A Stakeholder’s Participation Process to Combat Water Hyacinth in Eastern Africa: The Case of Lake Tana

Abstract

Alien species are a challenge to developing countries in Africa. Ethiopia is the most affected. Lake Tana is diseased with weeds. The study aimed to analyze how stakeholders participated in the campaign and mobilized against water hyacinth. Professionals promoted, advocated and combated the challenges through different scenarios. A qualitative design was selected to obtain data through cross-sectional online web-based scientific documents. Data were analyzed using analytical discussions. The length of shoreline infested by the weed has increased alarmingly and is a major cause of the loss of biodiversity in the lake. However, the multifaceted efforts to save Tana are the greatest endeavor to protect it against the water hyacinth. The efforts are opportunities to undermine the enlargement of the weeds in and out of the lake. The finding indicates the identification of the water hyacinth problem was delayed. The findings show that most of the campaigns are not based on participatory planning. Participation was not well institutionalized in Ethiopia. The stakeholders’ role in environmental management was limited, and minimal attention was given. Inclusive planning and community-based management are indispensable to combating water hyacinth. The planning and participation of the campaign should be prolonged and repeatedly used to eradicate alien species.

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

Literature has been reported that invasive alien species are a major global challenge requiring urgent action as they are considered as one of the major problems in the world’s biodiversity. The species were reported to alter ecosystem services, reduce species richness and abundance, and decrease genetic diversity of the habitats. In addition, they also cause substantial economic losses.

This chapter describes an alien species in Eastern Africa with special reference to water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). The focus of this chapter is on how people of the local community members communicate, interact, and manage among themselves to solve the problems. Community problems could be solved by the local community but requires support from different stakeholders [1]. It has also relied on how stakeholders, at the grassroots level, can articulate their views, needs, interests, and actions to the district, regional, national, and international level [2]. In addition, the practice of the stakeholders in this context could be considered. In the context of the practice, the stakeholders who had participated in the removal of water hyacinth (E. crassipes), alien species, in Lake Tana are critically considered in the chapter. In the water ecosystem, the availability of water weed at Lake Tana was discovered by Ayalew Wonde, who is a Bahir Dar University colleague [3]. Researchers, journalists, environmentalists, individuals, and practitioners in environmental protection have also begun promoting, in different media, the serious problem of Lake Tana and its basin based on deliberative motives. A deliberative motive is that stakeholders make decisions on their own minds without any communication with others. It is difficult to tackle this problem in isolation from each other. The campaign started through media, and stakeholders mobilized to physically remove the water hyacinth. Besides, fundraising events were conducted through social media by some stakeholders from abroad. The funders bought machine to remove water hyacinth. Moreover, youths came and joined the campaign from different areas.

Weed expansion in the Lake is becoming worse. It has risks on the ecosystem. In addition, the release of untreated wastewater from industries around the lake adds to the deterioration of the lake’s ecosystem. Several aggravating factors identified a widespread of the weed in Lake Tana. Pollutants that originated out of farming as well as urban sites were the primary sources. Scholars confirmed that there were extensive agricultural activities at water basin of the lake in its surrounding districts, which rushed out and drained used pesticides and fertilizers to the buffer zone where the weed received nutrients for growing. A water hyacinth is difficult to eradicate, but aquatic wetland researchers indicated its removal through chemical spraying and biological control methods.

Recently, the challenge of the hyacinth infestation was the driving force that motivated the stakeholders to participate in the campaign. However, it was not institutionalized. The stakeholders’ participation could be institutionalized [4]. The local and state government, politicians, academicians, and researchers assisted in disseminating information regarding water hyacinth. It will take a concerted effort by many stakeholders and other participants. As a result, different media, government organizations, NGOs, donors, civil organizations, and partners were involved in the campaign, to save Lake Tana in the year 2017 and 2018. Attempts of removing water hyacinth by machine failed during 2019. Research indicates that “the area covered by water hyacinth was increasing significantly” [5]. Specifically, the stakeholders from the lake’s neighboring region have been directing their efforts to preserve Lake Tana. To ensure participation, genuine participatory communication is a basic tool. However, the major drawback of the campaigns was that it was not based on strategic planning. Hence, communication is not participatory and genuine. In general, the multifaceted efforts to save Lake Tana are the highest endeavor to protect it from the invasive water hyacinth in the north-eastern part of Ethiopia. However, stakeholders’ participation has not been well institutionalized in Ethiopia, and as a result, the stakeholders’ role in environmental management is limited. The major idea is that the identification of the water hyacinth challenge was delayed, and no more attention was given to involving stakeholders. In Ethiopia, policies of environmental protection, development, and climate change are aimed at presenting key environmental and developmental sustainability challenges and opportunities. Both issues are linked to poverty reduction and socioeconomic development in the era of sustainable development. The main aim of this research is to analyze how stakeholders are participating in the campaign of fighting water hyacinth on Lake Tana. Accordingly, the study seeks to answer the following two questions: Q1: How do the stakeholders participate to solve the challenge of water hyacinth in Lake Tana? Q2: What are the roles community members play in the planning and implementation of programs of water hyacinth?

