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With increased consumer knowledge of food safety and quality, there is a strong demand for preservative (synthetic)-free food and the use of natural products as preservatives. Natural antimicrobials derived from various sources are used to keep food safe from spoilage and pathogenic microbes. Plants are the primary source of antimicrobials and include a variety of essential oils that have antimicrobial properties. Many essential oils are found in herbs and spices, such as rosemary, sage, basil, oregano, thyme, cardamom, and clove. These antimicrobial compounds are also used in conjunction with edible coatings to prevent bacteria from growing on the surface of food and food products.
Department of Soil Sciences, Soil Cultivation, Agricultural Research Council Infruitec-Nietvoorbij, South Africa
School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, South Africa
Peter Tshepiso Ndhlovu*
School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, South Africa
Wilfred Otang Mbeng
School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to: tshepsio.ndhlovu@ump.ac.za
1. Introduction
Fresh foods, such as horticulture, seafood, and meat, have a short shelf life and are linked to foodborne disease outbreaks caused by pathogenic microbes. In recent years, much effort has been expended on search for natural antimicrobials that can inhibit fungal, bacterial, and viral growth in food. Simultaneously, the food industry has sought to replace/supplement traditional food preservation techniques, such as heat treatment, acidification, salting, drying, and chemical preservation with newer, less invasive methods (pulsed light, high-pressure, pulsed electric field, ultrasound, oscillating magnetic field, and UV treatments) [1, 2]. The reason for this is that some consumers chose minimally processed foods over processed meals, preferring those with less additives and/or containing natural ingredients [1].
Natural antimicrobials are defined as substances that are naturally occurring and directly derived from biological systems without alteration or modification in a laboratory setting. These can be sourced from a variety of organisms, including algae, fungi, bacteria, and plants. Plant extracts have the advantage of having been consumed by people for thousands of years. In addition to being utilized as antimicrobials, many plants are also used in traditional medicine, functional foods, dietary supplements, and the production of recombinant proteins. Their ability to prevent/regulate the growth of bacteria, particularly pathogenic bacteria (food safety), and to manage natural spoiling processes (food preservation) gives them their function as antimicrobials [3]. The ability of plants to manufacture a number of chemical compounds with complicated structures and antibacterial activity through secondary metabolism has been linked to their potential antimicrobial qualities. These antimicrobial substances are created naturally by plants to strengthen their defense mechanisms in challenging environments [4, 5]. Plants produce phytochemicals to protect themselves from bacteria, fungi, and viruses, but they also prevent foods from going stale [6]. There has been a surge in interest in employing natural preservatives in food products. Natural preservatives boost human health by protecting against disease [1]. Approximately 1340 plants have been identified as possible sources of antioxidant and antibacterial components [7], while over 250,000 plant species contain a diverse range of bioactive components. Plant extracts are designated as “aromatic and flavoring compounds,” which comprise “all natural products and corresponding synthetic products,” and can be taken by any animal species with no restrictions on product dose. Due to their widespread public acceptance, these products stand to replace synthetic preservatives in future, and the quest for novel compounds is a vital area of research in the field of food additives. All of this has led to the use of natural preservative substances, which are either directly added to food products or ingested by the source species.
Herbs and spices are examples of natural chemicals that are employed as food preservatives because they contain components with strong antioxidant and antibacterial capabilities [8]. Plant extracts have been utilized for centuries to enhance the organoleptic qualities of food. In addition, Chipault [9] and Chipault, Mizuno [10] articulated plant extracts have preservation characteristics in various types of spices, and there is already a wealth of knowledge about the chemicals and mechanisms involved in lipid peroxidation inhibition. They are GRAS (generally recognized as safe), which means that consumers and regulatory authorities perceive them to be more appropriate for use in food than manufactured substances. Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) are two examples of synthetic preservatives that have been employed in the food business for many years. However, there is a lot of evidence that these substances are potentially carcinogenic, so there is a lot of interest in alternative products that safeguard against oxidation but are more natural [11, 12].
