Activated carbon generated from various agro wastes.
Abstract
Abundant amount of agro wastes is produced day by day globally to manage the escalating needs of billons of human population. The agro wastes are produced from various sources mainly crops left out, agro industries, aquaculture, and livestock. The major ingredient of agro wastes are of cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses, etc. Conventionally, most of the crops left out were used for composting, animal fodder, domestic fuel, etc. Due to modernization technology in agriculture sector, people from Third World countries prefer cost-effective methods such as combustion process. Improper management of agro waste generated in the process has been contributing toward escalating air, soil, and water pollution. A proper environmental-friendly management of agro waste is the need of the time for sustainability, food, and health security of human. Lignin and hemicellulose can be used for generation of biofuels and biofertilizer. Cellulose can be sustainably used for the production of nanosilica, biodegradable polymer, paper, pulp, etc. This chapter emphasizes sustainable agro waste management without affecting the environment at lower cost in timely manner. In particular, the agro waste biomass could be used as a source of value-added bio-product, which has wide applications and impacts the bio-economy without hampering the climatic change issue.
Keywords
- agro waste
- composting
- activated carbon
- nanocellulose
- biofuels
- ethanol
1. Introduction
Agro waste is called undesirable material that is generated from agriculture farming practices and includes crop residues, leaf litter, livestock waste, sawdust, weeds, and forest waste. Agro waste is misled or discarded in most part of this earth due to either unawareness or proper route to transfer and its utilization. These agro wastes can create a great constraint, if proper measures will not be taken off for its proper discard, as it can lead to a clearly impact on the environment issue. In addition to the hazards of burning and land filling, the synthetic chemicals adopted during farming and agriculture are able to instigate pollution if these wastes wind up in the undesirable places. Agriculture sector is the major backbone of the developing nations, and it is one of the greatest contributors to the GDP. Millions of people are adopting agriculture as their primary occupation in this earth. With the ever-increasing of the world population, there is an escalation in the demand for food and food product supplies, so nowadays many people make use of modern agriculture to encounter the need. Modern agriculture uses the up-to-date cultivation technique along with synthetic fertilizers. Urban people are also adopting garden farming using modern methods. The demand for animal products such as milk products, poultry, and meat is also high, and producers have been developing new strategy to enhance the productivity and lower the unit cost of production. Chemicals such as fossil fuels, inorganic fertilizers, and organic pesticides improved genetics of production species and are enhancing the increase in the generation. The agro waste and its processing are a universal issue, as its major part is going for burning or to be buried in soil, which is responsible for pollution of air, water, and soil, a general loss of aesthesis. The degradation of water quality can affect adjoining water bodies and groundwater both on-site and off-site. Such kind of degradation in the water quality reduces the ability of water resource to support aquatic life and water consumption for humans and animals. Unplanned burying of agro waste leads to greenhouse emission and a major concern for climatic change. Conventionally, a large volume of agro waste is utilized as animal fodder, domestic combustion fuel, composting, roof thatching, etc. The management of agro waste and the reformation of its transition into a fit for use product through the utilization of biotechnology in agriculture are getting a lot of recognition nowadays [1]. Solid state fermentation can be considered as the better process for transition of agro waste into usable bioproducts. Different agro wastes such as wheat straw [2], barley straw [3], cotton stalks [4], sunflower stacks [5], etc., from abundant agriculture goods, as well as significant horticulture wastes such as apple [6], mango [7], orange peels [8], and potato [9] were used to create beneficial products in this review. Agro wastes can be used for contributing to guaranteeing resource efficiency, sustainable production and consumption, and the reduction of negative environmental impact on adopting recent and superior scientific methods in disposal of it [10]. The main objective of this chapter is to emphasize on the use of agro waste as a source for generating ecofriendly material such as (i) compost to enhance soil productivity, biodiversity, and sustainable environment; (ii) activated carbon, which can be used as adsorbent for removal of heavy metals from drinking and industrial wastewater; (iii) nanocellulose, which is widely applicable as membrane in water purification; (iv) the agro waste containing lignocellulosic residues can be used to produce different bioproducts including biofuel, biofertilizer, bioplastic, organic acid, etc. Furthermore, these value-added products can enhance the bioeconomy without affecting the environment.
