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Today, soil and water pollution by pesticides is a serious problem worldwide. Compared with conventionally expensive, invasive, and sometimes ineffective techniques for pentachlorophenol (PCP) dealing, such as excavation, dredging and some chemical methods, in situ treatment strategies are more effective at reducing risk and decreasing expenditures on management. Among the in situ treatments, bioremediation (microbial remediation and phytoremediation) is thought to be capable in permanent pollutants elimination at low cost. Therefore, phytoremediation has received more attention in the last decade. Phytoremediation is applicable owing to its esthetic value, environment friendly, manipulation in situ and economic benefit. However, the previous phytoremediation studies mostly focused on the use of terrestrial plants and remediation of heavy metals. Sediments in aquatic environment are regarded as ultimate sink of organic contaminants, but little information is available on the possibility of use of aquatic macrophytes for remediation of organic toxicants in aquatic environment. It is, therefore, necessary to develop phytoremediation method of PCP by using aquatic macrophytes.
Eremology and Combating Desertification, Arid Regions Institute of Medenine, Tunisia
Faiza Souid
Eremology and Combating Desertification, Arid Regions Institute of Medenine, Tunisia
Feryell Hajjeji
Eremology and Combating Desertification, Arid Regions Institute of Medenine, Tunisia
Saifeddine Eturki
Eremology and Combating Desertification, Arid Regions Institute of Medenine, Tunisia
Mohamed Moussa
Eremology and Combating Desertification, Arid Regions Institute of Medenine, Tunisia
*Address all correspondence to: rimwerheni@gmail.com
1. Introduction
The pollution of water is one of the most important troubles of the whole globe, because of the unsuitable discharge of used water of the industries into the environment, excessive usage of chemical fertilizers in agricultural fields, production of roads, buildings, etc. [1, 2]. Further, the population growth is very expeditious, which harms the availability of drinking water to everyone [3]. Especially, industrialization and urbanization, pollution of water have accelerated on a large scale [4]. There are many chemical industries, which are dealing with the dyes and among them, the large quantity of dye utilization and wastewater discharge after the process is being done by the textile industries exclusively. The utilization of such dangerous substances has been ensuing in water pollution and environmental contamination. The water launched after the material guidance includes dissolved solids, color, harmful metals (chromium), production gums (pentachlorophenol, detergents), appropriating retailers (trisodium polyphosphate and sodium hexametaphosphate, chlorine, azo dyes), and stain removers (CCl4, residual chlorine, solving retailers similar; formaldehyde and benzidine). Maximum of the aforementioned chemical compounds are dangerous and a danger to the surroundings [5, 6]. From this time, the wastewater is wanted to be handled nicely earlier than it’s far discharged into the environment or used for different purposes [7]. Thus, to minimize the toxicity, pollution, and to protect the environment, it is important to treat the dye wastewater before discharge [8]. Phytoremediation is a good and significantly hired environmental cleanup biotechnology primarily based totally on volatilization, stabilization, degradation, or extraction of pollution with the aid of using plants and their related microorganisms [9, 10]. Over the previous couple of decades, phytoremediation strategies had been elaborately studied and seemed as a effective tool for eliminating and degrading many unfavorable contaminants, which include antibiotics, HMs, landfill leachate, fabric dyes, pesticides, hormones, petroleum, explosives, or even poisonous gases [11, 12]. Phytoremediation is turning into an increasing number of famous in authorities corporations and industries because the cost-powerful and the restricted investment for environmental governance [13]. The phytoremediation procedure is pushed with the aid of using sun strength and might offer ecological landscapes for rehabilitated areas, which additionally has esthetic value at the same time as treating pollutants [11]. It provides a sustainable method for nutrients recovery and poisonous contaminants elimination. Numerous hydrophytes with distinct species had been applied for the control of LW, for example, Spirodela polyrhiza, Lemna minor, Polygonum hydropiper, Lemna gibba, Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, Scenedesmus quadricauda, Typha latifolia, Phragmites australis, Limnobium laevigatum, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Myriophyllum aquaticum, Coelastrella sp., Lemna aequinoctialis [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. The main objective in this study to evaluate the Potential of aquatic plants for Pesticide removal in Wastewater: A case study on pentachlorophenol. Also, to discuss some example of phytoremediation process for pesticide removal.