Plant materials from the Labiatae family have been extensively researched for their preservation characteristics [13]. In addition to antibacterial and antioxidant action, natural extracts contain immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic, and sedative properties. Because their individual activities are substantially lower than their combined activity, natural extracts frequently owe their biological activity to the synergism between their numerous components. The toxicity of extracts is thought to be lower when all of their components are present rather than when they are purified, a process known as buffering. As previously stated, food companies are increasingly interested in incorporating natural antioxidants and antimicrobials into food in response to consumer demand for safer and more natural foods and their rejection of synthetic antioxidants, which are being reassessed for the potential toxicity and carcinogenicity of the components formed during their degradation. Several studies have been conducted over the last decade to identify natural compounds capable of suppressing lipid auto-oxidation events in meat products and precooked meats after being added during processing procedures [14, 15]. Origanum vulgaris, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Thymus vulgaris have received special attention due to their high antioxidant activity [16]. However, it is important to remember that the efficiency of plant extracts is dependent on the type of substrate on which they operate [16] as well as the provided dose. Plant-derived antioxidants, on average, exhibit prooxidant activity at low doses and antioxidant activity above a critical concentration [16]. Plants’ putative antibacterial effects have been linked to their ability to create various chemical compounds with complicated structures through secondary metabolism. These antibacterial components are naturally created to help a plant’s defense system during harsh situations [4, 5]. This study provides an overview of the current state of knowledge and recent advances in the use of plant-derived compounds generated from herbs and spices as antimicrobials in foods, as well as their potential and problems.
Spices and herbs are classified into numerous categories based on their flavor and color, such as mild (paprika and coriander), strong (mustard, chilies, cayenne pepper, and black and white peppers), aromatic spices (cinnamon, cumin, nutmeg, clove, dill fennel, and mace), and aromatic herbs (basil, bay leaf, marjoram, thyme, garlic, shallot, and onion). Based on their color (turmeric) and herbaceous (rosemary and sage) or taste (bitter, sweet, sour, spicy, and sharp) (Figure 1) [19].
Antioxidants are compounds that prevent or delay the initiation of oxidation. Because of safety concerns regarding synthetic antioxidants, natural antioxidants are becoming increasingly popular. Furthermore, people are becoming more interested in natural products and less ingredients in food products [19]. Flavonoids, coumarins, carotenoids, curcumins, saponins, lignans, polyphenolics, terpenoids, sulfides, phthalides, and plant sterols are all found in herbs and spices. The most powerful antioxidants found in herbs and spices are phenolic compounds, which have at least two hydroxylic groups in the ortho or para orientations, such as caffeic acid. These compounds have been employed as antioxidants in the form of herbs, ground spices and extracts, capsules, or emulsions [19, 20]. The antioxidants contained in herbs and spices can be classed based on their chemical structure. Flavonoids, phenolic acids, catechins, volatile phenols, phenolic diterpenes, polyalkoxybenzenes, ligans, sulfuric compounds, and ascorbic acid are the primary families of chemicals [19].
More than 6000 flavonoids have been recognized as ubiquitous in photosynthesizing cells, and they are frequently found in vegetables, fruits, nuts, stems, seeds, flowers, tea, wine, propolis, and honey [21]. Plants use phenolic compounds to defend themselves, build structures and attract pollinators and seed-dispersing animals. Plants produce these compounds to protect themselves from UV radiation and to adapt to their surroundings [19]. Flavonoids may also be beneficial in the human body, treating conditions, such as flu and colds (due to their antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal activity), cancer (particularly lycopene and quercetin), allergies (quercetin), cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. It may also function as a preventative strategy against eye diseases (cataracts and macular degeneration) (anthocyanins and lycopene), and in protecting the eye from the harmful effects of UV radiation (lutein and zeaxanthin) [22]. Some flavonoid metabolites, such as sulfates, omethylated, and glucuronides, may participate directly in plasma antioxidant activities by scavenging reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in the bloodstream [23]. Common antioxidants that occur in herbs and spices are presented in Table 1.