Any global research activities with regard to environmental issues can support current global environmental challenges, climate change, and developmental problems. It can contribute and provide information for intervention to different parts of the society. It was enabled to strengthen the participation and decision-making in environmental management [6]. Moreover, the results could bridge and enhance the existing gap of lake issues among different stakeholders in the country. Besides, it provides practical experiences for the teaching-learning process, research, and community services. This research, then, is an initial step and part of future academic discourses. Above all, the findings provide credibility and integrity among the stakeholders [7]. In summary, the research findings will be employed as resources in research, community services, teaching-learning processes, scientific communities, varied organizations, and stakeholders, as well as program and policy formulations and potential sources of public dialog.

1.2 Description of the study area

Lake Tana is the first largest in Ethiopia and the second largest among the African lakes. Owing to its rich biodiversity and significant cultural heritage, UNESCO recorded it as the World Network of Biosphere Reserves in June 2015 [8]. Lake Tana accounts 50% of the freshwater of Ethiopia. The lake has 3111 km² surface area, 284 km3 volume, 90 km length, and 65 km width. The Blue Nile River flows from Lake Tana, and it is the source of the Blue Nile River. There are 37 islands in the lake. They are ancient and artistic monasteries. They provide esthetic beauty with their historical, cultural, religious, and tourism values. The communities are dependent on untreated water for drinking, cattle watering, fishing, irrigation, and recreation. Besides, Lake Tana has been providing ecosystem services through fishing, water supplying, transporting, electric power supplying, water irrigation, heritage/religious practices, ecological diversity, tourism, a breath for Bahir Dar residents, livelihood for a marginalized ethnic group (Negede Woyto), mining (sand), and wetland products. However, according to [9], the Lake Tana basin suffers from:

land, soil, and water degradation which are manifested in different forms such as sedimentation, clearing of wetland, canalization of the tributaries, increased trend of eutrophication, toxigenic cyanobacteria, occurrence of invasive species like water hyacinth, stakeholders’ conflict, improper damming, construction of buildings in the lake shore areas that are natural breeding and feeding grounds for some fish and bird species, poor waste management, and an increased prevalence of water-borne diseases.

Even if these problems persist, the Tana basin has been connecting about 2 million inhabitants, the majority of whom depended on agriculture, while the two largest cities (Bahir Dar and Gondar) in the Amhara regional state are found within the lake basin [10]. The Bahir Dar city is found on the lake shore. The Lake monasteries including Bahir Dar are among the highest tourist destinations [11] found in Amhara regional state and Ethiopia.

2. Methodology

2.1 Approach

Qualitative research is a type of scientific research approach to obtain information regarding awareness, knowledge, skills, occurrence, process, actions, experiences, behaviors, and social contexts of a particular population [12]. An in-depth description, accounts, opinions, and feelings were emphasized to make reiteration and interpretation easier. In-depth description is the hallmark of qualitative research [12, 13, 14]. A qualitative research approach has to be determined in terms of orientation uses and inductive approaches to generate theories [15]. It is “concerned with life as it is lived, things as they happen, and situations as they are constructed in the day-to-day, moment-to-moment course of events” [16]. Qualitative researchers study people within naturally occurring settings to describe, explore, and possibly explain lived experiences. In this regard, deep familiarity of the scene and people inside it are desirable components of the study. Hence, deep digging and involvement in the natural setting are crucial. Natural settings, meanings, processes, perspectives, and understandings were the focus of this qualitative research [16, 17].

The settings are the natural open system wherein stakeholders interact within and ongoing changes maintained. Therefore, the settings and things inside are in a state of change—they are not static. Environmental context and situations are very important to qualitative research [18]. To understand this phenomenon, a case study design was selected.

2.2 Case study

A qualitative research methodology dependent on the topic, aims, intentions, philosophy, researcher competence, purpose of the enquiry, and the availability of the resources. Some scholars also emphasize that accessibility of issues can determine methodological choices [19]. Therefore, this study primarily focuses on case studies. This enquiry is followed with intensive investigations of a study subject in its natural settings.

Case studies are described as a common way to conduct qualitative research. In addition, case studies are able to illustrate the type of study. Case study is a “methodological approach” [20] that uses different data-gathering measures. Data gathering takes a holistic, analytic, entirely by repeated measures to get valid data [17, 18, 21]. A study considered data from diverse sources and triangulated to gain an in-depth understanding of the study. In addition, case study research works on an intensive and holistic investigation that uses voracious sources of evidence as of a single phenomenon within its social context [19].

It used different data collection methods and data analysis techniques to enrich the study with different perspectives. Case studies provide an analysis of the relationship between a challenge and a solution and the cause-effect relationship [20, 22, 23, 24]. A case study is “…ideally suited to the needs and resources of the small-scale researcher and used to illustrate problems or indicate good practices” [23]. Therefore, a case study starts with an introduction the analysis of a situation.

In addition, a case study is a systematic and intensive examination, gathering, or investigation of information using multiple sources, which considers comprehensive investigation of social unit under the study [17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24]. It considers [24] the role and functions in the case of stakeholder participants, media, and communicators. In addition, the case study “investigates and reports the complex dynamic and unfolding interactions of events, human-environment relationships and other factors in unique instances” [24]. Thus, careful observation of each unit is very important. From the case data, generalizations and inference are drawn [17, 21, 22, 23, 24]. Case studies for letting incidents and circumstances speak for themselves [24]. Therefore, a case study is a systematic and rigorous field research technique.

