some of these applications in detail, particularly as applied to the general area of analytical and environmental chemistry.
Melting points range of ILs and GUMBOS.
ILs have been recognized for their properties such as non-volatility, viscosity, negligible vapor pressure, high ionic strength, thermal stability, and low toxicity, among others [79]. As a result of these important properties, ILs were initially designated as green and designer solvents (i.e. first generation ILs) [80]. Eventually, due to their high tunability, new ILs were strategically designed for a variety of functional materials, including lubricants, catalysts, energy materials, etc. [81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86]. These types of ILs are known as second generation ILs. Finally, major interest has focused on development of new ILs (third generation ILs) for biological applications to achieve biocompatible and low toxic compounds through use of bio-counterions [87, 88]. Moving forward, more attention from the scientific community has focused on development, or recycling of, various molecules into solid phase materials (frozen ILs or GUMBOS) for several biological applications [17, 89, 90, 91]. In this section, the use of frozen ILs and GUMBOS for biological applications such as cancer and antibiotic therapies are discussed.
Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the United States and is a major health concern worldwide [92]. Treatment of cancer typically includes surgery, radiotherapy, hormone therapy, immunotherapy and/or chemotherapy [93]. Effectiveness of these treatments depends upon several factors, such as stage of cancer at the moment of diagnosis, general health of the individual, size and type of tumor, among others. In general, treatment of a person with cancer will involve a combination of therapies as a result of these several factors, and chemotherapy is the most commonly employed treatment. Unfortunately, chemotherapy will often be accompanied with several adverse effects, such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fatigue, malnutrition, anemia, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, among others [94, 95, 96]. These side effects are the result of high toxicity of typical chemotherapeutic agents that generally lack selectivity toward carcinogenic cells. For all of these reasons, over the past decades major attention has focused on developing new chemotherapeutic agents that are selectively toxic to cancer cells [97, 98, 99]. Moreover, investigations have also focused on early detection methods that involve use of tumor-targeting dyes, as well as near infrared (NIR) dyes for detection, photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) [100, 101, 102, 103].
Due to their relatively high division rate and subsequent growth relative to normal cells, cancer cells use more energy [104, 105, 106]. It is well established that the mitochondria are organelles that synthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy source of cells. As a result, mitochondria in tumor cells have a higher negative mitochondrial membrane potential as compared to normal cells. For this reason, major interest has been directed toward study of cationic compounds as well as positively charged vesicles as chemotherapeutic agents. Several publications from the literature document that these type of compounds are attracted to, and accumulate more selectively, in this organelle of cancer cells, resulting in disruption of ATP synthesis and subsequent induction of cell death [16, 17, 22, 89, 107, 108].
Cationic rhodamine dyes have been studied as mitochondrial targeting agents as early as the 1970s [109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114]. Furthermore, studies with rhodamine dyes demonstrate that these dyes are toxic to cells above certain concentrations [115, 116]. In contrast, it has been previously reported that hydrophobicity of drugs may improve cellular uptake and distribution inside cancer cells [117]. For this reason, Magut et al. hypothesized that counterion variation in rhodamine 6G dye ([R6G]+) may tune its hydrophobicity [22]. In this regard, four anions: ascorbate ([Asc]−), trifluoremethanesulfonate ([OTf]−), tetraphenylborate ([TPB]−) and bis(perfluoroethylsulfonyl)imide ([BETI]−) were employed to synthesize, through a simple metathesis reaction, four R6G-based GUMBOS. Relative hydrophobicities for each GUMBOS were determined, and the following trend in increasing hydrophobicity from [R6G][Asc] < [R6G][OTf] < [R6G][TPB] < [R6G][BETI] was observed in this study. Clearly, anion variation affected and tuned hydrophobicity, along with other physico-chemical properties, of the parent dye. The low water solubility of these compounds allowed synthesis of nanoGUMBOS through a simple reprecipitation method.
Following this study, other researchers focused on evaluating the mechanism of action and internalization of [R6G][BETI] nanoGUMBOS in cells [18]. In that study, Bhattarai and coworkers performed a series of
It has been previously reported in the literature that there is a strong correlation between size, hydrophobicity, and surface charge of nanomaterials as related to resultant toxicity against cancer cells [118, 119]. Moreover,
CDs structures and TEM images of [R6G][BETI] nanoGUMBOS in absence and presence of CDs.
Compound | Size (nm) | Zeta potential (mV) | IC50 MDA-MB-231 (μg mL−1) | IC50 MiaPaca (μg mL−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|
[R6G][TPB] control | 105 ± 16 | −23.1 ± 1.2 | 7.3 ± 1.1 | 0.75 ± 0.05 |
[R6G][TPB] HP-α-CD | 55 ± 6 | −27.2 ± 1.5 | 2.6 ± 0.2 | 0.37 ± 0.03 |
[R6G][TPB] HP-β-CD | 44 ± 4 | −29.5 ± 1.1 | 2.7 ± 0.3 | 0.39 ± 0.06 |
[R6G][TPB] γ-CD | 69 ± 6 | −28.3 ± 0.9 | 1.4 ± 0.3 | 0.24 ± 0.04 |
[R6G][BETI] control | 99 ± 12 | −24.3 ± 1.2 | 4.2 ± 0.4 | 0.45 ± 0.05 |
[R6G][BETI] HP-α-CD | 68 ± 8 | −29.0 ± 1.1 | 1.6 ± 0.3 | 0.24 ± 0.03 |
[R6G][BETI] HP-β-CD | 66 ± 4 | −30.1 ± 0.8 | 1.7 ± 0.2 | 0.26 ± 0.04 |
[R6G][BETI] γ-CD | 80 ± 5 | −29.8 ± 1.6 | 2.3 ± 0.4 | 0.30 ± 0.03 |
Size, zeta potential, IC50 for MDA-MB-231 and MiaPaca cell lines for parent and CD-templated nanoGUMBOS [17].