Herbs and spices have long been used in cooking as functional food additives. One of their applications could be to assist reduce the fat, sugar content, and salt in food products. Instead of salt, use marjoram, bay leaves, thyme, basil, tarragon, coriander, lovage, or rosemary. Furthermore, several herbs and spices are high in vitamins, including A, B, K, E, D, C (particularly dill and parsley), B, and PP (especially in onion). Additional substances present in herbs and spices, such as micro- and macroelements, also play an essential role. These bioelements regulate osmotic pressure and are a component of or influence the action of numerous enzymes, acting directly or indirectly in a variety of biochemical activities and so performing a function [25]. Food poisoning is a significant issue that has an impact on both consumers and food producers. Spices and herbs can also be used to stop undesirable microorganisms from growing in meals. Food producers are always worried about the rise in illness outbreaks brought on by pathogenic and spoilage bacteria in food. Furthermore, antibiotic overuse has resulted in the development of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria involved with foodborne diseases. However, as public understanding of manufacturing methods grows, many consumers refuse to purchase goods containing synthetic preservatives. As a result, there is a growing concern about the creation of novel forms of effective and benign natural antibacterial substances for food preservation, such as extracts of herbs and spices [26]. Because of their antibacterial action, herbs and spices can be employed as natural agents in the food business to extend the shelf life of foods. A variety of antimicrobials derived from plants and spices are used to inhibit or eliminate harmful bacteria and improve the overall quality of food products [3]. There are over 1340 plants that have antibacterial chemicals that have been identified. Antibacterial action is notably strong in vanillin, lemongrass, sage, oregano, cloves, cinnamon, garlic, parsley, coriander, and rosemary [3]. Some herbs and spices, such as peppermint, thyme, red pepper, clove, oregano, fennel, ginger, parsley, coriander, sage, rosemary, common balm, black pepper, marjoram, summer savory, basil, nutmeg, spearmint, cumin, and cinnamon, are added to lipid-containing dishes.
Oxidative rancidity, a major cause of food deterioration, causes food to deteriorate and finally be rejected by consumers as a result of the formation of unwanted odors and off-flavors or color degradation [19]. Furthermore, herbs and spices have been used for generations not just to preserve foods and beverages, but also to keep the color, flavor, and aroma of food products [19]. Plant essential oils can also be employed as additives in biodegradable films and coatings to improve shelf life and add value to products [27, 28]. The inclusion of essential oils has a favorable effect on the polymer matrix’s continuity, resulting in physical modifications based on the specific polymer-oil component interactions. The oil thus weakens the film structure while improving the water barrier characteristics and decreasing transparency. Essential oil-infused films offer antioxidant and antibacterial effects [27]. Some food products can also be preserved using alginate-based edible films containing bioactive components. They can be used as nanoemulsions because of their poor water solubility, which improves water dispersion and protects active components from degradation [29].
