Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.
To purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India:
CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
www.cbspd.com
|
customercare@cbspd.com
Physicochemical interaction with micro plastic at River Delimi represents one of the most pressing threats to water and plant resources as it is a challenge to human health. Micro plastics in the food chain constitutes a major threat to water, soil and plants which affect food safety, it affects public health when consuming products that have this pollutant, such as fruits, and vegetables. Micro plastics (MPs) are tiny particles broken down from larger pieces of plastics, accumulated in River Delimi. This study aimed at assessing the physicochemical parameters (Cd, Zn, Co, Pb and Ni) in water and (Ba, Ce, Rb, La, Nd, Ta, Sm, Sc and Th) while mercury and silver show high concentration (Hg, Ag) plants as it interaction with micro plastics (majorly polyethylene terephthalate (PET) concentration and plasticized polyvinylchloride (PVC both dry and rainy season)in the study area, along Rivers Delimi in Jos North LGA of Plateau State. Water and plant samples were collected from six (6) different irrigation sites in the area, namely Delimi village, Delimi area, Marhaba Masjd, Malam Adamu and Tudun Wada along the River Delimi, Barakin Kogi, and Baraki Naraguta along River Bonga, contain micro particles in edible plants due to the contamination of water-irrigated soils and methods to determine them. The negative effect of micro plastics on various food products and their interaction with physicochemical properties especially heavy metals impact on the environment is determined. Samples were analyzed to determine the concentration of the physicochemical parameters using the Atomic Absorption Spectrometer. Micro plastic are carriers for physicochemical parameters and exhibit diverse interactive effects, these interactions are poorly understood especially how they pose risks on living organisms. The challenges of their combined toxic effects and the potential hazards to human health were also discussed. Results show that the concentration of the physicochemical parameters in water as electrical conductivity, hydrocabonate, chloride, sodium carcium, chromium and lead while plasticized polyvinylchloride (PVC) both dry and rainy season, in river Delimi and river Bonga were pronounce. In plants potassium, phosphorus, molybdenum, manganese, mercury and silver were also high.
Department of Environmental Management Technology, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University Bauchi and National Environmental Standards Regulations and Enforcement Agency (NESREA), Lushi, Nigeria
Ahmed Sabo*
Department of Environmental Management Technology, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University Bauchi and National Environmental Standards Regulations and Enforcement Agency (NESREA), Lushi, Nigeria
*Address all correspondence to: asabo@atbu.edu.ng
1. Introduction
1.1 Micro plastics
Additives increase specific properties of plastic polymers; those called butyl tins stabilize polyvinyl chloride polymers (butyl tins)are found also in animal and human livers due to diet uptake [1]. Plastic items, which can be of different polymers or shape, can be classified according to size, and in particular, items ranging within 1 μm and 5 mm are called micro plastics (MPs) [2, 3]. Micro plastics (MPs) are small pieces of plastic, less than 5 mm (0.2inch) in length, that occur in the environments resulting to plastic pollution., Physicochemical factors accelerate the degradation time of plastics by mechanical stimuli, biological, thermal, and photo-oxidative degradation [4]. Micro plastic are varied contaminant suite originated from different product types, composed of various polymers and chemical additives, characterized by a broad range of colors and shape [5].
Micro plastic consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms bond together in polymer chain, other chemicals such as phthalates, polybrominated diphenyleither’s (PBDEs) and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), are present in micro plastic and many of these chemical additive leach out of the plastic after entering the river. They are divided into primary or secondary, according to their origin. Primary micro plastic (fMPs) are the final products of industrial activities used in cosmetic [6].
Primary micro plastic: include micro bends (personal care products), plastic pellets (used in manufacturing), and plastic fibers (used in synthetic textiles or nylon). Secondary micro plastics (sMPs) are products of plastics litter/degradation. Exposure of plastic waste in the environment causes deterioration in its mechanical and physicochemical properties, leading to the formation of plastic fragments, which are considered as micro plastics (MPs) when their size is less than (<5 mm). Delimi river is an important natural drainage and irrigation system, ensuring water flows through is of paramount important, as the cultivation of vegetable crops in Jos, depend on it. The presence of micro plastic in River Delimi is a health risk. The primary challenges of MPs to ecosystems are their ubiquity and bioavailability for ingestion, entanglement or inhalation [7]. MPs can be accumulated in the environment due to their inert nature [8]. They have been found in table salts and potable water [9]. The health implications of MPs may be physical by blocking the digestive system due to particle localization, chemical with associated toxic chemical effects and biological involving toxins [10]. The exposure of aquatic organisms to MPs has been associated with short- and long-term adverse effects on organism’s health, including biological feeding, reproduction, antioxidant defense and innate immunity [11, 12, 13, 14]. A contaminant that is widespread in the environment, heavy metals can enter water bodies continuously due to their non-degradable nature and are recycled and enriched in the aqueous environment. MPs and heavy metals are not only acting as persistent pollutants, their combined pollution poses a new threat to the world. Due to the large surface area, MPs can act like magnets for toxic pollutants and concentrate them to a very high level [15, 16]. The need to reduce the amount or quantity of plastic waste emitted to safeguard environmental and human health is a task to be involved every stakeholder in the environment. Heavy metals are present in the environment from both naturally occurring and anthropogenic sources. As a contaminant that is widespread in the environment, Aquatic ecosystems contain a great diversity of microorganisms, which play critical roles in many biogeochemical processes. Their existence makes the interaction between MPs and heavy metals more complicated [16]. There is no existing baseline study concerning the micro plastic challenges of River Delimi in Jos Plateau hence this study seek to provide the baseline.