Another approach from this laboratory involved use of an IR-780 dye to synthesize GUMBOS and nanoGUMBOS [16]. IR-780 is a NIR fluorescent dye that has been studied as a possible theranostic agent since it can be employed as an imaging agent as well as a photothermal and photodynamic agent [123, 124, 125]. In this regard, Chen et al. synthesized three IR-780-based GUMBOS through a simple metathesis reaction [16]. Anions evaluated in that study were [Asc]−, [OTf]−, and [BETI]−. Relative hydrophobicity and spectroscopic properties of these GUMBOS were evaluated and compared to the parent compound [IR-780][I]. These researchers found the following hydrophobicity trend: [IR-780][BETI] > [IR-780][I] > [IR-780][OTf] > [IR-780][Asc]. As a result of these larger hydrophobicity values, nanoGUMBOS synthesis was performed through a simple reprecipitation method. Cytotoxicity of [IR-780][BETI] nanoGUMBOS and [IR-780][I] nanomaterials were studied
Relative cell viability was evaluated for each nanoGUMBOS in normal breast cells. These researchers found that all nanoGUMBOS studied were more selectively cytotoxic against cancer cell lines. Results observed after cellular uptake and fluorescence microscopy studies of each nanomaterial allowed these researchers to conclude that nanoGUMBOS, especially [IR-780][BETI], were internalized and accumulated within the mitochondria in higher amounts than with the parent compound. It has been previously reported in the literature that mitochondrial accumulation of [IR-780][I] is followed by cellular apoptosis [126]. In addition, these researchers investigated nanoGUMBOS as inducers of necrosis or mitochondrial disruptors, by employing a mitochondrial toxicity assay. Evaluation of these results showed that nanoGUMBOS presented behavior similar to [IR-780][I] nanomaterials and acted as mitochondrial toxins by inhibiting oxidative phosphorylation. In summary, nanoGUMBOS synthesized in this work represented great potential as possible chemotherapeutic agents along with a strategic advantage as compared to other reported nanomaterials that require complicated synthetic procedures and labels to increase selectivity against cancer cells [127, 128, 129, 130].
In another work, Chen and coworkers evaluated
TEM images of (a) [IR-780][TPB] nanoGUMBOS, (b) CD-[IR-780][TPB] nanoGUMBOS (scale bar represents 500 nm). (c)
Additionally, cell viability of CD-[IR-780][TPB] nanoGUMBOS were evaluated using MDA-MB-231 and Hs578T cell lines with NIR laser irradiation (808 nm). This resulted in a further decrease in IC50 values for these nanomaterials. Furthermore, these results demonstrate that CD-[IR-780][TPB] nanoGUMBOS represent highly potent chemo- and photothermal therapeutic agents. Finally, Chen et al. also evaluated
Broadwater et al. combined heptamethine cyanine cation ([Cy]+) with several anions, such as iodide ([I]−), hexafluoroantimonate ([SbF6]−), and hexafluorophosphate ([PF6]−), o-carborane ([CB]−), along with bulkier anions such as tetrakis(4-fluorophenyl)borate ([FPhB]−), cobalticarborane ([CoCB]−), tetrakis (pentafluorophenyl) borate ([TPFB]−), tetrakis[3,5-bis(trifluoro methyl)phenyl]borate ([TFM]−), and Δ-tris(tetrachloro-1,2-benzene diolato) phosphate(V) ([TRIS]−) to obtain several Cy-based organic salts [131]. Redox values, zeta potentials, HOMO energy level, as well as optical properties of all [Cy]-based organic salts were determined in that study. These results demonstrated that counterion exchange allowed tuning of HOMO energy levels of [Cy]+. However, absorbance of all synthesized Cy-based organic salts spectra remained essentially the same.
The above cited authors then synthesized nanoparticles through a simple reprecipitation method. All Cy-based organic salts nanoparticles were determined to have an average size between 5–9 nm and were stable for 22 days. Following these experiments, Broadwater and collaborators evaluated cytotoxicity and phototoxicity of Cy-based organic salt nanoparticles against two different cell lines: human lung carcinoma (A549) and metastatic human melanoma (WM1158) in the absence and presence of 850 nm light. These results indicated that [I]−, [SbF6]−, and [PF6]−, [CB]− presented high cytotoxicity under both condition evaluated, making these compounds good candidates as chemotherapeutic agents. When [Cy]+ was paired with [FPhB]− and [CoCB]− anions, nanoparticles of these compounds were determined to be slightly toxic at concentrations of 7.5 μM without NIR irradiation. However, when these compounds were irradiated with NIR laser, they were highly toxic at 5.5 μM concentrations, which indicates that [Cy][FPhB] and [Cy][CoCB] presented high potential as phototoxic agents. In contrast, compounds where [Cy]+ was combined with bulky anions: [TPFB]−, [TFM]−, and [TRIS]− showed non-cytotoxicity against lung cancer cells. As a result, Broadwater, et al. concluded that these compounds could be employed as imaging agents. Based on cytotoxicity studies, the authors proved that toxicity of [Cy]+ dye was tuned through counterion exchange. Finally, these authors evaluated
Antibiotics were introduced into modern medical practices in the 19th century with the discovery of sulfonamides in the 1930s and penicillin in the 1940s [132, 133, 134]. Without such medication, people often died from infections such as syphilis, gonorrhea, and pneumonia. Thus, use of these antibiotics represented the saving of many thousands of lives and a new era in medicine [135, 136]. Nevertheless, over the years since such discoveries, increased production, indiscriminate use, and over consumption of antibiotics has created an unfortunate outcome of antibiotic and multi-antibiotic resistant bacteria [137, 138, 139]. For this reason, the scientific community has begun to focus on syntheses of new antibiotics that could provide alternative therapies in order to avoid bacterial resistance mechanisms. However, syntheses of completely new antibiotics require great ingenuity, intense synthetic prowess, excellent purification, and considerable resources [140, 141, 142]. As an alternative to the foregoing strategy, several research groups have applied an ion metathesis strategy for antibiotic renewal and enhancement. Thus, recycling of current antibiotics have become a reality.
Florindo et al. synthesized ampicillin based ILs employing triethylammonium ([TEA]+), choline ([N1112OH]+), trihexyltetradecylphosphium ([P66614]+), 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium [C2MIm]+, 1-hydroxy-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium [C2OHMIm]+ and cetylpyridinium [C16Pyr]+ as cations to tune crystalline forms and pharmaceutical properties [143]. In that study, water solubility, octanol/water partition coefficient (Ko/w), and phospholipid/water partition (Kp) of synthesized compounds were evaluated. Water solubility of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) is of great importance because it determines the accessibility and distribution of API within the body. Using water solubility results at room temperature and at 37 °C, the following trend was observed: [C2OHMIM][Amp] > [N1112OH][Amp] > [C2MIM][Amp] > [TEA][Amp]. All Amp-based ILs studied showed lower solubility as compared to [Na][Amp] at room temperature. However, cations with hydroxyl groups presented higher solubility at 37 °C than the parent compound. In contrast, Amp-ILs with longer carbon chains, such as [P66614]+ and [C16Pyr]+, showed Kp values higher than the parent compound, indicating that these compounds could interact better with cellular membranes. Based on results obtained in this study, [N1112OH][Amp] provided the most promising pharmaceutical properties with higher solubility, lower cytotoxicity, lower inflammation response and similar Ko/w relative to the parent compound. Thus, these researchers confirmed that pharmaceutical properties from [Na][Amp] could be finely tuned through simple counterion exchanges.