Case design types are exploratory case study. These may consider single or multiple cases [17, 20, 22, 23, 24]. The multiple cases are actual replication but not sampled. In addition, there are three stages to write up case studies: research, analysis, and the actual writing. The researcher repeats to gather additional information after the writing had started. Therefore, convince sampling strategy is appropriate for this study that ensures the availability and accessibility of data. The sampling strategy should aim at an unbiased selection of stations, contexts, or situations where the relevant encounters, transactions, processes, experiences, or behavioral responses are likely to be found with acceptable frequency [12].

2.3 Collecting data

Qualitative researchers seek data that represent personal and lived experiences in particular situations and contexts [18, 25]. According to Stake, to study the case researchers gather data all at once. Therefore, three most common qualitative methods of collecting data were used for this research. These were in-depth interviews, observations, and documents [20, 23, 24, 26]. The majority of the data were collected using documents. The secondary sources were written, video, and photographic sources that interpret or record [13]. Each and every study project used and analyzed documents. The researcher used different documented and archived resources [23]. In addition, [27] organizational manuals, educative documents, federal regulation, meeting hand-outs, policy documents, and environment impact assessments were considered in the current research. Thus, documents were considered valuable methodological tools. Media sources were also important to elicit data. Observation was a technique that is used to elicit primary data. In this procedure [12], reflection, observation, and analysis were repeated throughout the research process until the theoretical and conceptual formulations exhausted through the available data.

2.4 Data analysis

This study employed analytical discussions based on the emerging themes from the collected data. Qualitative analysis was dependent on the researcher’s analytical and integrative skills and personal knowledge, as well as experience of the social context where the data were collected. Qualitative research findings were constituted through the subjects’ categories of meaning and experience. The emphasis in qualitative analysis is “sense-making” or understanding a phenomenon, rather than predicting or exploring [25]. Qualitative analysis was organized on key ideas. Coding helped researcher to rearrange and organize data. Coding was analytical. It requires researchers to review, select, interpret, and summarize the data. It provided a first step in conceptualization of a phenomenon [13]. With qualitative studies, there was usually a constant interplay between collection and analysis that produced a gradual growth of understanding.

3. Theoretical framework

3.1 Stakeholders’ participation

The term stakeholders can be used as public interchangeably. This article predominantly uses stakeholders in lieu of using the word public. In this regard, this theoretical part notes some concepts of stakeholders’ participation by defining the concept and identifying the benefits of participation. It also considers some concepts of stakeholders’ involvement and discusses their participation level. In addition, the discussion also considers the incorporation of stakeholders’ interest in environmental law. This research explores how citizens are involved in quality environmental decision-making with regard to sustainable development [6]. It strives to understand the extent to which stakeholders’ participation in environmental issues occurs in the decision-making process, particularly in cases involving stakeholders in using any channels of environmental communication so that they can empower themselves. Allowing citizens to comment to decisions that have already been made is very different from inviting individuals to contribute knowledge about how a policy will affect their community from the beginning of a decision-making process [27]. Stakeholders’ participation in policy decision involves two dimensions [27] including the extent of decentralization of power and the participant interaction. On the one hand, a pseudo-participation approach to participatory communication practices is often adopted for the purpose of appearing to be actively involved citizens. On the other hand, full participation requires every member of the community a vested power to determine the result of decision-making. Ultimately, stakeholders’ participation is an input for decision-makers [28] and incorporates different aspects, such as a provision of information, filling information gaps, problem-solving, social learning and information contestability, empowering marginalized groups. Democratic practice and capacity are also noted. Stakeholders’ participation consists of three overlapping issues [29] including information dissemination, consultation, and stakeholder participation.

The term stakeholders can be used instead of the public. The stakeholders are those who are directly or indirectly concerned about the environmental issues. Different scholars define stakeholders’ participation in the context of environmental decision-making. They define stakeholders’ participation in terms of involvement of all parties (stakeholders) who may have an interest and/or are affected in both environmental and development decision-making at all levels [27, 30, 31]. Stakeholder participation is a technique used to include stakeholders’ values, needs, and concerns in commercial and governmental decision-making. It entails participation and two-way communication, with the end goal being to reach conclusions that the stakeholders will support. The Planning Commission indicated the importance of stakeholders’ participations to empower them. To make an effective stakeholder participation in the planning level, interested and affected individuals, organizations, agencies, and government entities are consulted, collaborated with, and included in the decision-making process to bring their empowerments and legitimacy [29]. Planning is also an organized process to involve stakeholders.

3.2 Benefit of stakeholders’ participation

Broad stakeholder participation is indispensable part of democratic response of responsible governance. Besides, it is mandatory to achieve sustainable development through responsive and curious management of environmental challenges. It creates opportunities for the democratic exchange of ideas, transparency, mutual learning, and informed and representative decision-making processes. Stakeholders’ participation in environmental agendas and issues could have different benefits. First, it strengthening democratic approach and practice through engaging the stakeholders in the impact assessment of environmental and other processes as stakeholders have been encouraged to use their democratic rights. Second, it has increasing accountability. Stakeholders have been contributing to healthy social, economic, and environmental impacts of the development process. It also shows how the risks and hazards could affect different parts of the society. Third, it can improve process quality. Meaningful participation could allow stakeholders to be well informed of different concerns and engagements about the implementation of policies at the grassroots level [32]. Fourth, it manages social and environmental conflicts. Stakeholders can alleviate social and environmental conflicts by engaging stakeholders to assess the impacts of environmental activities and policies. Fifth, it safeguards against externalities. Active stakeholders’ participation can identify environmental and other externalities that might otherwise be overlooked. By paying attention to, for instance, the impact assessment of environmental processes in advance, stakeholders’ scrutiny can prevent future problems from arising. Finally, it enhances process legitimacy. Meaningful stakeholders’ participation in the impact assessment of environmental policy and international environment agreements will legitimize the quality of decision-making process and reduce the level of conflict [30]. Without significant stakeholders’ participation, citizens may feel manipulated and suspicious, which undermines an effective dialog and can create distrust.