1.2 The chemical composition of micro plastics
Aquatic ecosystems contain a great diversity of microorganisms, which play critical roles in many biogeochemical processes. Their existence makes the interaction between MPs and heavy metals more complicated. MPs provide an emergent ecological niche for microorganisms by the formation of microbial biofilms, named plastisphere [17, 18]. Primary micro plastics are intentionally manufactured in small sizes for different industrial purposes, such as housing and transportation applications and are generally made of polyethylene or polystyrene [19, 20, 21].
1.3 The boundaries of the study
The general aim of this study is to investigate the interaction between micro plastic and physicochemical parameters with challenges of micro plastic in River Delimi, Plateau State, Nigeria. River Delimi is within urban and commercial centre of Jos Plateau State capital, the investigated areas include; Delimi village, Delimi area, Congo Road, Tudun Wada, Anguwan Rogo, and BarakinNaraguta.
Rive Delimi covers a distance of about 15 km as it passes through Jos metropolis. It originates from Delimi village moves through Delimi area, Anguwan Rogo, Yelwan Mista Bow, Toro Bauchi, meeting up with the Rafin Zaki and extending to the Hadeja/Jamaare River Basin and Lake Chard. It shares a boundary to the North with Toro Local Government Area of Bauchi State; to the South with Jos-South Local Government area; to the North-East with Jos-East Local Government Area; and to the West with Bassa Local Government Area [22]. Jos enjoys a temperate climate with average temperatures of between 280C (81.70F) maximum and 110C (51.70F) minimum. It covers a total land area of 291 km2 (112 sq mi) with a 2006 census of 429,300 people. The warmest temperatures usually occur in the dry season months of March and April Jos is characterized by a mean annual rainfall of between 1317.5 mm (131.75 cm) and 1460.00 mm (146.0 cm), mostly from May to August The Onset and Cessation of rainfall in Jos are experienced in April (±15 days in April), and October (±15 days in October). The relative humidity is characterized by a marked seasonal variation [23]. The Jos Plateau is a high land region in North Central Nigeria. River Delimi is the major drainage system in Jos Metropolis. The river serves as a source of water for domestic use, fishing and irrigation. The River Delimi in Jos Plateau is the source of many Rivers in northern Nigeria including the Kaduna Gongola, Hadejia and Yobe River [23].
Plates 1, 2 and 3, show the type of menace that the disposal of solid wastes in water resources with cumulative effect micro plastic challenges which affect the water of the urban centers and the health hazards to the people who are exposed. The waste collection containers that were seen to be available at most locations in Jos are no longer in place at most of these locations.
2.2 Data collection
2.2.1 Sampling methods and analysis
Water samples were collected from 6 different sampling points marked WT1-WT6 (plate 1–3). Bulk water sampling, which facilitates sampling of smaller micro plastics but it, is limited by the size of the area.. The collection of samples from surface water was done using bulk water technique. Temperature, electrical conductivity (EC) and total dissolved solute (TDS) were measured in-situ during the sampling process. Water samples were filtered through Millipore filter paper of reweighed 0.45 μm pore size. The filtered water samples were acidified with 0.2%(v/v) concentration HN03 and kept in glass bottles. For anions analysis the sample were not acidify and titration carried out to ascertain the concentrations of the Anions. The filter papers containing the suspended solids were air-dried and reweighd. They were digested with 4/I (v/v) HN03/HCl mixture using a microwave device. After cooling, digestions were diluted to 30 ml with mili-Q water. At each of the sampling stations three samples of plants were collected close to water sampling station while water were collected using 1 liter polyethylene bottles with screw caps which were acid washed and rinsed with distilled water prior to the sampling... A total of 16 samples comprising of different types of plants alongside water samples each from the six sites along River Delimi and River Bonga were taken for laboratory analysis (see Tables 1 and 2). Specimens were labeled and transported to the laboratory in temperature - controlled boxes for analysis. An ambient temperature of 28° was maintained during transportation. Samples were digested with aqua regia solutions 3/I (v/v) HCl/HNO3 in microwave device. After cooling, digestions were diluted to 30 ml with mili-Q water.
Type
Technique (Quantification Method
Application
Size
Type of Micro plastic
Water
Bottled water and water
<100 um
PP
Micro-Raman spectroscopy
Surface waters
0.5–5 mm
Polystyrene, polypropylene, and polyethylene
Fruits and vegetables
Electron microscopy
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)
PVC-a with particle sizes from 100 nm to 18u m PVC-b with particle sizes from 18to 150 um
PVC,PET
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
Cucumber plants
100, 300, 500, and 700 nm
Polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs)
Other
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray
Personal care products
24–52 nm
NP polyethylene micro beads
Table 1.