In another study, the same researchers synthesized ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin fluoroquinolones (FQ) based protic ionic liquids (PILs) through reaction with mesylic acid ([Mes][H]), gluconic acid ([Glu][H]), and glycolic acid ([Gly][H]) to tune their crystalline forms and pharmaceutical properties to enhance their bioavailability [144]. In this case, similar properties as in previous studies were evaluated [143]. The authors observed a clearly increasing trend in aqueous solubility depending on the anion present in FQ-PILs: [Gly]− < [Mes]− < [Glu]−. These observations were in agreement with Ko/w studies obtained by these researchers. Similar Kp results for parent FQs were obtained for their respective organic salts, which indicated that interactions with cellular membranes were not affected. Based on these results, Florindo et al. concluded that FQ-based organic salts studied in this work presented high potential as alternatives to the original antibiotics.
Santos, et al. employed two FQs (ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin) to synthesize active pharmaceutical ingredient (API)-based ILs by combining their salts with the following cations: [N1112OH]+, [C16Pyr]+, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium [C2MIm]+, 1-hydroxy-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium [C2OHMIM]+, 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-2,3-dimethylimidazolium [C2OHDMIm]+, and 1-(2-methoxyethyl)-3-methylimidazolium ([C3OMIm]+) [145]. Water solubility of the synthesized compounds were evaluated, and the following trend was observed: [EMIM]+ < [Ch]+ < [C2OHDMIM]+ ≈ [C3OMIM]+ < [C2OHMIM]+. This trend was similar to results reported in a previous study from the same group [145]. The authors determined IC50 concentrations of these FQ-ILs in this study against three bacteria:
Frizzo et al. employed sodium ibuprofen ([Na][Ibu]) and sodium docusate to synthesize API-based ILs [146]. Sodium cations in the parent compounds were replaced with ranitidine ([Ran]+), diphenhydramine, glycine, or glycine ethyl cations. In this work, these researchers tested all synthesized compounds along with parent compounds against several types of bacteria and species of
Ferraz et al. [147] also employed amoxicillin ([seco-Amx]−) and penicillin G ([seco-Pen]−) in combination with imidazolium, choline, ammonium, phosphonium and pyridinium cations to synthesize antibiotic based API-ILs. Resistant and sensitive Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria, including methicillin resistant
Cole and coworkers proposed recycling of antibiotics into GUMBOS [15]. In this work, ampicillin based GUMBOS (Amp-GUMBOS) were synthesized through a simple metathesis reaction where a sodium cation was replaced by hexadecyl-methyl-imidazolium ([C16MIm]+), hexadecyl-dimethyl-imidazolium ([C16M2Im]+) and [C16Pyr]+. These Amp-ILs were tested against Gram negative and positive bacteria and compared to parent compounds. Interestingly, MIC values obtained for Amp-GUMBOS in these experiments demonstrated that these concentrations were between 2 to 43 times lower than MIC values determined for ampicillin.
Following their previous studies, Cole and co-workers employed chlorhexidine and ampicillin to synthesize antibacterial GUMBOS [14]. These two antibacterial agents are commonly used in veterinary practices to treat and/or prevent the presence of
In another work, Cole and coworkers recycled four β-lactam antibiotics (ampicillin, cephalothin, carbenicillin and oxicilin) into GUMBOS, by combining them with chlorhexidine diacetate [151]. Twenty-five bacteria isolates were obtained from several sources, where most of these were resistant or multi-resistant to antibiotics. These four β-lactam – based chlorhexidine GUMBOS were tested against these isolates. Results obtained by Cole and coworkers demonstrated that these β-lactam – based chlorhexidine GUMBOS were more effective against these isolates with MIC values in a range between 0.1 to 32 μM as compared to parent compounds with higher MIC (5 to >1250 μM). Moreover, in this report Cole et al. evaluated if these GUMBOS presented a synergetic, additive or antagonist effect relative to their unreacted mixtures of stoichiometric equivalents. Interestingly, these researchers found that for most GUMBOS studied, the observed effect was synergetic [152].
Sensing strategies for a variety of systems, from biological targets [157], environmental and regulatory applications [158, 159], mechanical integrity of structures [160, 161, 162], and more [60, 163], are continuously under investigation in the scientific community. In general, recognition can be categorized into two different methodologies: targeted and non-targeted [164]. Targeted strategies require materials that are designed to respond to specific analyte(s) and thus, require a high degree of specificity for singular analytes [63, 159, 165]. Differential strategies, however, can potentially provide information within convoluted and complex mixtures based on several non-specific sensors or one sensor with multi-layered responses to different analytes [166]. In the following sections, solid-state ionic materials for various sensing applications are discussed.
Previous investigations using fluorescent imaging with solid-state ionic materials have undergone scrutiny to prevent or reduce self-quenching between dye molecules in order to enhance properties such as excitation energy transfer and achieve on/off switching in nanoparticle structures [167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172]. Traditionally, dye self-quenching has been rectified by introducing bulky side-chains into the molecular structure via synthetic organic chemistry [172, 173, 174]. However, this type of strategy requires several synthetic and purification steps that result in increased expense. In contrast, large counterions were observed to also inhibit this self-quenching phenomenon in a much more facile manner through a simple ion metathesis reaction [28, 50]. Several research groups have capitalized on this strategy to study polymeric nanoparticle encapsulated rhodamine-derived GUMBOS, respective photophysical properties, and cellular uptake ability for imaging applications along with targeting agents to provide organelle contrast [28, 172, 175, 176].