2. Methods of agro waste utilization and management
2.1 Composting
Composting is one of the old-age methods for transforming agro wastes into hygienic, stabilized, and non-polluting materials, thus retrieving the beneficial nutrients and enhancing soil fertility [11]. Therefore, composting is commonly adopted as a biological treatment method for agro wastes, but enhancing compost maturity is essential for the safe use of composting products [12]. The agro waste can be converted into valuable compost on utilization of proper role of certain microorganism. The generated product obtained by microbial action has a lot of superiority in agriculture as it helps in enhancing productivity, better soil biodiversity, and sustainable environment. Thus, composting can be one of the better options for the processing of the large volume of agro wastes generated worldwide [13]. Gusmawartati et al. [14] have studied the quality of compost generated from taking various combinations of agro wastes such as cassava peel, empty fruit bunches of oil palm, banana skin, and rice straw. Mastouri et al. [15] have studied the growth of lettuce using compost obtained from a mixture of tree bark wastes obtained from orchid, aldar, horn beech, oak, hard wood tree, etc. Pergola et al. [16] had emphasized on the restoration of soil organic matter function in agricultural soil with various agricultural additives of reconverted waste biomasses. Aslam et al. [17] have studied vermin composting of rice straw, wheat straw, and cow dung by Eisenia fetida on-farm management of nutrients such as NPK, beneficial humus, soil microbes, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, actinomycets, micronutrients, nitrogen fixing, growth hormones such as auxins, etc. Yu et al. [18] had taken multiple combinations of agro waste (from mushroom industry) compost and biofertilizer for enhancing yield and higher sustainability of a pepper crop. Trillas et al. [19] have studied the reduction of solani diseases in cucumber seedlings by application of compost obtained from agro waste such as olive marc, grape marc, spent mushroom, and cork. Particularly, Trichoderma Asperellum reduces the relevance of solani pathogen in the soil on amending at 103 cfu/ml. Karak et al. [20] had investigated the maturity of compost obtained with various ratios of agro wastes, such as wheat straw, rice straw, mustard stover, and potato plant obtained in both the presence and absence of fish pond bottom sediment. Gea et al. [21] had studied on controlling dry bubble diseases in mushroom farming caused by Verticillium fungicola. They had used various agro-based waste composts generated from a mixture of olive oil husk, used mushroom substrate, cotton grit thrashed along with compost from grape marc compost, rice husk, and cork compost.
2.2 Activated carbon
The activated carbon, a low-cost and high-quality material, can be utilized for adsorption purpose in various applications. Generally, the activated carbon is prepared by burning lignite, coal, wood, etc., in pyrolysis over 600–900°C. Nowadays, a lot of emphasis has been given to lignocellulosic biomass, readily available in agriculture sector as waste, for generation of the activated carbon [22]. The activated carbon generated from agro-based waste has its own advantage due to its low cost and ubiquitous availability [23]. During the last few decades, there was growing research interest on the utilization of alternative origin of waste materials from industry and agriculture for activated carbon production [24, 25, 26, 27]. A sizable numbers of reports have been published on generation of activated carbon from agro waste such as palm shell [28, 29], coconut shell [30, 31], corn cob [32], olive stones [33] and walnut shell [34], coir pith [35], rice bran [36], chickpea husks [37], oil palm shell [38], etc. Ioannidou et al. [23] have used the agricultural residues such as soya stalks, corn cobs, rapeseed stalks, and olive kernels as precursors for the generation of activated carbon. The pyrolysis were done in two stages: (a) the pyrolysis had been carried out over 800°C for about 1 h under nitrogen atmosphere (15 ml/min) along with heating rate at 27°C/min for the sake of producing char, (b) the physical activation of char was then carried out over 800°C for about ½ h under the flow of steam (40 g/min) at pressure of ½ bar. The obtained activated charcoals