3.3 Principles and types of participation

The idea of stakeholders’ participation principle is considered according to the pillars of the Aarhus Convention [33] that includes access to information vital for stakeholders’ participation. It is an engagement in designing, decision-making process, and access to justice [34]. The World Bank listed out the types of stakeholders’ participation such as information sharing, consultation, collaboration, and empowerment. The former two are the low-level forms of participation, while the latter two are considered high-level forms. These types are consistent with other forms of participation by [35], which include passive participation, consultation, functional participation, empowerment on which stakeholders have an equal influence on the decision-making process.

3.4 Participatory communication

Participation of the stakeholders uses a recently developed approach of communication, which is known as participatory communication. What is participatory communication? [34]. The World Bank came up with the working definitions as participatory communication that provides a platform the voices to be heard by and allows for the genuine participation of the targeted audiences by the aim of addressing their challenges and transformational power. As stated above, it is merely a deliberative action of the stakeholders. There was no institutional responsibility at the time of the public campaign. Therefore, participation for action is the motive of the stakeholders.

Participatory communication will contribute to the formulation of communication strategies that can enhance dynamic, engaging, and sustainable change processes. The focus of participatory communication is on dialogical communication rather than on linear communication. The emphasis is on participatory and collective processes in research, problem identification, decision-making, implementation, and evaluation of change. The participatory approaches to communication have reinforced the emphasis on structural and social change. Participation entails that the communities are part of the development process and initiatives, and it could be fruitful by themselves [35, 36]. In general, this alternative paradigm of development communication is advocating the changes that emphasized a dialogical participatory environmental communication. In addition, participatory communication emphasizes the crucially of the cultures of the communities, democratization, and participation.

The most important governing principles include dialog, voice (role of media), and liberating pedagogy—for dialogical communication to happen something has to articulate the process. Action-reflection-action: Key results of participatory communication are the articulation of awareness raising and commitment to action. First and foremost, it becomes a process of empowerment for involved communities that feel a commitment to, and ownership of, the problem.

3.5 Participatory spaces: the role of the media

Participatory communication strategies and approaches require the role of media, which could be indispensable in the developing nations [36]. The dialog among stakeholders is useful to promote and empower their participation. It is used to build capacities and involve stakeholders. In addition, it can probe, assess, and analyze issues and prevent conflicts. An expansive role for communication—participation-as-end—is appropriate in projects aimed at organizing movements, transforming social relations, and empowering individuals. In this regard, participatory communication is about visibility and voice in the mediated public sphere [36]. Scholars argued that in communication interventions the more participatory strategies emphasize media that allows more dialog [36]. The media serves as a channel of communication whether they become catalysts of social mobilization and change in themselves or not. The community-based media are a dialogical instrument for change. Community radio, for instance, has the participatory potential. In developing participatory communication strategies issues such as accessibility, reachability, and manageability of media could be given much emphasis [36]. At the local level, the main goal of media is to enlighten and inspire local residents through a variety of media in order to maintain their active engagement [37]. The role of media is the center of the campaign for mobilizing the stakeholders.

3.6 Sustainability and public participation

Citizen can participate in genuine decision-making process through different sustainability platform discourses. In that case, it provides the democratic legitimacy for the stakeholders [38]. Different stakeholders highly used sustainable development and sustainability in their program vision, plan, and empowerment strategies [38, 39]. The two concepts accommodate different mandate groups and are attractive in building a coalition among different stakeholders. Citizen engagement can provide concrete ideas and make them inclusive to ensure the sustainability of policies and initiatives.

4. Results

The findings of the current study indicate that efforts were fine and several stakeholders participated. However, a short period of campaign that was ended without fruitful outcomes. It was a dystopia to the participants. A scenario that ended itself with a short period of campaign followed with a low outcome.

4.1 The major role of stakeholder participation

The purpose of this research is to analyze how public, media, government, donors, partners, nongovernmental organizations, and civil society or the stakeholders, participated in the process of designing and implementing the campaign to fight water hyacinth on Lake Tana. In the objective part, two questions are designed. The questions are: How do the stakeholders participate to solve the problem of water hyacinth on Lake Tana? What are the sole roles expected from community members in the life cycle of programs designed to combat water hyacinth? Accordingly, the result of the study shows that stakeholders’ role before and during the campaign includes mobilizing the community, financial contributions, material provisions, establishing charity organization, conducting research and dissemination of information, and expertise in the dissemination of information through the media and planning campaigns.