More recently, researchers have diversified beyond cellular imaging techniques. For example, Severi et al. have explored polymer encapsulation of nanoprobes that undergo efficient Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) for potential point-of-care applications with smartphones [177]. In this study, ester-modified cations rhodamine 110 and 6G cations ([R110]+ and [R6G]+, respectively) were employed as FRET donor dyes with bulky tetrakis[3,5-bis(1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-methoxy-2-propyl)phenyl]borate trihydrate ([F12]−) and tetrakis(perfluoro-tertbutoxy)aluminate ([F9-Al−]) counterions [176]. These Ion pairs were encapsulated with DNA cancer marker (survivin) targeted polymer nanoparticles, which were also functionalized using a red-emitting oligonucleotide-functionalized dye as a FRET acceptor. After nanoparticle size, quantum yield (QY), FRET acceptor concentration optimization, and evaluation of FRET capabilities, encapsulated [R6G][F9-Al] nanoprobes were evaluated for red, green, blue (RGB) survivin DNA marker detection in solution using fluorescence spectroscopy. These researchers found that their designed system had a limit of detection of 3pM. Upon optimization of microscopic and digital imaging, these researchers also found that using an iPhone SE, [R6G][F9-Al] as an encapsulated FRET donor in their designed nanoprobe allowed a 10pM limit of detection. Thus, these researchers demonstrated that [R6G][F9-Al] was successfully employed as a visualization agent for potential development of a point of care ratiometric imaging method.
In another study, McNeel et al. expanded upon counterion metathesis by synthesizing a strategic three-component nanoGUMBOS compound for selective imaging of breast cancer cells [27]. Two of three components selected were dianionic fluorescein ([FL]2−) and cationic rhodamine B ([RhB]+), which could undergo pH-dependent FRET [178]. These researchers approached their triple-GUMBOS synthetic design through pH manipulation with [FL]2−, rhodamine B chloride [RhB][Cl], and [P66614][Cl] as a hydrophobic agent, to yield [P66614][RhB][FL] triple GUMBOS. The resultant compound was then employed for nanoGUMBOS synthesis, and when precipitated from water with neutral pH, nanoparticles of approximately 4.4 nm ± 0.7 nm were obtained. However, when using other pH values for nanoGUMBOS synthesis, these researchers determined that nanoGUMBOS sizes and size distributions varied. Absorbance and fluorescence emission properties from low to high pH values were reported, and noticeable ratiometric changes in spectra were observed. A linear ratiometric trend corresponding to pH-dependent FRET responses was observed between moderate pH values (approximately pH 5.0 to 7.0), from which quantitative information may be derived. To further demonstrate the applicability of this three-component nanoGUMBOS system, these investigators also conducted fluorescence microscopy imaging studies with normal and cancerous breast cells. These studies demonstrated that nanoGUMBOS maintained clear selectivity for breast cancer cells since, as cells were illuminated. In contrast, normal cells remained dim. Therefore, three-component nanoGUMBOS were determined useful for both pH sensing and fluorescence imaging of breast cancer cells without the use of polymer encapsulation [27].
Another application for FRET-based sensing of solid-state ionic materials is described by Ashokkumar et al. [179]. In this work, oxygen sensing nanoparticle probes for cellular systems were developed using a polymer encapsulated novel cyanine dye called [BlueCy]+ tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl) borate ([F5-TPB]−) or [BlueCy][F5-TPB] that was also loaded with oxygen sensing platinum octaethylporphyrin (PtOEP) as a FRET acceptor. In this case, [BlueCy]+ was designed as FRET donor and synthesized from two cyanine dyes: 2-methyl-3-octadecylbenzo[d]thiazol-3-ium iodide and 3-methyl-2-(methylthio)benzo[d]thiazol-3-ium iodide. After dye encapsulation into poly(methyl methacrylate-co-methacrylic acid) and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), PMMA-MA and PLGA, respectively, it was determined that both dyes were successfully incorporated into PMMA-MA. Nanoparticle sizes, PtOEP loading, and photophysical properties were evaluated. These investigators determined that dye encapsulated PMMA-MA nanoparticles were 40 nm in diameter with 17% QY after reprecipitation from dioxane. Moreover, after testing several ratios of donor dye loadings, ratios of 1:100 (PtOEP:[BlueCy][F6-TPB]) demonstrated good FRET efficiency. Solution based experiments for oxygen sensing were performed, and ratiometric trends were demonstrated for oxygen rich and poor environments. After confirming low phototoxicity when incubated with HeLa cells, the investigators conducted further studies with FRET nanoparticles in low and normal oxygen environments. HeLa cells were incubated with FRET nanoparticles in a microfluidic device, and an oxygen gradient was introduced by application of an oxygen scavenger. Resultant emission gradients were observed after fluorescent microscopic images were obtained. Ultimately, these researchers demonstrated the utility of their nanoprobe for detection of cancer cells via microfluidic application. As a result, the authors concluded that this probe could also be used to visualize oxygen gradients in cancerous cells.
In another study from the Warner research group, nanoGUMBOS were synthesized and evaluated as ratiometric sensors for reactive oxygen species (ROS) [42]. Cong et al. designed binary nanoGUMBOS using reprecipitation of 1,1′-diethyl-2,2′-cyanine and 1,1′-diethyl-2,2′-carbocyanine bis(perfluoroethylsulfonyl) imide ([PIC][NTf2] and [PC][NTf2], respectively). Optimal FRET efficiency was determined to be 10:1 [PIC]:[PC] molar ratio, and binary nanoparticles shapes were classified as nanodiamonds with spectrally consistent J-aggregation. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to investigate reactivity of ROS with nanoGUMBOS. Significant differences were observed for hydroxyl radical (•OH) over four other evaluated ROS, indicating selectivity of this binary nanoGUMBOS system toward •OH species. Moreover, these investigators observed a linear trend for ratiometric sensing of this probe at various concentrations of •OH in the presence of singlet oxygen (1O2). Further, potential applications in imaging were investigated, nanoGUMBOS were incubated with breast cancer cells and exposed to oxidative stress. Fluorescence emission changes before and after oxidative stress indicated results in agreement with solution-based studies. Therefore, a binary ratiometric nanoGUMBOS probe was developed for potential quantitative ROS imaging studies using a facile method.
Biosensing of mixtures of biomarkers and/or proteins is of particular interest for disease diagnosis and treatment [180, 181, 182]. Many current methods, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) coupled to mass spectrometry, require expensive resources and labor intensive steps [182, 183, 184]. Organic salts are of increasing interest for development of fluorescent sensor arrays for protein detection and discrimination as they are easily tunable for increasing hydrophobicity, traditionally more stable upon ion exchange, and require little resources for purification [90].