Biological methods using plants for treatment of polluted environment may also provide an alternative to traditional techniques [23, 24]. Phytoremediation (phyto = plant, remediation = correct evil) means re-vegetation of land which is spoiled by toxic substances and phytoremediation might be successful when plant using for phytoremediation material can accumulate high concentration of heavy metals in their shoots parts [23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. Phytoremediation as a brand new remedy approach for environmental pollutants communally anticipated to advantage all contemporary crises in better performance and decrease environmental effect in addition to economically feasible. This rising inexperienced technology, were won many severe anthropogenic pollutants. Fair evaluation required for risks, which associated with this approach. Even specifying it for a selected waste remedy inclusive of municipal wastewater [29] may also supply the reply key for consciousness on benefits and the accent risks. Aquatic macrophytes are vegetation that stay in water or moist soil and develop generously in lakes and waterways. This vegetation offer numerous ecological niches (meals, shelter), significantly contribute to biodiversity on the atmosphere level, and maintain meals chains. Besides their big position in nutrient cycle, oxygen balance, purification of water [30], and a source of some biologically active substances like antibacterial and antifungal agents [31]. Emergent aquatic macrophytes constitute a numerous institution of flora with a giant cappotential for removal/degradation of a lot of toxic objects and pollutants [32]. Besides, aquatic macrophytes are greater appropriate for wastewater preparation than different terrestrial flora because of their quicker growth, manufacturing of greater biomass and a relative better cappotential of pollutant approval [33]. Phytoremediation is a rapidly developing method that uses plants to reduce, degrade, assimilate and metabolize environmental pollutants such as hydrocarbons, pesticides, etc. [34].
The main mechanisms of phytoremediation included phytoextraction, rhizofiltration, phytostabilization, phytodegradation, and phytovolatilization [13]. Generally, vegetation selected for phytoremediation had the possibility to concentrate on a wide range of or specific contaminants [35]. Phytoremediation is the direct use of living green plants and is an effective, cheap, non-invasive, and environmentally friendly technique used to transfer or stabilize all the toxic metals and environmental pollutants in polluted soil or ground [35, 36]. Furthermore, phytoremediation is concerned with the potential of a plant species to accumulate high concentrations of toxic pollutants in their tissues. A number of plant metabolic processes come into play to degrade various organic compounds. There are many types of phytoremediation for agricultural land and water Plants bodies, e.g., phytotransformation, rhizosphere bioremediation, phytostabilization, phytoextraction (phyto-accumulation), rhizofiltration, phytovolatization, phytodegradtion, and hydraulic control (Figure 1) [38, 39, 40]. After more than 20 years of development, phytoremediation has become mature and widely employed to refine contaminated soil, water, and atmosphere. Also, the achievement of phytoremediation relies upon upon a plant’s potential to tolerate and to build up excessive portions of the contaminant, even as yielding a big plant biomass [25]. In herbal and man-made filtering systems, macrophytes play an crucial function withinside the biochemical approaches of water remedy in view that their presence should exert a few high quality outcomes on this environment [41].
Figure 1.
Diagram of the different uses of phytoremediation techniques [37].