were subjected to study of removal of Bromopropylate, common pesticides in fruits crop, from water. Tay et al. [39] have isolated activate carbon on pyrolysis of soybean oil cake by chemical activation with potassium hydroxide and potassium carbonate at different temperatures of 600 and 800°C. Potassium carbonate was found to be more effectual as compared with potassium hydroxide under similar conditions. The maximum surface area of activated carbon obtained with potassium carbonate at 800°C is found to be 1352.86 m2/g, which is in accordance with the range of commercial activated carbons. Anne A. Nunes et al. [40] derived activated charcoal from defective coffee press cake by heating it under nitrogen atmosphere at 600/800°C for elimination of methylene blue from water up to 99% removal. The maximum adsorption capacity obtained for the coffee cake activated carbon/methylene blue system was observed to be 14.9 mg/g. The equilibrium data fitted favorable into Freundlich model as compared with others. Rice is one of the widely grown crops in the world, generating a large volume of waste. That has to deal with proper management due to short duration in between two crops. During last few decades, people have reported on generation of activated carbon from rice straw [41]. The utmost value of carbofuran adsorption capacity was observed to be 26.52 mg/g. Chang et al. [42] had studied elimination of bisphenol-A from water by using activated carbon obtained by with the help of chemical (potassium hydroxide) treatment of rice husk. At pH 2.5, the maximum adsorption capacity of bisphenol-A was found to be 181.191 mg/g. The experimental values perfectly fitted the Langmuir model for equilibrium data. It was found to be more inclination toward pseudo second order as compared with that pseudo first order. Isoda et al. [43] reported the generation of activated carbon from rice husk with more surface area, of about 1500 m2/g and high mesopore volume of about 1.22 cm3/g using chemical (zinc chloride) treatment over an activation temperature of 600°C without carbonization and using sodium hydroxide as chemical activating agent, with carbonization. Köseoğlu et al. [44] had studied the generation of activated carbon from orange peels using potassium carbonate and zinc chloride as chemical reagents for the purpose. The surface area of the activated carbon was observed to be 9–1352 m2/g for potassium carbonate and that for zinc chloride 804–1215 m2/g. Potassium carbonate was observed to have much potential as compared with zinc chloride as a chemical activating reagent in light of high surface area, development of porosity, and surface analysis of the activated carbon. Mahamad et al. [45] had studied the generation of activated carbon from solid pine apple waste mass such as leaves, stem, and crown using zinc chloride as chemical reagent at 500°C for 1 h. It can be deduced that the activated carbon obtained by a 1:1 ratio has the better removal of dye capacity, which can be attributed to its high surface area (914.67 m2/g) and dye adsorption capacity (288.34 m2/g). The Langmuir adsorption isotherm model is perfectly suited to the obtained adsorption equilibrium data with
Adsorbent source | Adsorbate | Activation temperature (oC) | Capacity | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Soya stalks, Corn cobs, Rapeseed Stalks and Olive kernels | Bromopropylate (isopropyl 4,4′-dibromobenzilate) | 800 | 0.0948 mg/g | Ioannidou et al. [23] |
Coffee Press Cake | Methylene blue | 600/800 | 14.9 mg/g | Nunes et al. [40] |
Rice Straw | Carbofuran | 850 | 296.52 mg/g | Chang et al. [41] |
Rice Straw | Bisphenol-A | 850 | 181.19 mg/g | Chang et al. [42] |
Orange Peel | Iodine Methylene Blue | 500–1000 | 1564 mg/g 150 mg/g | Köseoğlu et al. [44] |
Pineapple Waste | Methylene Blue | 500 | 288.34 mg/g | Mahamad et al. [45] |
Sunflower Piths | Methylene Blue | 500 | 965.349 mg/g | Baysal et al. [46] |
Mahogany Fruit Shell | Pb(II) | 322.28 mg/g | Patil et al. [47] | |
Ashitaba waste | Methylene Blue | 900 | 491.56 mg/g | Xue et al. [48] |
2.3 Nanocellulose from agro waste