Yogurt’s health benefits are well known, and many yogurt-based products are consumed by people all over the world [30]. Behrad, Yusof [31] concluded that adding cinnamon did not alter yogurt fermentation but allowed Lactobacillus spp. to thrive during refrigerated storage. In vitro, cinnamon yogurt containing probiotic bacteria inhibited Helicobacter pylori development. The ability of these herbal yogurts to inhibit the growth of H. pylori in the stomach’s, severely acidic environment requires more investigation [32]. Srivastava, Prasad [33] created herbal yogurt from buffalo, cow, and goat milk using varied ratios of beetroot and ginger extracts. They discovered that goat milk yogurt supplemented with 2% beetroot and 2% ginger extract had the highest antioxidant activity evaluated by the DPPH technique, followed by cow milk yogurt fortified with 2% ginger extract. Furthermore, Peter and Shylaja [17] discovered that fortifying milk and yogurt with 2% red ginseng extract increased oxygen radical absorption capacity and (DPPH) radical-scavenging activity. Furthermore, H2O2-induced DNA damage was reduced in yogurt enriched with red ginseng extract than in regular yogurt. However, no significant variations in DNA damage were identified between regular milk and milk supplemented with red ginseng extract. As a result, our study demonstrates that red ginseng fortification can effectively promote the antioxidant and antigenotoxic effects of dairy products. Kumar, Arvindakshan [34] made yogurt concentrate with crushed leaves mint in ratios of 2, 4, and 6%. They discovered that adding 2% mint level to yogurt was excellent in all sensory aspects. Furthermore, the shelf life of the yogurt spread at 5°C was 10 days. It was suggested that the mint-flavored yogurt be used in burgers, sandwiches, and other bakery items. Ghalem and Zouaoui [35] also supplemented yogurt with Rosmarinus officinalis oil at 0.14, 0.21, 0.29, and 0.36 g/L over 21 days. The herbal yoghurt enhanced with 0.14 g/L essential oil received the highest grade from panelists for taste, flavor, and texture. Furthermore, the inclusion of R. officinalis essential oil enhanced the properties. Furthermore, the use of R. officinalis essential oil improved the characteristics of yogurt by decreasing the pH, lactose, and dry matter values while increasing the titratable acidity, proteins, ash, and fat contents. Storage duration showed little effect on the physicochemical parameters of prepared yogurts in genera [35].
Najgebauer-Lejko, Grega [36] investigated the storage stability of sour cream butter with a 2% addition of dried herbs (sage or rosemary). They concluded that the addition of rosemary herb was more effective than sage in delaying lipolysis in butter, both supplemented products showed higher oxidative stability through storage than the control. TBA analysis revealed that the sage and rosemary butter had much less secondary oxidative compounds, such as malonoaldehyde and ketones, than the butter without herbs. Furthermore, Farag, Ali [37] reported that the addition of thyme and cumin essential oils to butter reduced degradation and was more effective than butylated hydroxytoluene.
C. cyminum is a spice that has long been used as an antiseptic, and it shows powerful antibacterial action in humans against a variety of bacteria, and pathogenic and nonpathogenic fungi [38]. The basic chemical components of cumin essential oil are cuminaldehyde, b-pinene, p-cymene, and g-terpinene [39, 40]. Cuminaldehyde, the main constituent of cumin essential oil, possesses antimicrobial properties [39]. Cumin alcoholic extract has been shown to inhibit Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as well as have outstanding antimicrobial activity against Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Pseudomonas oleovorans, B. subtilis, S. cerevisiae, Trichophyton rubrum, and Bacillus licheniformis [41]. When the aldehyde fraction of cumin oil containing the antibacterial chemical component cuminaldehyde was examined, it inhibited Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger by more than 90% [42, 43].
8. Eugenia caryophyllata is used as a preservative
E. caryophyllata is a familiar spice used for culinary purposes all over the world, but it also has unique qualities that make it a potential preservative. The major constituents of clove essential oil are beta-caryophyllene and eugenol, both of which have antibacterial activity against Listeria monocytogenes, E. coli, Campylobacter jejuni, S. aureus, and Salmonella enterica [44]. E. caryophyllata has essential oil that includes a high concentration of eugenol (about 88.58%) and has been demonstrated to have antimicrobial properties. E. caryophyllata oil treatment at 1–2% concentrations slowed the development of L. monocytogenes strains [45]. With a MIC of 39 mg/mL, clove plant leaf oil inhibits Bacillus cereus [46]. The sensitivity of different bacterial strains to clove essential oil was investigated, and the maximum level of sensitivity was discovered against five strains of Staphylococcus epidermidis with inhibition zones greater than 16 mm. E. caryophyllata has essential oil that includes a high concentration of eugenol (about 88.58%) and has been demonstrated to have antimicrobial properties. E. caryophyllata oil treatment at 1–2% concentrations slowed the development of L. monocytogenes strains has antifungal activity, and chemical components including carvacrol and eugenol have been proven to be antifungal against and Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Candida albicans [47]. Eugenol is the primary chemical component in clove that has antioxidant qualities. The primary antioxidant activity mechanisms are radical scavenging and metal ion chelation, and eugenol participates in photochemical reactions with strong antioxidant activity [48]. Clove essential oil has been shown to have chelating properties, resulting in the suppression of hydroxyl radicals due to eugenol in clove oil [49].