Identification and quantification micro plastics in river Delimi water, fruits and vegetables.
Parameter
Sample Stations
TEM0C
pH
TDS Mg/l
EC μ/m
S042− mg/l
Cl− mg/l
HC03− mg/l
Coordinates
WT1
Delimi Area
20
9.9
21
435
23.5
70.9
38.38
9°55′15” N 8° 53′48″ E
WT2
Marhaba Masjd
20
8.2
12.3
265
35.5
35.45
98.98
9°55′15” N 8° 53′48″ E
WT3
Tudun Wada
20
8.3
12.4
250
30.3
63.81
92.93
9°54′49” N 8° 53′50″ E
WT4
Delimi Village
20
8.2
11.1
220
30.3
28.36
88.88
9°56′01” N 8° 53′48″ E
WT5
Barkin Kogi
22
8.3
10.5
210
26.2
99.26
90.90
9056′35”N 80 53′04″E
WT6
Barkin Naraguta
23
8.4
10.7
213
26.5
56.72
86.86
9057′06”N 8052′45″E
Table 2.
Concentration of physical parameters and anions in water from all the sampling sites.
2.2.2 Microplatics analysis
The different instrumental methodologies for determining and quantifying micro plastics in different matrices such as water, fruits and vegetables (see Table 1). The techniques are focused on a physical type (non-destructive) determination; the composition of the micro plastic of the polymer that was separated from the sample by different analytical procedures is visualized. Reagents for separating the micro plastics from the samples [3, 19, 24, 25] with a high concentration of organic matter, where their action is to destroy the organic matter and release the micro plastics from the matrix in order to later be separated by filtration processes [7, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. Mesoplastic (MEP,>5 mm) and coarse micro plastic (Cmp,>2 mm) were visually identified from sieving fractions using a stainless-steel bowl with an imprinted grid (1x1 cm grid size) and inspected under stereomicroscope. Large micro plastics (L-Mp,>1 mm) and medium micro plastics (M-Mp,>0.3 mm) were analyzed after density separation micro plastics ZnCl2 and NaI. Separating micro plastics from water samples was done either by direct filtration [7, 31, 32] or organic materials such as dried leaves which showed recovery rate of 82% [33]. For density separation, solution of chemicals such as NaCl, NaI, NaCl, and ZnCl2 are used. After density separation, sieving, and filtration of floating sample material [30, 34]. Stained filters were visually detected under a stereomicroscope. Concentrated samples retained on the filters were identified and quantified. In the identification and quantification of micro plastics in samples, light microscopes have been applied in studies conducted in laboratories. Final identification of each potential plastics particle within the MEP, CMp, and L-Mp and M-Mp sizes was performed.
3.1 Concentration of physical parameters (tem, pH, TDS and EC)
Figure 1 illustrates the concentration of Physical parameters in all sample locations. The highest concentrations of electrical conductivity (EC) are in sample locations WT1 (near Delimi street Bridge) along Delimi river and WT2 (katako) also along the Delimi river. Concentrations were lower in WT5-WT6 (AngwanRogo) (Naraguta) and along the Delimi, both along River Bonga.
Figure 1.
Concentration of physical parameters in water from the entire sampling site.
The characteristic of physical parameters of samples from six samples that were analyzed for physical parameters in River Delimi (see Table 2).
Variation of physical parameters in River Delimi showed EC has highest concentration at WT1-WT2. Value of electrical conductivity EC of the water sample at WT1(435 ohm/m), while WT5 exhibits lowest value of EC (210 ohm/m). Temperatures, pH and TDS have lower values (presented in Figure 1).
3.2 Concentration of anions (S042−, Cl−and HC03−)
The concentration of Anions in water from all sample location. The concentration of hydrocarbon ate was high in sample WT2 –WT6 (Congo) along river Bonga and chloride at sample and WT5 –WT6 (Anguwan Soya) along river Bonga. However, the lowest concentration was recorded at sample station WT1 (Delimi street Bridge) for hydrocarbon ate and WT4 (Anguwan Rogo) for chloride.
The highest (see Table 2 and presented in Figure 2) concentration of hydrocarbonate 98.98 (WT2) while the lowest concentration 38.38 (WT1), chloride highest concentration 99.26 (WT5) while the lowest concentration 28.36 (WT4) and sulfite which the least,highest concentration 35.5 (WT2) while lowest concentrations 23.5 (WT1). Hydrocarbon ate and chloride has higher values in River Delimi.
Figure 2.
Concentration of anions in water from the entire sampling site.
3.3 Concentration of cations (Na+, K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+)
The concentration of cations in all sample locations. The concentration of Sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca2+) are higher in the sample locations from WT1-WT6 both along river Delimi and Bonga. Highest (see Table 3 and presented in Figure 3) concentration of sodium in river Delimi 18.50 (ST6) mg/l while the lowest 14.48(WT6), calcium highest concentration 14.50 (WT2) while the lowest concentration 14.32 (WT6).