Aquatic macrophytes are categorized into three principal classes, submerged, floating, and emergent macrophytes associated with vegetation’ role concerning the water floor (Figure 2). Submerged macrophytes: consist of vegetation completely submerged below the water surface without a vegetative components rising from the water floor (e.g., Myriophyllum spicatum and Najas marina). They are characterized through their particular morphological and anatomical constructions, which assist adapt to residing below the water floor. The increase and distribution of those vegetation are encouraged through numerous factors, which include water level, environmental condition, plant connections, and herbivory [42]. Floating macrophytes: consist of vegetation that develop at intermediate depths; a number of them (e.g., Eichhornia crassipes) are free-floating with roots that grasp unanchored with inside the water column, however others (which include Nymphaea lotus L.) are rooted withinside the soil with floating leaves. They are in large part unaffected through modifications in ranges and intensity of water and substratum characteristics [43]. Emergent macrophytes: consist of vegetation-rooted with inside the sediment with their essential vegetative components above the water floor (e.g., Typha sp.). They are impartial of water for aid and are characterized through their excessive increase price and biomass formation [44]. Lagoons cowl about 4% of the earth’s continental ground.
Figure 2.
Different types of the Phytoremediation process [45].
The agrochemical enterprise has drastically improved over the last few years because of tremendous agricultural exercises [46]. Pesticides are the chemical materials that generally steady the rural commodities through controlling the extensive array of pests and insects [47]. Numerous styles of insecticides generate pollutants of air, soil, groundwater, and floor water, and unfavorable to human properly being as they are discharged into the ecosystem due to runoff from farming and civic areas [48, 49]. Among these pollutants, pesticides are of great concern because of their broad use and persistence in the environment for up to decades [50], bringing negative impacts on ecosystems and human health [51, 52]. In the last century, organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), have been extensively used worldwide (Figure 3) [53], raising environmental concerns due to their toxicity, persistence, bioavailability, endocrine-disrupting properties and long-range transportation [54, 55]. Despite their worldwide ban between the 1970s et 1990s, concentrations of these pollutants remain in the environment, being a threat to the ecosystem and human health [56].
Figure 3.
Different types of pesticides based on chemical composition [60].
Pesticides are the second one largest potable water pollutant and posture the best danger [57]. A pesticide must be dangerous to the supposed pests however now no longer to non-supposed species like people and many different creatures. Nevertheless, because of the lack of precision, it’s far toxic to each supposed and non-supposed species. The major reason for humans, fishes, birds, and bee’s infection was the non - specific pesticide toxicity [58]. Phenol and chlorophenols (CPs) are representative examples of a wider group of phenolic pollutants. Their presence in the environment is due to intensive historical use, drinking water chlorination, biodegradation of organochlorinated chemicals, and their importance in the chemical industry [59].
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is one of the World’s worst chemical ever produced [61]. PCP was developed in the 1930s as one of the first synthetic organic wood preservatives [62]. PCP (C6Cl5OH) is well known as a highly chlorinated organic pollutant with stable aromatic ring structure and as highly persistent in the soil system [63]. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [64] regulates PCP as one of the priority pollutants. PCP pollutants has been released in large quantities into the environment as a wood preservative, pesticides, insecticides, fungicides and solvents [65]. PCP is also formed as a by-product during disinfection of water by chlorinated oxidants [66]. It is a synthetic organochlorine pesticide, a conjugate acid of pentachlorophenolate and a member of pentachlorobenzenes, which comprises aromatic fungicides and a chlorophenol (CPs) [67]. PCP is also a metabolite of lindane and other polychlorinated phenolic compounds [68]. Due to its stable aromatic ring structure and high chlorine content, PCP is chemically stable and not prone to degradation [69]. It is a significant environmental contaminant due to its widespread use and chemical stability, persistency, and high toxicity. Human exposure to PCP occurs through inhalation, absorption through the skin, and consumption of contaminated water and food (Figure 4) [70]. It, therefore, has a very long half-life in the environment. PCP accumulates in the environment due to its lipophilicity and contaminates water and soil [71]. PCP used as a fungicide, insecticide, herbicide, and bactericide [72, 73]. that is widely employed as a wood preservative, especially for logs and wooden utility poles. There are many reports on the toxicity of PCP, including cases with fatal outcomes [70, 74]. The liver, thyroid, immune system, and reproductive system are the primary targets of PCP toxicity [70]. PCP inhibits spermatogenesis and has adverse effects on reproductive and inter-renal system at environmentally relevant concentrations [75].