Galpothdeniya and coworkers used partially selective 6-(p-toluidino)-2-naphthalenesulfonate sodium salt ([TNS][Na]) in an ion exchange metathesis reaction with cations tetrabutylphosphonium ([P4444]+), benzyltriphenylphosphonium ([BTP]+), 4-nitrobenzyltriphenylphosphonium ([4NBP]+), and tetraphenylphosphonium ([TPP]+) in order to obtain four different GUMBOS [59]. These investigators rationalized that, as a result of partial selectivity to hydrophobic regions of proteins, TNS-based GUMBOS would make facile, suitable candidates to generate a sensor array for proteins. Proteins such as human serum albumin (HSA), fibrinogen, α-antitrypsin (α-Ant), immunoglobulin G (IgG), β-lactoglobulin (β-Lac), ribonuclease A (RNaseA), α-chymotrypsin (α-CTP), transferrin (Trans), lysozyme (Lys) were used for sensor array development. Sensor responses were collected at various concentrations of proteins.
As a result of notably larger sensor responses, [TNS]-based GUMBOS were determined to have highest sensitivity to HSA, α-Ant, and β-Lac proteins. For this reason, the investigators employed responses for sensor responses to different concentrations of HSA, α-Ant, and β-Lac for multivariate analysis. Both sensor response values and corresponding protein concentrations were employed to build a principal component analysis (PCA) model. By employing the first two principal components (PCs), which accounted for 99.72% of the variance, a linear discriminant analysis (LDA) model with cross-validation was constructed reaching 100% discrimination accuracy. These researchers noted that the highest sensor responses were obtained for HSA and α-Ant. Thus, these sensor responses were employed to generate anther PCA model in order to evaluate discrimination between these two proteins regardless of protein concentration. In this model, the first two PCs accounted for 99.91% variance, and LDA with cross-validation resulted in 91.7% accuracy. To improve this accuracy, these investigators normalized sensor responses for each protein, constructed a PCA model with the first three PCs corresponding to 98.29% variance. These three PCs were employed for LDA construction and, with cross-validation, accuracy resulted in 100% discrimination. Furthermore, five mixtures of different HSA: α-Ant ratios were evaluated for mixture discrimination analysis. In this case, PCA followed by LDA resulted in 100% discrimination accuracy. Thus, TNS-GUMBOS were evaluated and confirmed as useful materials for protein sensor arrays for analyses of serum proteins HSA, α-Ant, and β-Lac.
More recently, Pérez and coworkers developed a nanoGUMBOS sensor array based on three fluorescent thiacarbocyanine ([TC0]+, [TC1]+, and [TC2]+) dyes with two anions ([BETI]− and [NTf2]−) for discrimination of several proteins [182]. NanoGUMBOS and microGUMBOS of these six compounds varied in size and shape, from circular shapes with [TC0][NTf2] and sizes around 25 nm, to [TC1][BETI] with rod-like shapes and an average size of 1.2 ± 0.5 μm by 0.21 ± 0.08 μm, and [TC2][NTf2] displayed triangular profiles with average dimensions 200 ± 10 nm by 177 ± 80 nm. Aggregates of nanoGUMBOS of [TC0]- and [TC2]-GUMBOS exhibited absorbance spectral characteristics representative of H-aggregation, while [TC1][NTf2] and [TC1][BETI] both resulted in spectral peaks representative of J-aggregation.
In the above study, seven proteins were investigated, including the four most abundant serum proteins: HSA, IgG, transferrin (Trans), and fibrinogen (Fib), along with three non-serum proteins hemoglobin (Hb), cytochrome C (CytC), and lysozyme (Lys), with each protein exhibiting different physical characteristics. The investigators observed different response patterns for each protein. In this work, these researchers determined that employing raw data was optimal for constructing an LDA model, in which 100% discrimination accuracy of proteins was achieved. Among different protein concentrations, sensor responses were determined to be stable between 0.1 to 20 μg/mL. Mixtures of two proteins, HSA and Hb, were also investigated in this work. Various weight ratios of HAS:Hb mixtures from 100% HSA to 100% Hb, were evaluated and 100% accuracy was achieved when LDA was constructed using these response patterns. However, 80:20 HSA:Hb was observed to be an outlier with the lowest canonical score values, and further analysis using hierarchical cluster analysis determined this dataset to be less related to other ratios. Protein spiked artificial urine with 5 μg/mL protein concentration was employed to evaluate sensor array performance in real samples, and LDA model performance achieved 100% discrimination accuracy. Thus, a series of TC-based GUMBOS were successfully synthesized into nanoGUMBOS and microGUMBOS and developed as protein sensor arrays capable of 100% discrimination in complex mixtures.
ILs have been explored for quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) applications as chemosensors for detection and discrimination of volatile organic compounds (VOC) [185, 186, 187, 188]. However, for these investigations, differentiation of VOCs sensor response relied on concentration and molecular composition of an analyte. In 2012, Regmi and coworkers developed a system to correlate sensor responses using GUMBOS-polymer composite [75]. In this work, investigators characterized and explored the responses of cellulose acetate and 1-butyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate (CA-[BM2IM][PF6]). By carefully evaluating characteristic responses upon exposure to control sensors, composite material, and confirming results using molecular dynamic simulations, investigators determined that sensor response recorded as changes in frequency were directly proportional to changes in motional resistance. Thus, these researchers successfully derived molecular weight trends from their composite sensor.
Another exploration demonstrated that counterion exchange using only GUMBOS coatings on quartz crystal resonators (QCRs) could provide VOC differentiation. In 2015, Regmi et al. explored trihexyltetradecylphosphium copper phthalocyanine-3,4′,4″,4″’-tetrasulfonic acid ([P66614]4[CuPcS4]) and trihexyltetradecylphosphium copper(II) meso-tetra(4-carboxyphenyl)porphyrin ([P66614]4[CuTCPP]) as sensing materials [73]. Each GUMBOS sensor successfully allowed detection of a variety of VOCs, such as acetone, acetonitrile, nitromethane, toluene, chloroform (CHCl3), methanol (MeOH), ethanol (EtOH), 2-propanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol, and 3-methyl-1-butanol. Both sensor responses readily allowed detection of multiple alcohols at relatively low detection limits when compared to other polar and nonpolar analytes. When compared to IL trihexyltetradecylphosphium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonimide), [P66614]4[CuTCPP] provided higher frequency response signals upon exposure to MeOH vapor, and more rapidly achieved baseline with efficient replicate results. Thus, these investigators demonstrated that use of copper(II) porphyrin counterion in GUMBOS allowed investigators to achieve high selectivity in sensor responses to VOCs [73]. Since these reports, there have been other explorations into IL and/or polymer-IL composite responses for VOC detection, and many have attained discrimination via statistical techniques to access virtual and multi-sensor arrays [69, 70, 71, 72, 189].