Parameter
Sample Stations
Na+ mg/l
K+ Mg/l
Mg2+ Mg/l
Ca2+ Mg/l
Cr Mg/l
Ni Mg/l
Pb Mg/l
Fe Mg/l
Zn Mg/l
Coordinates
WT1
Delimi area
17.38
4.43
0.49
14.43
3.62
0
2.36
0
0.12
9°55′15” N 8° 53′48″ E
WT2
Marhaba Masja
18.04
4.44
0.48
14.50
3.55
0
2.28
0.21
0.08
9°55′06” N 8° 53′48″ E
WT3
Tudun Wada
18.50
4.48
0.47
14.49
3.17
0
2.29
0
0.09
9°54′49” N 8° 53′50″ E
WT4
Delimi Village
17.20
4.50
0.46
14.48
2.91
0
2.30
0
0.09
9° 51 ‘30” N 8° 56′01″ E
WT5
Barakin Kogi
16.71
4.54
0.45
14.43
2.83
0
2.31
0
0.1
90 56′35”N 8053′04″E
WT6
Barakin Naraguta
14.48
4.57
0.40
14.42
2.77
0
2.32
0
0.1
90 57′06”N 80 52′45″E
Table 3.
Concentration of cations and heavy metals in water from all the sampling sites.
Figure 3.
Concentration of cations in water from the entire sampling site.
3.4 Concentration of heavy metals (Cr, Ni, Pb and Fe)
The concentration of heavy metals in all sample locations. The concentration of chromium is higher in all the sample locations from WT1-WT6 both along river Delimi and Bonga. Lead is higher in the sample locations WT4-WT6. Figure 4 revealed high concentration of chromium 3.62 (WT1) and lowest value of 2.77 (WT6) while lead higher value 2.36 (WT1), least value 2.28(WT2) (see Table 3 and presented in Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Concentration of heavy metals in water from the entire sampling site.
Micro plastics in River Delimi.
Concentration o f micro plastics (MPs) in river Delimi both dry and rainy season were abundant in color and dominated by fibrous items. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) concentration 22.65% and Plasticized polyvinylchloride (PVC) concentration 50% while others 27.55% (dry season). Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) concentration 18.20%(and Plasticized polyvinylchloride (Plasticized (PVC) concentration 80.50% while others 11.70% (rainy season) Plasticized polyvinylchloride (Plasticized (PVC) were the predominant accounting for 50% and 80.50% in both dry and rainy season (presented in Figures 5 and 6).
Figure 5.
Concentration of micro plastic in river Delimi water from the entire sampling site (dry season).
Figure 6.
Concentration of micro plastics in river Delimi water from the entire sampling site (rainy season).
3.5 Concentration of metals (Ca2+, Mg2+ and K+)
The concentration of potassium (K+) in all sample locations. The concentration of potassium is higher in all the sample locations from WT1-WT16 both along river Delimi and Bonga (see Tables 4 and 5 and presented in Figure 7).
PT1 PT2 PT3
Tomatoes
Delimi Area along Rive Delimi
Solanum lycopersicum
9°55′15” N 8° 53′48″ E
Spinach
Delimi Area along River Delimi
Spinacia oleracea
9°55′15” N 8 ° 53′48″ E
Banana
Delimi Area along River Delimi
Musa acuminata
9°55′15” N 8 ° 53′48″ E
PT4 PT5 PT6
Pear
Marhaba Masjd along River Delimi
Pyrus communis
9°55′15” N 8 ° 53′48″ E
Mango
Marahaba Masjd along River Delimi
Mangifera indica
9°55′15” N 8° 53′48″ E
Tomatoes
Marhaba Masjd along River Delimi
S. lycopersicum
9°55′15” N 8° 53′48″ E
PT7 PT8 PT9
Cassava
Tudun Wada along River Delimi
Manihot esculenta
9°54′49” N 8° 53′50″ E
Tomatoes
Tudun Wada along River Delimi
S. lycopersicum
9°54′49” N 8° 53′50″ E
Tomatoes
Tudun Wada along River Delimi
Solanum lycopersicum
9°54′49” N 8° 53′50″ E
PT10 PT11 PT12
Tomatoes
Malam Adam along River Delimi
Solanum Iycopersicum
9° 55 ‘45” N 8° 53′39″ E
Sweet Pepper
Malam Adam along River Delimi
Capsicum annuum
9° 55 ‘45” N 8° 53′39″ E
Shambo Pepper
Malam Adam along River Delimi
C. annuum
9° 55 ‘45” N 8° 53′39″ E
PT13 PT14 PT15
Sweet Pepper
Barakin Kogi along River Bunga
C. annuum
90 56′35”N 8 053′04″E
Shambo Pepper
Barakin Kogi along River Bunga
C. annuum
90 56′35”N 8 053′04″E
Tomatoes
Barakin Kogi along River Bunga
Solanum Iycopersicum
90 56′35”N 8 053′04″E
PT16 PT17 PT18
Irish Potatoes
Irish Potatoes
Solanum tuberosum
90 57′06”N 80 52′45″E
Cucumber
Cucumber
Cucumis sativus
90 57′06”N 80 52′45″E
Tomatoes
Tomatoes
S. lycopersicum
90 57′06”N 80 52′45″E
Table 4.