Figure 4.
Pentachlorophenol application and impact description.
In addition, PCP exposure is associated with renal, neurological, and carcinogenic effects. Several epidemiological studies suggest that PCP exposure is linked to human cancer [76]. PCP accelerates the incidence of hematopoietic cancer, multiple myeloma, lymphoma, soft tissue sarcoma, leukemia, and aplastic anemia [77]. This results in bioaccumulation of PCP in human testes, kidney, prostate gland, liver, and adipose tissue [78]. PCP is classified as possible human carcinogen (class 2B) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer [79]. PCP concentration at contaminated sites has been reported between 100 and 500 mg kg−1 in soil and 10–1000 mg L−1 in groundwater [80].
For counteracting PCP pollution, wastewater-containing pesticides are commonly treated using biological and physico-chemical approaches [81]. The increasing of the accumulation of pollutants in the aquatic environment generated and activated many investigations concerning their removal and their biological treatment [82]. Unlike physical and chemical methods based techniques that are expensive and producing environmental side effects, biological methods could be useful for cost-effective and environmentally friendly approaches [83].
In addition, the bioremediation of PCP contaminated soil or water were widely examined in diferent research work, including phytoremediation [84] biostimulation [85] and bioaugmentation [64].
The Typha genus as a macrophyte always shows the advantage of development and growth under various climatic conditions, and function as bio-filters to protect lakes, estuaries and varied water bodies (Table 1) [86]. However, although it has been shown that Typha can tolerate and remove various xenobiotics: chlorinated benzenes, carbamazepine, diazinon, permethrin, chlorpyrifos and metformin (Figure 5) [87]. The two processes of phytoremediation and bioaugmentation are both biological methods used in PCP remediation process. Phytoremediation is a rapidly developing method that uses plants to reduce, degrade, assimilate and metabolize environmental pollutants such as hydrocarbons, pesticides, etc. [88].
Examples of plants use in phytoremediation process.
Figure 5.
Different phenomena of phytoremediation for Typha angustifolia plant.
Several studies have successfully evaluated phytoremediation of pollutants (i.e. nutrients, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls) by mangroves [89].
7.2 Duckweed
This technology is suitable for sites with shallow contaminants [90]. They indicate that fullscale and pilot studies are going to demonstrate the promise and drawbacks of plant application for remediating hazardous waste in terrestrial and sediments. Aquatic media have been presented high quality and effective responses for phytoremediation especially for organic contamination.
Duckweed is composed of one or few leaves called fronds and a single root or rootlet with no stem, and the next generation generate through vegetative propagation [91]. Therefore, Lemnaceae is tremendously suitable for the phytoremediation of sewage. Duckweed is a highly efficient accumulator of various pollutants in surface water bodies and extensively used for xenobiotics, inorganic matters, HMs and pathogens removal from LW [10, 16, 23, 91]. Above all, duckweed needs plenty of nutrients to maintain its growth and development, which is beneficial for nitrogen and phosphorus recovery from LW. For example, Lemna sp. could remove 90% of PCP in constructed wetland with typha angustifolia [65].
7.3 Phytoremediation by microalgae
Microalgae could be adapted to a variety of water bodies and were extensively used to treat effluent [9]. Microalgae-based systems can absorb organic matter and nutrients from water bodies to meet their own growth needs [16]. Meanwhile, microalgae store various high value-added nutrients and chemical raw materials such as proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, vitamins, and beta-carrots, which could produce high-addition products such as biofuels and health products after purification [92]. Microalgae are also successfully employed to remove various antibiotics from LW. Initially, photobioreactors based on microalgae could remove 95% of doxycycline (DOX) and 93% of OTC from piggy wastewater [93]. In recent years, various studies have a smack at removing hormones and pathogens from LW via microalgae.
Phytoremediation by aquatic plants Aquatic plants have confirmed to be available materials for phytoremediation research, and dissimilar kinds of hydrophytes such as duckweed, water lettuce, water hyacinth, and watermilfoil were widely applied to phytoremediation of LW [10, 16].