Since VOCs are frequently found as complex mixtures, Vaughan et al. have proposed development of a multi-sensor array (MSA) employing copper(II) phthalocyanine or [CuPcS4]-based GUMBOS sensors [68]. An example of such a sensory coating scheme is shown in Figure 6. VOCs studied represent compounds from different classes, such as dichloromethane (DCM), MeOH, 1-propanol, toluene, CHCl3, heptane, hexane, and benzene. In this work, [P4444]+, tributyl-n-octylphosphonium ([P4448]+), tetrabutylammonium ([TBA]+), 3-(dodecyldimethyl-ammonio)propanesulfonate ([DDMA]+) were employed as cations for [CuPcS4]4− to generate four different sensory coatings. Each coating displayed different layering characteristics as determined by SEM. Upon exposure to VOCs, each sensor presented analyte specific response patterns. Using original data, and quadratic discriminant analysis (QDA) with cross-validation, the resultant accuracy was determined to be 98.6%. Thus, [CuPcS4]-based GUMBOS responses were successfully employed to build a VOC-MSA to achieve high accuracy discrimination [68].
(a) Representative example of GUMBOS coated QCR; (b) analyte sensing and harmonic wave pattern of QCR on electrode surface.
With increasing global commercialization of state-of-the-art optoelectronic displays, the demand for higher performance and flexible materials has also increased [107, 108, 109, 110]. In general, these devices are comprised of emissive layers between electrodes along with several other electronically active layers. Organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) and organic photovoltaics (OPVs) have been the central target for a multitude of research groups, from organic emissive layer development to full device performance [107, 108, 109, 110, 111]. Counterion strategies using cations and anions within active layers for enhancement on optoelectronic device fabrication to effects on emission and device function will be discussed in the following sections.
Scientists have optimized several characteristics for targeted OLED development where they require consistent uniformity of emissive layers for potential manufacturing production [190], low crystallinity to prevent non-linear optical activity [191, 192], resistance to oxidation and water [193], and high thermal stability and optical purity [194]. Ionic transition metal complexes (ITMCs) are of huge interest as a wide range of emissive hues is easily achievable, synthesis is relatively simple, and they have desirable luminescent properties [195]. However, traditional methods of OLEDs fabrication involves vacuum evaporation deposition, or vacuum thermal evaporation (VTE) [196], which involves uniform coating of emissive layers [197].
In this regard, Dongxin Ma and coworkers have investigated four cationic iridium complexes as candidates for VTE through counterion control [195]. By incorporating large non-coordinating anions, these investigators achieved VTE iridium-based ionic emissive layers. The anions [PF6]−, [TPFB]−, and tetrakis[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]borate ([BArF]−) were employed for quantum chemical calculations, and the investigators determined that distances between iridium and boron atoms were larger than 8 Å with both [TPFB]− and [BArF24]− counterions. In comparison, distances between iridium and phosphorous was determined to be 6 Å, as a result of a larger partial positive charge on the phosphorous atom. Compounds synthesized from metathesis with bulkier anions [TPFB]− and [BArF24]− were employed for device fabrication using VTE as larger interatomic distances were presumed more suitable for phase transition, and device performance was evaluated. These investigators found devices ranged from blue to red-orange with external quantum efficiencies (EQEs) ranging from 1.2% (blue emission) to 8.1% (yellow emission) [195]. In 2018, these anions were also employed to produce two red-orange devices based on cationic iridium compounds, and these compounds were useful as dopants in 4,4′,4″-tris(carbazol-9-yl)triphenylamine emissive layers (TCTA) to produce white OLEDs with Commission Internationale de L’Eclairage (CIE) coordinate values equal to (0.33, 0.34), that were near to the required values (0.33, 0.33) [198].
More recently, Bai and coworkers investigated counterion-tuning strategies for a sky-blue fluorescent Ir-cation for VTE [199]. Instead of boron-based anions to improve VTE, the investigators strategically focused on bulky sulfonate-containing anions that also contained electron-deficient oxadiazole and triazine structures, such as 3,5-bis(5-(4-(tert-butyl)phenyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)benzenesulfonate ([OXD-7-SO3]−), 4-(4,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)benzenesulfonate ([TRZ-p-SO3]−), and 3-(4,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)benzenesulfonate ([TRZ-m-SO3]−). These structures were expected to not only provide VTE capabilities, but also improve carrier transport and trapping efficiencies that would improve overall efficiency and blue-emission of OLEDs. These researchers concluded that devices fabricated with [TRZ-m-SO3]− and [TRZ-p-SO3]− anions resulted in better overall device performances, slightly decreased CIE x-coordinate value, and displayed the largest external quantum efficiencies (EQEs) of 12.3 and 12.4%, respectively [199].
Carbazole-containing compounds with expanded conjugation are known to provide efficient blue emission, although they often require high labor and resource costs. In this regard, Siraj et al. synthesized carbazole imidazolium iodide ([CI][I]) along with analogues containing [OTf]−, [NTf2]−, and [BETI]− anions as respective GUMBOS in an efficient manner [54]. These GUMBOS were then compared to parent [CI][I] to evaluate counterion effects on thermal and photochemical properties that relate to performance for blue-emitters for OLEDs. In this study, non-uniform packing was observed in all GUMBOS as a result of cation structure. All ion-exchanged GUMBOS also demonstrated significantly higher thermal stabilities with onset degradation temperatures ranging from 310 to 417 °C as determined by thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), where increasing size of anion yielded increased degradation temperature ([I] < [OTf]− < [NTf2]− < [BETI]−). Similarly, QYs were increased with ion exchanges. In methanolic solution, [CI][BETI] was determined to have the largest QY of 99%, followed by [CI][OTf] with 94%, [CI][NTf2] with 73%, and [CI][I] with 25%. Thus, this demonstrated that hydrophobic counterion exchange affects photophysical properties of the CI-cation.