C. verum is used as a preservative due to its antimicrobial and antibacterial qualities, which can inhibit the growth of bacteria, particularly gram-positive bacteria. Cinnamon oil contains a variety of chemicals, the most notable of which are cynammyldehyde, cynammyl alcohol, and eugenol [50]. C. verum was examined for antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, and it showed the ability to suppress S. aureus growth with an optimum inhibitory effort of 0.09%. This discovery is mostly connected to cynammyldehyde, a chemical component found in C. verum [51]. Cinnamaldehyde can be used to prevent bacterial growth by inhibiting cell wall formation, cell membrane function, protein synthesis, or nucleic acid synthesis [51].
P. nigrum is an Indian spice whose volatile oil has been shown to have antibacterial properties [52]. The phenolic chemicals in black pepper are thought to be responsible for antibacterial activity by destroying bacterium membranes and preventing their development [53]. This essential oil was extracted using acetone and has been proven to be effective in preventing the mycelial growth of fungi, such as Penicillium viridicatum and Fusarium graminearum [54]. P. nigrum has been shown to have antibacterial activity, with reported minimum inhibitory concentrations of around 50–500 ppm inhibiting the growth of gram-positive bacteria, such as Streptococcus faecalis, B. cereus, and S. aureus, as well as some gram-negative bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa [53].
11. Rosmarinus officinalis is used as a preservative
R. officinalis has been demonstrated to have preservation capabilities for usage in food, as its antioxidant activity has been studied in pork products, such as patties [55]. The antioxidant properties of rosemary have been attributed to a variety of phenolic compounds found in this spice, including carnosol, carnosic acid, rosmanol, rosmarinic acid, and tosemaridiphenol [56]. The most abundant compound in R. officinalis is carnosic acid, which is followed by other phenolic compounds, such as carnosol. The chemical elements of R. officinalis are classified into three groups: phenolic diterpenes with abietic acid structure, flavonoids, and phenolic acids [57]. Carnosic acid, which has a strong antioxidant activity, is primarily responsible for R. officinalis preservation advantages. This carnosic acid’s antioxidant activity was compared to that of butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), and tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ), and the results showed that this acid was more antioxidant than BHT and BHA. One of R. officinalis key active chemicals, carnosic acid, is generated from isopentenyl diphosphate via methylerythritol phosphate and is present as carnosol in chloroplasts and intracellular membranes [57]. R. officinalis has been compared to several chemical preservatives and antioxidant chemicals, with efficiency comparable to currently used preservatives, showing that rosemary can be used as a natural green alternative to some chemical antioxidants with comparable effects. Because it lacks the strong flavor of other spices, such as C. verum, R. officinalis, P. nigrum, and Zingiber officinale, it can be used as a natural antioxidant in a number of dishes. As a result, employing rosemary as an antioxidant will not have any negative effects on the organoleptic properties of foods.