Stakeholders’ participation has voracious in alleviating deep-rooted environmental challenges on the Lake and its surroundings. The current research found varieties of participation to combat water hyacinth on Lake Tana. These participations include media communication and mobilization, youth’s movement, farmers’ movement, researchers, government, NGOs, and charitable organizations. Therefore, the participation of stakeholders can take different forms. The researcher finds out and emphasizes that the participatory communication was based on a deliberative motive. However, it was not as such progressive.

5. Discussion

5.1 Review of research conducted on Lake Tana

First, the study conducted focused on wetlands surrounding the Lake Tana. Its aim was to: (1) study the vegetation wetland communities of surrounding the lake; (2) assess and evaluate vegetation types of the wetlands as well as bird species; and (3) provide reliable information regarding biodiversity, disturbance, and threats. The finding indicates that there were many losses and damages [40]:

the wetlands adjacent to the lake are seriously threatened by habitat degradation and loss, over-grazing, over-harvesting, agricultural practices, sand mining, man-made modifications of the lake, irrigation, sedimentation, soil erosion, siltation and the spread of the invasive species Eichhornia crassipes.

Second, there are 33 research projects [41] conducted on the Lake Tana basin and its surroundings, which basically focus on regional challenges, problems of the Lake, growth and ecology, climate of the basin and its variability, hydrology, and groundwater occurrence, agricultural landscape, plankton, birds diversity, wetland, forest resources, exotic and invasive plants, demographic characteristics, gender and livelihood, characteristics of stakeholders, urban areas and planning, and environmental security and its basin.

At the end, another study conducted using biological approach [42] showed that water hyacinth swiftly grows due to climate conditions. The climate condition on the lake shore becomes cold and rain. A survey report on water hyacinth on the lake was also compiled [15, 43] by the Bahir Dar University academic staff.

5.2 Water hyacinth

Government authorities, academics, and consultants develop several techniques for public involvements. Governmental and nonprofit organizations, activists, researchers, media, and other scholars tried to impose information regarding the hallmark of multiple problems of Lake Tana. For instance, on the website of the Charitable Organization for Integrated Tana Basin Development, it indicates its multiple causes, dangers, and its distribution.

The most recent invasion of water hyacinth (E. crassipes) is the most pressing issue Lake Tana has encountered, and it has caused an immediate threat to the lake’s water quality and quantity as well as its biodiversity. The most notorious and invasive aquatic plant, known as water hyacinth, has been named one of the top 10 worst weeds in the world and one of the top 100 most aggressive invasive species. Although this weed is not new to Ethiopian rivers since it has existed in the Koka Lake and Awash River since 1965, the first reports of its invasion of Lake Tana were made in September 2011.

The drawdown of the lake led to the loss of breeding habitat for fishes. It is also difficult for transportation on the lake. Several boats were damaged and others have sunk. The papyrus beds were seriously damaged and difficult to grow around the lake. It could be a resource for the livelihood of the Negede Weyto community. They produce baskets, canons, and mats. Still, the wetlands around the lake were diminished. Discourage wetlands rice farming. The crisis reached its climax, which was highly invaded by the weeds. Scholars [44, 45] confirmed that water hyacinth, as an aquatic invasive weed, has received wider stakeholders’ attention lately in Ethiopia due to the infestation of the country’s largest lake—Lake Tana. Water hyacinth spreads in the fragmentation of plants and may re-sprout out of rhizomes or germinate from seeds [46]. Besides, seed dispersal occurred through water-borne seeds and by feet of birds. Migratory birds are agents for long distance dispersal. People are the major dispersal agents. Humans also contribute to its spread in some areas by using the plant as a packing material and as cushions in boats.

Water hyacinth: What is it, and what are its effects?

Water hyacinth is an aggressive invasive weed that invades water bodies (Figure 1). It could be reproduced very swiftly on the water body. It was not well known for other purposes. It further forms thick floating mats. The matured water hyacinth mats block different activities on the water body. Besides, it adversely affected the ecology of freshwater on Lake Tana. It reduces the oxygen level by limiting the circulation of water and air inside the water bodies that in turn hinder the survival of aquatic ecosystems. It affects the photosynthesis process by blocking the passage of sunlight. Ultimately, it disturbs the natural ecology of the water. Moreover, the livelihoods of the surrounding dwellers have been affected seriously. The lake size was contracted by the invasion. Above all, it interferes with the surrounding farming system around Lake Tana.

Figure 1.

The aquatic weed, the water hyacinth, is causing major problems at Ethiopia’s Lake Tana.

Lake Tana is the largest lake found in Ethiopia. It is the source of the Blue Nile. It has been the home of cultural heritages and biodiversity of the Amhara regional state. The Lake has 37 islands. Twenty islands host Ethiopian Orthodox churches and monasteries. These religious sites are considered reach in biodiversity, which have been considered as local and international significance. Both the lake and wetlands have ecological value and means of existence for many people in Bahir Dar city and the surrounding farmers [46, 47, 48]. The lake and its wetlands have been considered as an important habitat for both endemic and migratory birds and endemic fish species. However, the increasing pressure on the ecosystems had resulted in land degradation, erosion, and the eutrophication of the lake that affected the floral and faunal resources. In general, water hyacinth causes significant issues for the neighborhood near Lake Tana by adversely harming the ecology, farms, cattle, and the fishing industry [46]. In light of the above deep-rooted problems and other related matters, there have been many motivations and efforts contributed by different concerned communities. The problems are serious and require many efforts. Even though continuous efforts have been undertaken by farmers and all levels of government, due to the biological nature of water hyacinth, over the last 5 years there have been frequent re-infestations of the lake by water hyacinth, and it could also expand to cover thousands of hectares in the coming decades. From the experiences of other countries and the water hyacinth management efforts of Lake Tana, full control and eradication seem to be difficult, which indicates the need for integrated and sustainable management. This includes integrated water hyacinth management, integrated watershed management, and integrated community development works in the Tana basin. All these contributions should be marked by different stakeholders. The stakeholders include media, charity organizations, government, NGOs, youth, researchers, businesspeople, and innovators. The stakeholders are volunteer groups who are concerned about the environs in Lake Tana and its surroundings.