Concentration of metals and non metals in plants irrigated with river Delimi water from all the sampling sites.
Method
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
Analyte
Ca
Mg
K
Na
Al
P
S
Unit
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
MDL
0.01
0.001
0.01
0.001
0.01
0.01
0.01
PT1
0.2
0.224
5.14
0.283
0
0.72
0.25
PT2
3.08
0.762
6.53
0.017
0.1
0.34
0.34
PT3
0.03
0.15
1.63
<0.001
<0.01
0.16
0.1
PT4
0.09
0.097
2.33
0.002
<0.01
0.22
0.16
PT5
0.16
0.081
1.24
0.005
<0.01
0.14
0.12
PT6
0.26
0.316
6.05
0.403
0
0.58
0.33
PT7
0.06
0.063
1.28
0.002
<0.01
0.25
0.07
PT8
0.17
0.263
5.79
0.188
<0.01
0.75
0.34
PT9
0.26
0.224
4.71
0.036
<0.01
0.57
0.25
PT10
0.29
0.213
2.8
0.014
<0.01
0.51
0.41
PT11
0.1
0.176
2.98
0.018
<0.01
0.41
0.27
PT12
0.08
0.194
3.97
0.032
<0.01
0.4
0.2
PT13
0.13
0.263
6.22
0.173
0
0.57
0.29
PT14
0.04
0.13
2.45
0.035
<0.01
0.31
0.2
PT15
0.45
0.272
5.2
0.040
<0.01
1.02
0.27
Table 5.
Concentration of heavy metals in plants irrigated with river Delimi water from all the sampling sites.
Figure 7.
Concentration of metals in plants irrigated with river Delimi water from the entire sampling site.
3.6 Concentration of nonmetals (S and P)
The concentration of sculpture and phosphorus in PT4-PT16 sample locations. The concentration of sulfur and phosphorus in sample locations PT4-PT16 are higher both along river Delimi and Bonga (presented in Figure 8).
Figure 8.
Concentration of nonmetals in plants irrigated with river Delimi water from the entire sampling site.
3.7 Concentration of metals and nonmetals
The concentration of metals and nonmetals in all sample locations. The concentration of metals is higher in all the sample locations from PT1-PT16 both along river Delimi and Bonga (Presented in Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Concentration of metals and nonmetals in plants irrigated with river Delimi water from the entire sampling site.
3.8 Concentration of heavy metals (Mo, Cu, Pb and Zn)
The concentration of heavy metals n all sample locations. The concentration of molybdenum is higher in all the sample locations from PT1-PT16 both along river Delimi and Bonga (see Table 6 and presented in Figure 10).
Method
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
Analyte
Mo
Cu
Pb
Zn
Ag
Ni
Co
Mn
Fe
Unit
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppb
ppm
ppm
ppm
%
MDL
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.1
2
0.1
0
1
0.001
PT1
1.02
12.49
0.76
33
4
1.1
0.2
14
0.009
PT2
1.71
9.5
4.45
89
19
1.4
0.5
48
0.08
PT3
0.54
6.65
0.03
8.5
<2
0.3
<0.01
5
0.003
PT4
0.18
11.71
0.06
29
<2
1.2
0.4
4
0.005
PT5
0.04
2.06
0.12
11
<2
0.3
0
17
0.005
PT6
1.29
14.52
0.27
101
8
0.5
0.2
19
0.013
PT7
0.02
4.71
0.38
22
<2
2.5
0.3
8
0.003
PT8
1.58
12.56
0.24
40
7
0.8
0.1
15
0.012
PT9
0.76
17.55
0.14
40
4
1.1
0.1
19
0.01
PT10
0.26
17.76
0.12
47
4
2.7
0.2
44
0.011
PT11
0.38
11.87
0.06
22
<2
1.6
0.4
20
0.006
PT12
0.37
10.97
0.08
31
5
1.1
0.2
23
0.008
PT13
2.32
15.37
0.15
33.3
6
0.4
0.11
20
0.012
PT14
0.11
10.6
0.1
26
4
0.4
0.1
8
0.005
PT15
3.41
8.5
0.18
32
5
1.1
0.07
6
0.009
Table 6.
Concentration of heavy metals in plants irrigated with river Delimi water from all the sampling sites.
Figure 10.
Concentration of heavy metals in plants irrigated with river Delimi water from the entire sampling site.
3.9 Concentration of heavy metals (Ni, Co, Mn, Cr, Ba, Ti and B)
The concentration of heavy metals in all sample locations. The concentration of Mn is higher in all the sample locations from W T1-WT16 both along river Delimi and Bonga. The concentration of B, Ti and Ba also show high concentration (presented in Figure 11).
Figure 11.
Concentration of heavy metals in plants irrigated with river Delimi water from the entire sampling site.
3.10 Concentration of heavy metals (W, Sc, Tl, Se and Ga)
The concentration of metals in all sample locations. The concentration of metals that are less than or equal to one in all the sample locations from WT1-WT16 both along river Delimi and Bonga..Ba, Ce, Rb, La, Nd, Ta, Sm, Sc and Th were high (presented in Figure 12).