While VTE has dominated OLED manufacturing, it often requires expensive equipment and is both energy and time consuming [200]. For this reason, several researchers have explored solution processing methods, such as spin coating [200], electrospray deposition [54], along with other methods [201, 202] to provide faster, more inexpensive fabrication procedures [203]. In this report, [CI][OTf], [CI][NTf2], and [CI][BETI] GUMBOS were used to fabricate thin films on quartz glass with electrospray deposition [204], and uniform coating was achieved and confirmed by scanning electron microscopy and fluorescence microscopic analysis. Solid-state emission spectra displayed very slight red-shifting from methanolic spectra of ion-metathesis GUMBOS. In addition, photostabilities were investigated, and [CI][BETI] displayed an irradiation-induced increase in photostability. In contrast, [CI][OTf] and [CI][NTf2] were relatively stable while irradiated for 3000 s. Moreover, cyclic voltammetry and quantum chemical calculations further supported spectral properties of evaluated CI-based GUMBOS.
In 2016, Zhang and coworkers designed a novel cyanopyridinium stilbene cation ([Py]+) in order to examine the influence of counterion effects on solid-state photophysical properties [205]. Chloride ([Cl]−), nitrate ([NO3]−), tosylate ([OTs]−), and [TPB]− anions were employed in this study to form Ion pairs, and the resultant compounds showed little fluorescence in solution. When explored as films, blue-shifting of emission peaks occurred and increased with increasing hydrophobicity of counterions; QYs also increased following this trend. However, [Py][TPB] GUMBOS were non-emissive in solid-state. In order to understand this variance in trend, investigators used X-ray crystallography and quantum chemical calculations. From these studies, the authors determined that dimeric fluorophore aggregates were responsible for emission in GUMBOS. In [Py][TPB], fluorophores became dilute as a result of bulky anions, resulting in very weak fluorescence emission. This was also confirmed in quantum chemical studies, where intramolecular charge transfer characteristics were confirmed through prediction of frontier molecular orbital placement to reveal donor-σ-acceptor properties for dimeric stacking.
In another study, expansion of applications of the propidium dication ([P]2+) was investigated by exchanging iodide counterions for [OTf]−, [NTf2]−, and [BETI]− anions to generate P-based GUMBOS for potential solid-state applications [53]. Thermal, spectral, photo-physical, computational, and electrochemical properties were investigated for all P- based GUMBOS. While [P][OTF] retained physical properties similar to parent dye, such as solubility in more polar solvents, thermal degradation, and higher relative crystallinity, similar to the parent compound. In contrast, [P][NTf2] and [P][BETI] GUMBOS were more soluble in hydrophobic solvents, more amorphous, and displayed higher thermal stability. A trend was observed where increasing solvent hydrophobicity increased fluorescence lifetime and QY values. The highest fluorescence lifetime and QY for [P][BETI], followed by [P][NTf2], was observed in DCM. In this regard, the authors proposed that this effect may be a result of hydrophobic counterion stabilization of excited-state [P]2+, a phenomenon that resembles the original sensing behavior of the parent compound [P][I] [206]. These investigators also performed cyclic voltammetry to determine oxidation and reduction potentials for each P-based GUMBOS, as well as solution-phase QY calculations. It was determined through computational experiments that electronic transitions would lead to an increased propensity for torsional twisting in the solid state [207]. From these studies, the authors concluded that by simple counterion exchange, applications for propidium dication may be expanded beyond biological probes to potential candidates in optoelectronic devices [53].
Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) are an emerging next-generation technology in OPVs [208]. Through intrinsic characteristics such as natural transparency, good efficiency in low light conditions, flexible substrate production and more, applications may be expanded to windows, indoor fixtures, and wearable electronics [209, 210]. Incorporation of two or more complementary sensitizing dyes allows for potential absorption of all wavelengths of sunlight to achieve much higher power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) [208, 211, 212, 213, 214]. When implemented in this field, tunable investigations of co-sensitizing dyes that are also ionic and primarily limited to structural variations of zwitterionic squaraine-heptamethine structures rather than ion pairs [215, 216]. Polymethine, or cyanine dyes, however, have been extensively studied in OPV technologies, and several groups have begun explorations into counterion application in DSSCs [217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222].
In 2012, Jordan et al. from the Warner research group reported synthesis and characterization of [PIC][NTf2] and [PIC][BETI], along with fabrication of respective nanoGUMBOS [36]. Optical properties were compared to the parent [PIC][I], and nanoGUMBOS were synthesized and characterized using TEM and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Optical properties of the resultant PIC-based nanoGUMBOS were also investigated. These investigators concluded that [PIC][NTf2] nanodiamonds resulted in a significant increase in fluorescence emission intensity, which could be a result of J-aggregation. The authors hypothesized that [PIC][BETI] nanorods from H-aggregates only slightly increased fluorescence intensity. In 2014, Sarkar and coworkers investigated morphology, size, and current–voltage characteristics of these PIC-based nanoGUMBOS using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and conductive probe-AFM (CP-AFM) [56]. Results from CP-AFM indicated that when the voltage was swept between 1 and − 1 Volts, current values within the range of approximately 10−7 to 10−8 Amps could be achieved. Raman spectroscopy was employed to monitor anion effects on aggregation changes via changes in intensity. These researchers confirmed that [PIC][NTf2] nanoGUMBOS exhibited J-aggregation while H-aggregation was observed in [PIC][BETI] nanoGUMBOS. Thus, researchers from both investigations showcased anion dependent nanoparticle morphology and respective effects on spectral and electrochemical properties of broadly absorbing PIC-based nanoGUMBOS that had potential uses in DSSCs.
Kolic et al. have investigated different GUMBOS, including the aforementioned PIC-based GUMBOS, to determine effects on DSSC performances [34]. These dyes were employed as energy relay dyes (ERDs) in electrolyte solutions, where FRET occurs to donate electrons from ERD molecules in electrolyte solution to photosensitizing dye at the electrode surface. Figure 7 represents a proposed scheme for electron transfer processes involving GUMBOS-ERDs DSSCs. Photoactive dyes such as rhodamine B ([RhB]+), [PIC]+, thiacarbocyanine ([TC1]+), and tetracarboxyphenylporphine ([TCPP]4−) precursors underwent ion exchange with appropriate counterions, such as [NTf2]−, [BETI]−, and [P66614]+, and were further evaluated for counterion effects on ERD performance. Among various GUMBOS studies, investigators determined that [RhB][NTf2] and [P66614]4[TCPP] GUMBOS yielded most promising PCEs devices. These investigators hypothesized that this was a result of inherent high molar extinction coefficients and QYs for these respective compounds. They also noted that devices employing [NTf2]− anions resulted in higher respective device efficiencies than those of the parent dye or [BETI]− anions. One deviation of this trend, however, was the case of [TC1][TPB], which demonstrated a much higher QY. Overall, these authors were able to elucidate anion trends for GUMBOS-ERDs and confirm their utility as FRET cosensitizing agents in DSSCs [34].