It is well known that environmental mobilization campaigns such as political mobilization campaigns are more effective and legitimate if they engage citizens in a sustained dialog rather than treating them as a mass opinion to be manipulated [49, 50]. The crucial importance of stakeholders’ participation in establishing and developing decisions that include concern about the natural environment has been stressed by numerous researchers. Broad-based civil participation cannot be brought about by expert advocacy. Instead, individuals need to actively participate in the creation and maintenance of their civic institutions. As scholar [51] notes: “the task of putting stakeholders’ awareness of environmental issues into practice is inseparable from that of working to enhance political solidarity.” Another scholar [52] also emphasizes the need of “civic engagement and stakeholders’ dialogue” [52].

5.3 Media as stakeholders and how they framed the issue

Environmental education and public awareness are assumed to be the major components to reduce the effect of water hyacinth on ecology of water [53]. Research suggested as the media are the major sources for the stakeholders to turn into for information about environmental security [54]. The mass media provide stakeholders’ education concerning environmental challenges Thus, the media portrayed the seriousness of the water hyacinth on the lake. Specifically, media such as BBC, Addis Standard, Sudan Tribune, Southworld, and CGTN framed and reported the issue of water hyacinth as “aggressive,” “invasive,” “threatening,” “infested,” and “damaging.”

In addition, the media educates people to improve knowledge and awareness of environmental issues. There are many local media and their respective social media platforms (Amhara television, Ethiopian television, Ethiopian News Agency, Fana Broadcasting, Ethiopian radio, Amhara FM radio, Walta information center), foreign media (BBC, Al Jazeera, VOA), social media (Facebook, Twitter, YouTube), and other personal and organizational websites participated in the campaigns by holding fora, conferences, meetings, and discussions. Some instances how some media framed the problem of water hyacinth. BBC framed it as follows: “Ethiopia’s largest lake, Lake Tana, is being lost to an invasive South American weed, the water hyacinth”, (BBC 30 Jan 2018). A newspaper framed the issue as “Water hyacinth is not Ebola: It has challenges and opportunities” (The Reporter 5 August 2017). Ethiopia: Lake Tana at jeopardy was how the water hyacinth issue was presented in German media. Others framed the issue as Ethiopia’s largest lake nearing extinction. Lake Tana, Ethiopia’s largest lake and the source of the Blue Nile, is being choked out by the toxic plant species known as the water hyacinth, prompting concerns about the federal government’s response and the effectiveness of local efforts to eradicate it. In summary, the media are placing more coverage on problems of the weed on the Lake and its surrounds.

5.4 Youth from Bahir Dar city and neighboring cities as stakeholders

5.5 Farmers as stakeholders

Local authorities and city dwellers mobilized an estimated 162 000 people to remove the weed by hand (Figures 2 and 3). This happens only when the lake shores are accessible and when farmers have time.

Figure 2.

Bahir Dar city youth participation on removing water hyacinth.

Figure 3.

Farmers’ participation on removing water hyacinth (source: Ethiopian today, 2017).

5.6 Oromo youth as stakeholders

More than 200 youth from Oromia regional state joined the campaign at Bahir Dar city of Amhara regional state. They used a slogan regardless of belongings stated on a banner as “Tanan Kaygna”; literally, it means that Tana is ours. The youth used this slogan to show a unity, reconciliation, mutual respect, mutual understanding between Oromo and Amhara people. Oromo youth joined the campaign in Amhara region to combat water hyacinth on the Lake.

In support of the motivation of Oromo youth, the Ethiopian musician Mehari Defefaw released, on October 28, 2017, a new single “Tana Kegna.” It was meant to support efforts to fight water hyacinth from Lake Tana. Literally, it means that “Tana is ours.” The youth are geographically far away from the lake region. However, the youth’s movement minimized and reinforced the ethnic and political segregation between the Oromo and Amhara people. The lake maintained the relationship between Oromo and Amhara people in the country and what is interesting here is that the hardship of Lake Tana has not been left to the Amhara Regional State alone. Youth from the Oromia Regional State have joined the march, going to Bahir Dar to fight the good fight. This exemplary unity between the two large regions, it seems, was just a prelude to the next meeting between the leaders of the Oromia and Amhara regional state. It was held in Bahir Dar. The very idea of having conducted the conference indicates progress both for the lake and the political environment of Ethiopia. The weed has to be eradicated, just as the political tensions in the country have to be resolved. Saving Lake Tana will go down as one of the most crucial events in the country’s history. It is an experiment signaling that unity is possible and could help save it from falling apart. But improving the political situation will not be as easy as clearing the weed from Lake Tana. But it is an effort worth expending if democracy is to rein in the country, and the nation’s unity is to continue. Some participants witnessed the participation as the best example for the solidarity of the two ethnic peoples.