Figure 12.
Concentration of Heavy Metals in Plants Irrigated with River Delimi Water from the Entire Sampling Site.
3.11 Interaction between MPs and heavy metals in plants irrigated with river Delimi water
Micro plastics particles can interact with biological and synthetic systems due to their small size, enormous specific surface area, and high functionalization capacity, capable of even permeating biological membranes [3] Various sources of water and soils contaminated with micro plastics, are the source from where plants absorb water and nutrients.
The consumption of vegetable crops with a high level of heavy metals (Ba, Ce, Rb, La, Nd, Ta, Sm, Sc and Th) while mercury and silver show high concentration (Hg, Ag) (see Tables 6 and 7) due to high content of PVC in both dry and rainy season which is a challenge to humans. This showed that the use of water from river Delimi for irrigation may cause danger to the crops growing. Micro plastics increase cations of Na+, Ca2+ and decrease K+, Mg2+, and Fe concentrations. Fragment, fiber shapes were identified in the surface water of the rivers, with fragment shape having the highest occurrence. The distribution of the plastics was as follows: polyethylene terephthalate (PET) – 22.65%, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – 50%, others – 27.35% (Dry season), (PET) – 18.20%, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – 80,50%, others – 11.70% (Rainy season) [35]. Estimated that humans are exposed to about 27 types of micro pollutants by consuming fruits and vegetables derived from irrigation water contaminated with these compounds [36], indicates that the concentration of micro plastics. Environmental factors may indirectly exert influence on MPs by changing biofilm structures on the MPs surface [10] found that nutrient salts, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and pH have a greater influence on colony structure, while MP physical and chemical properties such as particle size and contact angle have less influence. Both MPs and heavy metals can accumulate at high level in the environment and consequently contaminate the food. Many studies have shown that MPs can absorb and release heavy metals, and their combined exposure may pose a potential threat to ecological system and human being [37].
Method
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
1VE
Analyte
Cr
Ba
Ti
B
W
Sc
Tl
Hg
Se
Te
Ga
Unit
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppb
ppm
ppm
ppm
MDL
0.1
0.1
1
1
0.1
0.1
0.02
1
0.1
0.02
0.1
PT1
2.6
7.6
14
10
<0.1
0.3
<0.02
95
0.1
<0.02
<0.1
PT2
2.8
113.6
16
20
<0.1
0.3
0.17
162
0.3
0.03
0.3
PT3
3
2.5
4
4
<0.1
0.5
<0.02
24
0.2
<0.02
<0.1
PT4
2.6
1
5
20
<0.1
0.3
<0.02
55
0.2
<0.02
<0.1
PT5
2.8
6.8
4
5
<0.1
0.4
<0.02
55
0.2
<0.02
<0.1
PT6
2.9
5.5
12
14
<0.1
0.3
<0.02
115
0.1
<0.02
<0.1
PT7
3
6.4
5
2
<0.1
0.3
<0.02
23
0.2
<0.02
<0.1
PT8
2.9
4.9
14
11
<0.1
0.3
<0.02
135
0.2
<0.02
<0.1
PT9
3.2
11.1
10
9
<0.1
0.2
<0.02
125
0.2
<0.02
<0.1
PT10
2.9
8.2
9
8
<0.1
0.2
0.4
220
0.1
<0.02
<0.1
PT11
3.3
3.3
7
9
<0.1
0.4
0.42
156
0.1
<0.02
<0.1
PT12
3.1
9.7
7
8
<0.1
0.4
<0.02
116
0.2
<0.02
<0.1
PT13
2.9
2.5
9
12
<0.1
0.2
<0.02
87
0.2
<0.02
0.1
PT14
3.1
1.3
6
4
<0.1
0.5
0.06
35
0.2
<0.02
<0.1
PT15
2.6
16.3
14
8
<0.1
0.4
0.04
116
0.1
<0.02
<0.1
Table 7.
Concentration of heavy metals in plants irrigated with river Delimi water from all the sampling sites.
3.12 Effects of environmental factors on interactions between MPs and physicochemical parameters
The result of physic-chemical properties has been evaluated with a statistical test. The result computed between physicochemical properties as it affect the concentrations of different micro plastic formed in River Delimi presented in Figures 1–4. The concentration of physical parameters were statistically tested. The result showed different environmental factors interactions between physicochemical parameters and micro plastics(MPs). This study considered the following factors:. Temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC) contact time, ionic strength, and particle size. As for the temperature, in this study the temperature range from 20 to 23°C (Figure 3), the general opinion is that high temperature will benefit the adsorption of heavy metals on MPs [10, 38]. The possible explanation for this observation is that the adsorption process is an endothermic reaction; thus, the spontaneity of the adsorption process may increase with the increase of temperature.The pH, in the study area range from 8.2 to 9.9.The pH is greater than 7.(pH < 7) and metal ions were considered to precipitate under alkaline conditions. The pH can significantly affect the adsorption capacity of MPs to heavy metals. pH is very important for mobility because metal availability is low when pH, is around 6.5 to 7, MPs will not interact with heavy metals. Generally, increased pH level results in increased adsorption capacity for heavy metals. The absorbed heavy metals released with the change of pH in water (see Tables 1 and 2).