7.4 Phytoremediation by constructed wetlands
Biological, physical, and chemical processes interactions between water and substrate, macrophytes, and associated microorganisms are the foundation of erasing pollutants from wastewater in constructed wetlands (CWs) (Figure 6) [98]. Eventually, although wetland plants could widely involve in removing organic matters from LW, research by [99] showed that the elimination performance of that did not alternate considerably in seasons while plants increase became reserved. It may be concluded that the elimination of natural topics from LW special from nutrients, which relies upon at the participation of microorganisms that distribute withinside the rhizosphere of vegetation and substrate of CWs. The organic technique is the important pathway to remove HMs from LW in CWs, and the performance of metals elimination via way of means of CWs varies extensively related to the neighborhood weather conditions, plant species, concentrations, and species of heavy metals [100].
Figure 6.
The main mechanisms of phytoremediation- bioaugmentation process; case of constructed wetland.
In the end, the aerobic condition is more efficient than anaerobic on the biodegradation of antibiotics and hormones, and benefit from this, antibiotics and hormones in LW can be greatly reduced [101]. In order to hold the sustainable improvement of the ecological environment, the usage of aquatic plant life that applied to manipulate LW is rather important. Foremost, macrophytes including duckweed and water hyacinth had been used for farm animals feed because of better degrees of proteins, starches, and celluloses, and accomplished outstanding results.
The phytoremediation is an eco-friendly, maintainable, and hopeful method. Firstly, as compared with conventional organic and physical–chemical methods, phytoremediation is pushed through sun electricity and does now no longer require extra electricity matters, which leads to this manner is decrease cost, much less equipment, and clean to operate [102]. Secondly, the process of phytoremediation is multi-faceted since aquatic plants can absorb substances from wastewater indiscriminately, which results in hydrophytes that can remove nutrients and hazardous chemicals such as heavy metals, antibiotics and hormones concurrently [16, 23].
Furthermore, aquatic plants applied for phytoremediation can use nutrients uptake from wastewater to synthesis a variety of high-value nutrients, so as to achieve the purpose of resource recovery [18, 19, 103].
Besides, aquatic macrophytes are more suitable for wastewater treatment than other terrestrial plants due to their faster growth, production of more biomass and a relative higher ability of pollutant [33]. Further, the success of phytoremediation depends upon a plant’s capacity to tolerate and to accumulate high quantities of the pollutant, while yielding a large plant biomass [104, 105]. Due to their adaptive techniques to extraordinary environmental conditions, aquatic macrophytes can colonize numerous kinds of aquatic ecosystems. These plant life inhabit the littoral zone, wherein they turn out to be crucial additives affecting ecological methods in numerous ways, which includes 3 major categories (outcomes on network structure, the interplay among aquatic organisms, and limnological outcomes) [106].
In natural and man-made filtering systems, macrophytes play an important role in the biochemical processes of water treatment since their presence could exert some positive effects in this environment.
Overgrowth of aquatic macrophytes has a considerable impact on ecosystem processes [107], including constituting oxygen depletion, decreasing the phytoplankton production, interfering with navigation, increasing water pollution, and health hazards by providing an ideal breeding place for mosquitoes larvae and displace more desired species. The efficiency of full scale phytoremediation in natural condition significantly lower than lab-scale researches meanwhile, advantages of this treatment method cause concerning high attention and requests for future environmental cleaning strategies [108].
The cost of phytoremediation is highly variable and there a high correlation between cost of phyto-treatment and contaminant concentration, types, properties of soil and/water, site circumstances and importance of pollutant as a hazardous effect in the food chain. Anyway, phytoremediation is the most cost effective treatment methods with high social acceptance worldwide [109]. The value of decontamination could be growth approximately 7 times, whilst metal factors blended with natural pollutants [110]. Ligand software including glutamate affect reason growing phytoremediation (via the 30 days [111]. It shows that augmentation or modification system via the phytoremediation approach may also make contributions better efficiency, however it must be explored because the value of augmentation and associated environmental impacts [112]. The maximum appealing element of phytoremediation belongs to wastewater remedy and destiny of this software may also alternate the coverage of municipal wastewater remedy withinside the world [29].