5.7 Charitable organizations as stakeholders

One of the dominant local charitable organizations as a stakeholder to protect Lake Tana was established in 2017 at Bahir Dar University. The “Charitable Organization for Integrated Tana Basin Development” [55] (COITBD) is a charity organization working in Ethiopia. COITBD has been supporting the removal of the weed from the lake. The watershed management of the lake basin supported by COITBD to improve the livelihoods of the community living in the sub-basin.

Founders of the organization are composed of multidisciplinary stakeholders that include 15 professors of Bahir Dar University (BDU), over 15 engineers, lecturers, economists, lawyers, and political scientists, 11 journalists, and businessmen. The charity comprises 51 passionate young professionals who want to contribute their share in the protection of Lake Tana and its watershed. Since its establishment, hundreds of members have joined the charity. Several prominent international scholars are also supporting this charity (http://savetana.org 2018).

5.8 NGOs as stakeholders

In addition to the local charitable organization, the Global Coalition for Lake Tana Restoration (GCLTR), formed and based in America in support of environmental activities and watershed development to restore the lake ecosystem in Amhara Regional state. GCLTR has been facilitating the participation of individuals from United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, and the rest of the world to protect the Lake Tana from weeds infestation. GCLTR is mainly concerned about environmental issues around Lake Tana through research-proven and training environmental management system of Amhara Regional State Environmental Protection Authority. Besides, it aimed to establish and strengthen an effective water hyacinth monitoring and evaluation. To establish sustainable and integrated watershed management system; to mobilize financial resources among Ethiopians diaspora and international funding; and to advocate and create community awareness [55]. In summary, GCLTR is aimed to provide four major supports to the ongoing water hyacinth management efforts in Amhara regional state. These include capacity building, logistic support, supporting monitoring, evaluation activities, and research and assessment.

5.9 Regional government as stakeholders

The Amhara regional government has been calling up on the stakeholders to participate on fighting water hyacinth. The government representative emphasized that “unless measurements can be taken to control the invasive water hyacinth in Lake Tana, it might occur in other areas of the country and cause destruction” [56]. Besides, the authority added that “Unless it can be controlled by any means, the water hyacinth may also affect the Great Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD)” [56]. Well-established national institutions were suggested tackle the challenges of water hyacinth on the Lake Tana. The government call for the cooperation had got attention by the University of Gondar, which was followed by an immediate workshop. Some workshops enhanced the call for the campaign to fight and are described as follows (http://www.uog.edu.et):

On June 14, 2017, at the Florida Hotel in Gondar, a workshop that effects the nation of Ethiopia was held. The joint workshop concentrated on progressing efforts to control water hyacinth in Lake Tana. Some of the event’s organizers were the Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute, the University of Gondar, and the Forest and Wildlife Conservation and Protection Authority. The University of Gondar’s higher officials, staff, faculty and individuals from various organizational entities were present to brainstorm constructively about the issue at hand.

The regional government call to collaboration not only got support from the university but also got attention from different government offices.

5.10 Researchers as stakeholders

Researchers’ participation as stakeholders to identify the nature, extent, impact, and severity of the water hyacinth is crucial. In addition, they consider different mechanisms to eradicate the water hyacinth. The mechanisms include biological control (beetles, Faba bean fungus), removal, and chemical spraying (using herbicides). The first attempt to identify what happening in the Lake Tana is the study of Ayalew Wondie. He identified the problem of environmental issues related to Lake Tana in his research in 2011. Following this year, scholar [57] indicated the severity of the weed on the Lake. The researcher described the growth of the weed as a paradox. In the first place, “water hyacinth can cover lakes entirely, with dramatic impacts on water flow. It blocks sunlight from reaching native aquatic plants and hampers oxygen supply to the water body.” On the contrary, “it can have a positive influence, if managed properly. The plant is extremely tolerant to and has a high capacity for the uptake of heavy metals which could make it suitable for the bio-cleaning of industrial wastewater. They can also enhance nitrification in waste water treatment cells of living technology” [57]. The native aquatic plant could not get sunlight. As a result, the water body will not get oxygen. A field survey result shows native fungal pathogens found in association with the weed.

Scholars suggest that “biological control is the most economical and effective approach to manage water hyacinth in the long term” [39] through the natural enemies and little cost. This strategy was not without environmental impact. It had reduced the weed coverage on the water surface. Besides, it was effective by controlling the spread in 33 countries. This was implemented in the United States, Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana, India, and Australia. The major shortcoming was that it took several years [39]. Moreover, this participation could be adopted from the Ugandan experience to the Lake Tana case. For instance, Bahir Dar University coordinated experts to bring and adapt the Uganda’s experience carried out on Lake Victoria. However, the challenge of applying that experience was not yet implemented. In fact, it was evidenced that Uganda controlled the invasive weed by applying biological methods. Therefore, the biological control is going to spoil out without applying it to the Lake Tana Water Hyacinth. Nonetheless, this effort will take many years to be effective on a mass-based breeding and application plan. The researchers confirmed that biological mechanism applying natural enemies is cheap and can sustain, but comparatively slow.