12. Zingiber officinale is used as a preservative
Z. officinale is a well-known spice that contains polyphenolic compounds such as 6-gingerol and its derivatives. These chemical constituents make ginger a powerful antioxidant [58]. Fresh ginger is high in proteins, fiber, water, lipids, minerals, and carbohydrates, such as calcium and iron [59]. Z. officinale CO2 extracts have been demonstrated to have high polyphenol content and to operate better as an antioxidant preservative early in the fat oxidation process. Z. officinale exhibits antioxidant activity comparable to BHT, a chemical antioxidant that suppresses peroxidation at temperatures ranging from 37 to 80% [59]. Z. officinale has been shown to inhibit the growth of colon bacteria as well as other pathogens, such as Salmonella, E. coli, Staphylococci, Proteus sp, and Streptococci [60, 61, 62]. Z. officinale has antifungal activity against a variety of fungi, including Aspergillus [63]. The phenolic compounds in ginger work as denaturing agents, preventing microbial growth by modifying cell permeability and causing bacterial cells to shatter. Most phenolic compounds are metal chelators that bind to active sites of metabolic enzymes, limiting enzyme activity as well as bacterial metabolism and reproduction [64]. Ginger extracts at 0.4 mg/mL have been proven in tests to be more effective than commercial antibiotics, such as gentamicin against Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris, Streptococcus pyogenes, and S. aureus [65].
13. Curry is used as a preservative
Curry is a common spice found in cooking. It originated in India and has since gained popularity throughout the world because of its distinctive flavor and aroma [66]. Curry has been shown to have powerful antimicrobial effects. Antimicrobial tests with coumarin extracts in petroleum ether and chloroform demonstrated considerable antibacterial and antifungal action. Curry chloroform extract has shown good inhibitory efficacy against A. niger and P. aeruginosa [67]. Curry is high in carbazole alkaloids and coumarins, both of which have antimicrobial qualities. Curry compounds have been found to have minimal inhibitory values ranging from 3.13 to 100 mg/mL [68].
The antibacterial activity of curry extracts is proportional to the concentration used, and growth inhibition has been seen against P. aeruginosa, E. coli, and B. subtilis, with a lower minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) than S. aureus and Micrococcus luteus. According to these findings, E. coli is the most resistant bacteria, and higher spice doses are required to halt it [67]. Curry’s antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic properties have been demonstrated. The use of curry as a natural antibacterial food preservative and a detoxifying agent during the food preservation process has been studied [69]. Because of these features, curry has established itself as an important natural preservative with an enormous potential for replacing other types of non-natural preservatives. Whole spices can be used as preservatives on their own, but their essential oils can be isolated and evaluated for quality. Spice essential oils are homogeneous mixtures of organic chemical molecules belonging to the same chemical family, such as sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, and terpenoids.
14. Conclusions and future outlook
Herbs and spices are used for a variety of purposes, including flavoring, coloring, medicinal, and preservation purposes, and their trading is a substantial economic activity globally. Certain popular spices have created a significant demand for certain popular spices all over the world, making spices a research and economic benefit niche. Several spices have been demonstrated to inhibit the growth of some of the most common bacteria in food, such as E. coli, Salmonella, and L. monocytogenes. Thus, while spices can be used as preservatives, it is necessary to demonstrate their antimicrobial effect on various foods, such as dairy products, fruit, meat, vegetables, and poultry, to ensure a preservative effect comparable to the conventional synthetic preservative effect for each food before settling on the use of spices as preservatives for industrial or commercial purposes. Although whole spices and essential oils have been shown to have good antibacterial activity, their use is still under discussion because it can be expensive to purify them without necessarily increasing the effectiveness of their antimicrobial or antioxidant activity. Because whole spices possess these properties, they can be employed as natural preservatives in the food industry. Finally, some spices’ antibacterial and antioxidant properties, such as turmeric, black pepper, clove, nutmeg, turmeric, cumin, and cinnamon, have created a research field in which they can be employed as food preservatives. For example, spices used in foods, such as meats, have a high likelihood of success and potential antimicrobial activity comparable to that of currently used nitrite-based preservatives, which have been claimed to have negative health effects, allowing researchers to investigate a method to replace chemical-based preservatives with natural-based ones for food preservation.
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Written By
Madonna Ngwatshipane Mashabela, Peter Tshepiso Ndhlovu and Wilfred Otang Mbeng
Submitted: 16 August 2022Reviewed: 16 September 2022Published: 01 December 2022
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