In situ treatment method and easy large-scale applicability [113], generally applied in conjunction with other cleanup approaches [114], or augmentation such as adsorbents [115] nutrients, organic amendments [116] for effectively gaining with current environmental pollution. The plants applied to phytoremediation should possess a faster growth rate, high biomass, extensive fiber root system, easy to regulate, high tolerance to pollutants, and easy to cultivate and harvest [117]. On reason of their extraordinary metabolic and extraction capabilities, plants have been given an unparalleled decontamination capacity [12]. Meanwhile, the leaves, roots, and stems of plants provide residences for a variety of microbes, which can heighten the treatment process by synchronous decompose pollutants [12]. Over the past two decades, a fair amount of studies had been invested in the phytoremediation of LW [16].
Any disability, failure unknown reaction might also additionally divert as make a contribution a component to plant species and it additionally might also additionally motive growing dangers of phytoremediation. Literature suggests that infection concentration, toxicity and bioavailability and Plant preference and pressure tolerance are the primary dangers of phytoremediation, which include following tips:
Accumulation of pollutant in fruit and different fit to be eaten elements of crop and vegetables.
So a ways developing of phytoremediator plants (hyperaccumulators).Low biomass manufacturing in phytoremediators, so numerous planting and harvesting required for decontamination [118].
Generally, precise selective specific accumulation of 1 metal detail in hyperaccumulator [119]
Environmental pollution caused by chelate–enhanced phytoremediation [120]
Very slow and seasonally effective treatment method [121]
Handling and disposing contaminated plants through the phytoremediation is the major footprint of this green technology [122].
Mobilization of radionuclides through the translocation in plants [123]
Dissolved contaminant in groundwater are not suitable case for aquatic phytoremediation [125].
Originally, phytoremediation is a slow process that requires numerous hours, and extreme environmental weather conditions could also result in the death of hydrophytes and disturb management efficiency [126].
The plants cannot withstand higher contaminant levels [16]. Meanwhile, a few aquatic plant life with large quantity and quicker uptake price can gather the absorbed toxic and pernicious contaminants withinside the body. Although this will enhance the effluent best of wastewater, it’ll additionally endanger the secondary usage of hydrophytes. Additionally, phytoremediation of wastewater requires a wide range of land, which is inexecutable in some regions, especially in areas with high population density and scarce land resources [127]. Ultimately, how to maintain the long-term effective and sustainable operation of the management systems still faces a variety of challenges.
Remedying technique for decontamination or pollutant elimination from the human surroundings. Advantages and downsides of this approach partially rely on challenge on vegetation as important main organisms via the remedy method, in the meantime maximum of hazards associated with right utility of this ecofriendly surroundings-cleansing technique. In different word, each performance advert blessings of phytoremediation noticeably associated with appropriate operation of remedy method. Combination with different remedy technique as sharpening or submit remedy method, crop plant utility for quicker pollution elimination, transgenic engineered plant species with expert cappotential in pollutant elimination in addition to appropriate utility of hyperaccumulator vegetation species will lead destiny researches to offering a clean image for blessings of this fee powerful technique. Furthermore, eligibility of phytoremediation for municipal wastewater were noticeably showed for destiny imaginative and prescient in wastewater remedy. Cost performance of phytoremediation, optimizing method of remedy and first-class mixture junction with different remedy strategies in phytoremediation has not been completely addressed and might keep in mind as destiny research objectives.
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Written By
Rim Werheni Ammeri, Faiza Souid, Feryell Hajjeji, Saifeddine Eturki and Mohamed Moussa
Submitted: 31 May 2022Reviewed: 11 August 2022Published: 25 October 2022
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