5.11 Constraints in participation

Citizens’ engagement in the environmental decision-making process is considered a situation where they got legitimacy on decisions and an opportunity to improve the quality and effectiveness of the decisions [6]. The difficulty of removing the weed was Heralded that “The spread of an invasive alien species is neither easy to manage nor easy to reverse, threatening not only biodiversity but also economic development and human wellbeing” [58]. The campaign of removing water hyacinth started without these goals in place. Recently, stakeholders used several methods to eradicate the weed through biological and technological techniques. These strategies were planned to eradicate the water hyacinth as much as possible. The effort was not well planned to gear all efforts toward removing water hyacinth. It was a huge challenge to achieve through small and unorganized efforts. It was also difficult to eradicate the weed using machines from the lake. In addition, the stakeholders’ involvement efforts are weakened by unplanned strategic efforts. The agenda of water hyacinth removal has ceased among the surrounding people, the media, either domestic or foreign, researchers, and governments. Scholar suggests a community media for the stakeholders’ mobilization [59]. This aimed to ensure a two-way communication to combat water hyacinth on the Lake Tana as the previous timely campaigns phased out. Water hyacinth removal, after the campaign, has no more media and public agenda. Currently, it has been criticized for being neglected among the stakeholders. As a result, the weed has been expanding and spreading.

Many efforts were implemented and used to eradicate the weed through human labor. Despite the very extensive campaigns to eradicate the weed, the water hyacinth had been continued to spread over the lake since it had an ability to revive and spread quickly. Two scholars showed their evidence of how water hyacinth disturbed the whole system of the lake.

The most frequently reported effects of water hyacinth on aquatic ecosystems include: i) massive water loss through evapotranspiration, which changes the water balance of the water body; (ii) decreases dissolved oxygen concentrations beneath its mats by preventing oxygen from reaching the water’s surface and by obstructing sunlight used for photosynthesis by phytoplankton and submerged vegetation; and (iii) creates obstruction to water flow, which increases sediment concentration; vi) decreases electrical power plant output, endangering the nation’s power supply; and vii) poses a major threat to agricultural production due to the clogging of irrigation canals and drainage systems.

Thus, the efforts utilized by the stakeholders were not yet brought about any significant impact. Moreover, the biggest problem was that the weed revives quickly unless it could be chopped, dried, and burned out. It was argued that it could take more than 30 years to eradicate the weed. It covered a large body of the water. Social media has seen a significant public outcry calling for swift action. The expansion of the weed is currently hurting the local farmers. It has resulted in decreased output of fish and crops [58].

The water hyacinth availability is indicated by some researchers. However, no one planned for further intervention and removal of the weeds immediately following on the discovery of the water hyacinth on the lake. Consequently, still water hyacinth is remaining problematic among the stakeholders.

6. Conclusion

The study shows that the drastic negative impacts of water hyacinth in Eastern Africa, inside and outside the water ecosystem, are enormous. Several challenges were manifested on the lake, such as decreasing water levels due to evapo-transpiration, decreased oxygen levels that prevented the entrance of oxygen to the water body, and blocked sunlight used for photosynthesis. It also affected the flow of water by increasing sedimentation and worsening soil erosion. Moreover, it stopped the process of fishing activities on the lake. Moreover, the condition of the lake reduces the livelihood income of the local population. It also changed the physicochemical properties of the water, which created a threat to agricultural practices. Above all, it has been affecting the farming system due to the outflow of water hyacinth by flooding. As a result, various stakeholders were called to a campaign by unorganized individuals through the media and other public discussions. Based on unstructured calls, various volunteer stakeholders participated in the fight to remove water hyacinth from the lake. The stakeholder participation did not incorporate different types of participation such as communication, consultation, deliberation, and co-production. For this participation, the most important contributors were researchers. The researchers conducted different research based on their interests. The researchers from different universities (e.g., Bahir Dar University, Gondar University) tried to identify the causes of water hyacinth and the extent of its problems. They used different journals to disseminate their findings to the wider community. These stakeholders agreed and concluded that the weed has been a major challenge since there were no effective programs implemented by the stakeholders. Ordinary citizens also disseminated information through various social media. They sensitized the issue to local and global audiences. Journalists contributed by disseminating information through mass media. Some others agreed on the understanding of the biology of water hyacinth (through longitudinal research). And it was suggested that a well-established local institution is needed to coordinate, execute, and monitor the process of all efforts to manage the lake resources. The participation of different media was initiated, and they were involved in the campaign to remove water hyacinth. Still others, such as musicians, activists, and charity organizations, locally and abroad, promoted the serious effects of water hyacinth on the lake and its basins. Afterward, no more media and public agendas have been posed by the concerned bodies, and media professionals still exist. It has no advocacy. Ultimately, as far as participatory communication used to motivate stakeholders’ participation is concerned, the researcher suggests that long-term and well-planned genuine participatory eradication measures have to be designed and could be in place.

7. Limitations of the current study

The limitation of the study is that it lacks exploratory studies that did not integrate scientific investigation from all relevant disciplines such as science, the environment, and social sciences. It is important to get the details of a problem by considering a grassroots level study. This kind of study requires an institutional-based study. Besides, it lacks comparative studies of alien species removal efforts on the African continent. The current study shows a regional study limited to Lake Tana, and in fact, similar mobilization is needed to scientifically remove the water hyacinth. Still, other studies are also required to show every status after the campaign.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.