The nanocrystalline cellulose can be generally isolated from different subsequent chemical process: starting with bleaching and alkali treatment succeeded by acid hydrolysis of the natural fibers. The nanocellulose isolated from various sources of agro waste is becoming an attractive research avenue for its multifaceted utilization [49]. Nowadays, a lot attention has been given to generation of nanocellulose from various ago wastes such as olive tree pruning [50], pine cones [51], pineapple leaf [52], rice husk [53], sisal fiber [54], sorghum stalk [55], sunflower stalks [56], etc. Ferreira et al. had successfully isolated cellulose nanocrystals from sugarcane bagasse, on hydrolysis by sulfuric acid, which had very good hydrophilic properties with a high crystallinity. Adipic acid was used for surface modification of nanocrystal for suppressing the crystal dimension by elimination of amorphous region [57]. Johar et al. reported on the isolation of nanocellulose fibers from rice husk. They adopted alkali (NaOH) and bleaching (NaCl2O) treatment followed by acid (H2SO4). They observed a remarkable enhancement in crystallinity of the obtained nanocellulose [53]. Lu and Hsieh et al. had extracted an unblended form of nanocellulose from rice straw with about yield of 36%. The acid hydrolysis for about ½ h resulted in nanocellulose of size of 270 nm length and 5.95 nm diameter, whereas acid hydrolysis for 45 min resulted in nanocellulose of size of 117 nm length and 5.06 nm diameter [58]. do Nascimento et al. had successfully extracted cellulose nanocrystals from coconut fiber [59]. de Carvalho Mendes et al. isolated crystalline nanocellulose from various agro wastes such as garlic skin, palm oil, sesame, and rice husks [60] . Walnut shell (
2.4 Biofuels
The second-generation biofuels, commonly prepared from inedible crops, woody crops or lignocellulosic biomass, agro waste, or unwanted plant, are potent reply to the food versus fuel feud as they utilize leftover portion of agro waste. Inedible feedstock is commonly used for the second-generation biofuels, i.e., jatropha, grasses, wastes vegetable oil, wood chips, etc. Alcohol generation from rapid growth plants could be produced by enzymatic activities to isolate out the sugars from lignin fibers of the biomass. Syngas, a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, can be synthesized on thermochemical treatment of biomass. Hydrogen thus prepared can be used as fuel, and other hydrocarbons can be used as add-on to the gasoline [63] . Recently, most of the gasoline available is blended with certain percentage of ethanol to reduce carbon footprint. The effective conversion of cellulose into ethanol has got major prospective due to the ubiquitous obtainability, plentitude, and comparable inexpensive cellulosic plant materials. The banana residue includes banana fruit (pulp and peels) and lignocellulosic biomass can be a potential source for biofuels [64]. Srivastava et al. [65] had successfully utilized Saccharomyces cerevisiae for generation of bioethanol out of rice husk up to yield of 250 mg/g dry biomass after 6 days of fermentation. Singh et al. [66] had enzymatically hydrolyzed the pretreated rice husk with alkali under microwave condition for the generation of biofuel. They have successfully utilized Scheffersomyces stipites and S. cerevisiae yeast for the fermentation. The ethanol production with S. cerevisiae was to be 0.3–0.39 g/g; with Scheffersomyces stipites, waste 0.24–0.35 g/g, respectively. Chukwuma et al. [67] had adopted fermentation process of rice husk using Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, and Saccharomyces cerevisae for the generation of biofuel. On fermentation with Aspergillus fumigatus, treating rice husks shows the at most cellulose of 45 ± 3.31%, hemicelluloses of 31 ± 3.00%, reducing sugar of 2.60 ± 0.30%, carbohydrate of 19.52 ± 10.05%, and non-reducing sugar of 16.92 ± 9.75% producing ethanol yield of 6.60 ± 0.48% with palm wine yeast, while 5.60 ± 0.42% yield was with bakers. Slow pyrolysis activity by thermogravimetric analysis had been investigated to estimate and compare the effective utilization agro waste such as corncob, rice husk, wood chips, wheat straw, bagasse, etc., for biofuel conversion [68]. The corncob was observed to deteriorate with an enhanced rate over lower temperature. On the whole, the activation energy was observed to be enhanced at the reduced temperature range (250–400°C), and that was reduced in the enhanced temperature range (450–600°C). The corncob had been observed to be a suitable contender out of the rest of the wastes for pyrolysis with activation energy of 29.71 and 4.23 kJ/mol in reduced and enhanced temperature range, respectively. Buenrostro-Figueroa et al. [69] had used