3.13 Challenge of Microplastis to human health
The increasing amount of heavy metals has caused an imbalance in aquatic ecosystems and the biota growing under such habitats accumulate high amounts of heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Cd, Cr, and Ni ) which are being assimilated and transferred within food chains by the process of magnification. Many researchers tried to use different test methods or models to assess the potential human health risks of MPs. The results showed that physicochemical parameters concentration in River Delimi undergo changes due to micro plastics concentration.
River Delimi water has moderately interacted with microplastics. Physicochemical parameters especially heavy metals,bond to the microplastic. Emphasis should be placed on protection of river Delimi considering its sensitive nature of its use for irrigation and addition of value to food chain, toward reducing micro plastic interaction with physicochemical parameters.
The observed interaction between physicochemical parameters and micro plastics in Delimi River is a general one affecting the majority of inland waters of Nigeria. It is evident that, there is a serious problem with micro plastic interaction in River Delimi and its environs. The reason is mainly as a result of population increase in the Jos metropolis leading to enormous solid wastes generation. The use and throw away attitude of the residents have contributed immensely in the quantity of plastic generated every day. Physicochemical analysis and interaction with micro plastic items can contribute to the water pollution: that is used for irrigation of crops planted within the proximity of River Delimi.
References
1.Takahashi S, Mukai H, Tanabe S, Sakayama K, Miyazaki T, Masuno H. Butyltin residues in livers ofhumans and wild terrestrial mammals and in plastic products. Environmental Pollution. 1999;106:213-218
2.Thompson RC, Moore CJ, vom Saal FS, Swan SH. Plastics, the environment and human health: Currentconsensus and future trends. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 2009;364:2153-2166
3.Gigault J, Halle AT, Baudrimont M, Pascal P-Y, Gau_re F, Phi T-L, et al. Current opinion: What is a nanoplastic? Environmental Pollution. 2018;235:1030-1034
4.Singh B, Sharma N. Mechanistic implications of plastic degradation. Polymer Degradation and Stability. 2008;93:561-584
5.Rochman CM, Brookson C, Bikker J, Djuric N, Earn A, Bucci K, et al. Et a rethinking microplastics as a diverse contaminant suite. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 2019;38:703-711
6.Guerranti C, Martellini T, Perra G, Scopetani C, Cincinelli A. Microplastics in cosmetics: Environmental issues and needs for global bans. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology. 2019;68:75-79
7.Enyoh CE, Shafea L, Verla W, Verla N, Wang Q, Chowdhury T, et al. Microplastics exposure routes and toxicity studies to ecosystems: An overview. Environmental Analysis Health and Toxicology. 2020;35:e2020004. DOI: 10.5620/eaht.e2020004
8.Wang J, Li J, Liu S, Li H, Chen X, Peng C, et al. Distinct microplastic distributions in soil of different land-use types: A case study of Chinese farmlands. Environmental Pollution. 2021;269:11619. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116199
9.Verla AW, Enyoh CE, Verla EN, Nwarnorh KO. Micro plastic toxic chemical interaction: A review study on quantified levels mechanism and implication. SN Applied Science. 2019;1:1400. DOI: 10.1007/s42452-019-1352-0
10.Wang Q, Zhang Y, Wangjin X, Wang Y, Meng G, Chen Y. The adsorption behavior of metals in aqueous solution by microplastics effected by UV radiation. Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2020;87:272-280. DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2019.07.006
11.Murphy F, Quinn B. The effects of microplastic on freshwater Hydra attenuata feeding, morphology & reproduction. Environmental Pollution. 2018;234:487-494. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.11.029
12.Wen B, Jin S, Chen Z, Gao J, Liu Y, Liu J, et al. Single and combined effects of microplastics and cadmium on the cadmium accumulation, antioxidant defence and innate immunity of the discus fish (Symphysodon aequifasciatus). Environmental Pollution. 2018a;243:462-471. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.09.029
13.Banaee M, Soltanian S, Sureda A, Gholamhosseini A, Haghi BN, Akhlaghi M, et al. Evaluation of single and combined effects of cadmium and micro-plastic particles on biochemical and immunological parameters of common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Chemosphere. 2019;236:124335. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.07.066
14.Oliviero M, Tato T, Schiavo S, Fernandez V, Manzo S, Beiras R. Leachates of micronized plastic toys provoke embryotoxic effects upon sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus. Environmental Pollution. 2019;247:706-715. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.01.098
15.Liu S, Shi J, Wang J, Dai Y, Li H, Li J, et al. Interactions between microplastics and heavy metals in aquatic environments: A review. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2021;2021:652520. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.652520