Schematic of DSSCs fabricated with GUMBOS-ERDs and potential operational mechanism [
Other works have recently focused on incorporating metal-based GUMBOS as redox shuttles for sensitizer regenerating agents in DSSCs as well. In 2016, Huckaba and coworkers employed a cobalt(II/III) redox shuttle ([Co(bpy)3]2+/3+) with [NTf2]− as a non-coordinating anion with indolizine sensitizers [223]. Device PCEs ranged from 3.04 to 8.10% efficiencies, which were comparable to employing common redox shuttle, iodide/triiodide (I−/I3−) (3.74–7.99%). Additionally, a copper(I/II) redox shuttle ([Cu(tmby)2]+/2+) with [NTf2]− counterion was recently employed with indoline derivatives as sensitizers [224]. This study determined that this redox system rapidly regenerated indoline dyes within the range of tens of nanoseconds, several orders of magnitude faster than cobalt(II/III) shuttle [Co(bpy)3]2+/3+[NTf2]3/2 [224]. As a result of the volatility of the organic solvent employed in electrolyte solutions, some groups have expanded investigations into non-volatile routes for DSSC fabrication [211, 225, 226]. Cao and coworkers have developed a solid-state DSSC (ssDSSC) based on [Cu(tmby)2]+/2+[NTf2]2 redox shuttle for a hole transport layer [227]. In comparison to other copper redox shuttles, PCEs were determined to be much higher with this novel ssDSSC at 11% versus 4.5 or 2%, respectively. Thus, using their trilayered approach with co-sensitizer (Y123) and their solid-state hole transport material, scientists successfully demonstrated charge separation in a novel ssDSSC.
Work function (WF) is a metric by which charge transfer at electrodes is measured to determine electron injection efficiencies of optoelectronics [228]. For this reason, many groups have targeted improving device efficiency by optimizing charge transport at interfacial layers by including electroactive coatings[228, 229, 230]. Incorporating ethoxylated polyethylenimine (PEIE) at electrode interfaces of OLEDs was previously demonstrated by Zhou and coworkers to reduce WF [231]. In 2019, Ohisa et al. hypothesized that incorporation of tetraalkylammonium salts ([TRA][X]) into PEIE layers could further reduce required WFs for OLEDs [231, 232]. Alkyl chain lengths that varied between tetraethyl ([TEA]+), tetrabutyl ([TBA]+), and tetrahexyl ([THA]+) ammonium groups were studied in this report. Different anions were employed, and a series of salts were investigated for each ammonium cations. Anions employed ranged from [Cl]−, bromine ([Br]−), [I]−, acetyl ([Ac]−), thiocyanate ([SCN]−), or tetrafluoroborate ([BF4]−). Ultimately, 30 wt % [TBA][X] incorporation into PEIE layer at cathode interfaces improved WF as determined by ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy [232]. Researchers determined that anions with strong electron donating characteristics, such as [SCN]− and [Ac]−, resulted in the largest reduction of WF, while small halides provided the lowest WF change.
Investigators continued their investigations with chain length studies using [TEA][Cl] and [THA][Cl] dopants in PEIE electrode coatings and studying WF values. Results indicated that longer chain lengths provided larger steric hindrance, and thus, weaker electron accepting ability. Overall, WF decreased as hypothesized; however, devices with PEIE:[TBA][SCN] doping resulted in an unexplained increase in drive voltage. In general, this work demonstrates anion influence on WF and electronic efficiencies in LEDs [232]. More recently, Duan and coworkers expanded this work to include anion exchange effects on polyelectrolytes inspired by PEIE design [233]. These investigators incorporated ammonium cations into the PEIE backbone and used several sulfonate anions, such as dimethyl sulfonate ([MSB]−), benzylsulfonate ([BSB]−), and diethyl sulfonate ([ESB]−), to examine effects on WF for polymer solar cells. Notably, these researchers found that smaller anions, e.g. [ESB]− and [MSB]−, yielded devices with more efficient electron transport characteristics and better performance than devices with [BSB]−. Interestingly, devices with [PEIE][ESB] demonstrated the highest PCE (10.44%) with 8 nm thickness at minimal light soaking [233].
In another work, Sato and coworkers investigated counterion exchange effects on a polymerized IL system to reduce WF at the electron-injection layer to provide sufficient electrons to the semiconducting layer [231]. These investigators employed two fluorinated anions to produce polydiallylammonium polymeric ILs [poly(DDA)][NTf2] and [poly(DDA)][BETI], respectively. Both polymers were evaluated and compared to their parent PIL [poly(DDA)][Cl]. Hydrophobicities were studied via water contact angle measurements between film samples and water droplets. As anticipated, larger contact angles were observed for the more hydrophobic anions [NTf2]− and [BETI]− as compared with [Cl]−, 80.1, 80.8 and 19.1o, respectively. Noticeable increases in 5% onset degradation temperatures of the polymers were also observed upon conversion from PIL to polymer-ion exchanges, from 285 °C in [poly(DDA)][Cl] to 394 and 395 °C with [poly(DDA)][NTf2] and [poly(DDA)][BETI], respectively. Both ion-exchanged polymer-ILs reduced WF when they were incorporated at the cathode interface and increased WF when employed at the anode, which indicates that they are suitable interfacial coatings for OLED development. After device optimization as electron injection layers, the authors reported a best device performance of 9.00% maximum EQE with [poly(DDA)][NTf2]. Overall, these researchers demonstrated the benefits of hydrophobic counterion exchange for PILs and their utility for OLEDs applications at electrode interfaces.
Much like room temperature ILs, the ionic properties of frozen ILs and GUMBOS lend to high tunability as a result of the exponential combinations possible of known anions and cations. This important characteristic allows for strategic design of specific GUMBOS for a targeted analytical task. This chapter summarized a few examples of possible GUMBOS applications. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that several physico-chemical properties of these compounds are improved in solid state as compared to liquid phase organic salts. For these reasons, we hypothesize that implementation of solid-phase ILs and GUMBOS in the analytical and materials fields will increase in the future.
The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support through NASA cooperative agreement NNX 16AQ93A under contract number NASA/LEQSF (2016-2019)-Phase 3-10, and the National Science Foundation under Grant Nos. CHE-1905105 and HRD-1736136. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. 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The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine"},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation"},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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