16.Prunier J, Maurice L, Perez E, Gigault J, Pierson-Wickmann A, Davranche M, et al. Trace metals in polyethylene debris from the North Atlantic subtropical gyre. Environmental Pollution. 2019;245:371-379. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.10.043
17.Mincer TJ, Zettler ER, Amaral-Zettler LA. Biofilms on plastic debris and their influence on marine nutrient cycling, productivity, and hazardous chemical mobility. Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. 2016;78:221-233. DOI: 10.1007/698_2016_12
18.Yang Y, Liu W, Zhang Z, Grossart H, Gadd GM. Microplastics provide new microbial niches in aquatic environments. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2020;104:6501-6511. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-10704-x
19.Hernandez LM, Yousefi N, Tufenkji N. Are there Nanoplastics in your personal care products? Environmental Science & Technology Letters. 2017;4:280-285
20.Mattsson K, Hansson L-A, Cedervall T. Nano-plastics in the aquatic environment. Environmental Science. Processes & Impacts. 2015;1:1712-1721
21.Huang Y, Chapman J, Deng Y, Cozzolino D. Rapid measurement of microplastic contamination in chicken meat by mid infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics: A feasibility study. Food Control. 2020;113:107187
22.Mailoushi JT, Binbol NL, Sadiku Y. Measure of evaporation in Jos. A comparative analysis. In: Iliya MA, Adamu IA, Umar AT, Audu M, editors. Climate Change, Environmental Challenges and Sustainable Development. International Conference on Climate Change, Environmental Challengesand Sustainable Development. 23rd – 26th November. Sokoto: Usmanu Danfodiyo University; 2015. pp. 25-29
23.Sabo A, Nayaya AJ, Galadima AI. Assessment of some heavy metals in water, sediment and freshwater mudfish. 2008
24.Blair RM, Waldron S, Phoenix V, Gauchotte-Lindsay C. Micro- and Nanoplastic Pollution of Freshwater and Wastewater Treatment. Vol. 5. Systems Springer Science Reviews; 2017. pp. 19-30
25.Puoci F, Iemma F, Spizzirri UG, Cirillo G, Curcio M, Picci N. Polymer in agriculture: A review. American Journal of Agricultural and Biological Sciences. 2008;3:299-314
26.Dehaut A, Cassone A-L, Frère L, Hermabessiere L, Himber C, Rinnert E, et al. Microplastics in seafood: Benchmark protocol for their extraction and characterization. Environmental Pollution. 2016;215:223-233
27.Phuong NN, Poirier L, Lagarde F, Kamari A, Zalouk-Vergnoux A. Microplastic abundance and characteristics in French Atlantic coastal sediments using anew extraction method. Environmental Pollution. 2018;243:228-237
28.Simon M, van Alst N, Vollertsen J. Quantification of microplastic mass and removal rates at wastewater treatment plantsapplying focal plane Array (FPA)-based Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) imaging. Water Research. 2018;142:1-9
29.Nuelle M-T, Dekiff JH, Remy D, Fries E. A new analytical approach for monitoring microplastics in marine sediments. Environmental Pollution. 2014;184:161-169
30.Gao M, Xu Y, Liu Y, Wang S, Wang C, Dong Y, et al. Effect of polystyrene on di-butyl phthalate (DBP) bioavailability and DBP-induced phytotoxicity in lettuce. Environmental Pollution. 2021;268:115870
31.Abiodun OA, Osuala FI, Otitoloju AA, Fotsing CMD, Ndinteh DT. Micropellet particles: A vector of hydrophobic endocrine disturbing chemicals in Lagos lagoon. Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology. 2019;36:1. DOI: 10.9734/cjast/2019/v36i630262
32.Olarinmoye OM, Stock Scherf F, Whenu OO, Asenime CE, Ganzallo S. Geosciences. 2020;10:494. DOI: 10.3390/geosciences10120494
33.Briggs E, de Moura EAB, Furusawa HA, Cotrim MEB, Oguzie EE, Lugao AB. The minerals, metals and materials series. In: Li B et al., editors. Characterization of Minerals, Metals, and Materials. 2019. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-05749-7_27
34.Thompson RC, Olsen Y, Mitchell RP, Davis A, Rowland SJ, John AWG, et al. Lost at sea: Where is all the plastic? Science. 2004;304:838
35.Hermabessiere L, Dehaut A, Paul-Pont I, Lacroix C, Jezequel R, Soudant P, et al. Occurrence and effects of plastic additives on marine environments and organisms: A review. Chemosphere. 2017;182:781-793
36.Akhbarizadeh R, Moore F, Keshavarzi B. Investigating a probable relationship between microplastics and potentially toxicelements in fish muscles from northeast of Persian gulf. Environmental Pollution. 2018;232:154-163
37.Akhbarizadeh R, Moore F, Keshavarzi B, Moeinpour A. Microplastics and potentially toxic elements in coastal sediments of Iran’s main oil terminal (Khark Islan D). Environmental Pollution. 2017;220:720-731. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.10.038
38.Oz N, Kadizade G, Yurtsever M. Investigation of heavy metal adsorption on microplastics. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research. 2019;17:7301-7310. DOI: 10.15666/aeer/1704_73017310
Written By
Terwase Wuave and Ahmed Sabo
Submitted: 16 July 2022Reviewed: 17 August 2022Published: 13 September 2023
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