3. Removal of heavy metal
A significant deal of interest has been focused in the research for the removal of heavy metals from industrial effluent using agricultural by-products as bio-adsorbents. The use of agro waste in bioremediation of heavy metal ions, i.e., biosorption utilizes inactive (nonliving) microbial biomass to bind and aggregates heavy metals from waste water by physicochemical pathways (mainly chelation and adsorption) of uptake [98]. Agro waste such as hazelnut shell, rice husk, pecan shells, jackfruit, maize cob, or husk can be used as bioadsorbent for heavy metal removal after chemical modification or conversion of these agro wastes into activated carbon. Orange peel was employed for Ni(II) removal from simulated wastewater and was found maximum metal removal occurred at pH 6.0 [99]. Coconut shell charcoal (CSC) modified with oxidizing agents and/or chitosan was used for Cr(VI) removal was investigated well by Babel and Kurniawan [100]. Further, Cu(II) and Zn(II) were removed from real wastewater using pecan-shells-activated carbon [101] and potato peels charcoal [102]. The Cr(VI) removal from an aqueous solution by rice-husk-activated carbon has been studied extensively [103]. It was found that the maximum metal removal by rice husk took place at pH 2.0. Rice husk, containing cellulose, lignin, carbohydrate, and silica, was investigated for Cr(VI) removal from simulated solution [104]. To enhance its metal removal, the adsorbent was modified with ethylenediamine. The maximum Cr(VI) adsorption of 23.4 mg/g was reported to take place at pH 2. Other types of biosorbents, such as the biomass of marine dried green alga (biological materials) [21, 22, 23, 24, 25], were investigated for uptake of some heavy metals from aqueous solution. Some of the used alga wastes were
Adsorbent source | Adsorbate | Optimum pH | Removal capacity (max) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Orange peel | Ni(II);Cu(II);Pb(II);Zn(II);Cr(IV) | 6.0 | 96% | Ajmal et al. [99] |
Coconut shell charcoal | Cr(VI) | 6.0 | 15.47 mg/g | Babel and Kurniawan [100] |
Pecan shells | Cu(II); Pb(II); Zn(II) | 4.8 | ~88%; ~90%; ~27% | Bansode et al. [101] |
Potato peels charcoal | Cu(II) | 6.0 | 99.8% | Amana et al. [102] |
Rice husk | Cr(VI) | 2.0 | 88.88% | Bishnoi et al. [103] |
Rice hull | Cr(VI); Cu(II) | 2.0; 5.5 | 0.17 mg/g 0.02 mg/g | Tang et al. [104] |
Cu(II) | 5.0 | 133 mg/g | Gupta et al. [105] | |
Ecklonia maxima | Cu(II); Pb(II); Cd(II); | 5.0 5.0 5.0 | 85–94 mg/g: 227–243 mg/g: 83.5 mg/g | Feng et al. [106] |
Cr(VI) | 6.0 | 92% | El-Sikaily et al. [107] | |
Oedogonium sp.; Nostoc sp. | Pb(II) | 5.0 | 145.0 mg/g; 93.5 mg/g | Gupta et al. [108] |
Cu(II) | 5.5 | 3.15 mmol/g | Ahmady-Asbchin et al. [109] | |
Rice husk | Ni(II); Zn(II); Cd(II); Mn(II); Co(II); Cu(II); Hg(II); Pb(II); | 6.0 | 0.094 mmol/g; 0.124 mmol/g; 0.149 mmol/g; 0.151 mmol/g; 0.162 mmol/g; 0.172 mmol/g; 0.18 mmol/g; 0.28 mmol/g; | Krishnani et al. [111] |
Coconut shell; Neem leaves; Hyacinth roots; Rice straw; Rice bran; Rice husk | Cu(II) | 6.0 | 19.888 mg/g; 17.488 mg/g; 21.79 mg/g; 18.351 mg/g; 20.977 mg/g; 17.869 mg/g | Singha et al. [112] |
Rice husk | Cr(VI) | 2.0 | 99.5% | Georgiev et al. [113] |
Rice husk | Cr(VI) | 2.0 | 76.5% | Bansal et al. [114] |
Rice husk | Cd(II) | 12.0 | 99% | Ajmal et al. [115] |
Peanut shell | Pb(II) | 6.0 | 32.87 mg/g | Tasar et al. [116] |
Peanut shell | Cr(VI) | 2.0 | 4.48 mg/g | Ahmad et al. [117] |
Peanut shell | Cu(II) | 5.0 | 25.39 mg/g | Witek-Krowiak et al. [118] |
Peanut husk | Pb(II); Cr(III); Cu(II) | 4.0 | 4.66 mg/g; 3.02 mg/g; 3.80 mg/g | Li et al. [119] |
Peanut hull | Cu(II) | 5.5 | 21.3 mg/g | Zhu et al. [120] |
Cashew nut shell | Cu(II) | 5.0 | 20.0 mg/g | Kumar et al. [121] |
4. Conclusions
Agro wastes or residues such as sugars, cellulose, minerals, and proteins are well off with nutrient composition and valuable bioactive compounds. Consequently, agro wastes having heterogeneity composition can be considered as “precursor” for other industrial processes instead of “wastes” keeping in mind sustainable development. Solid-state fermentation is a familiar approach for the production of microbial metabolites over agro waste with a low moisture content, with the advantages of a high yield concentration but only a proportionate minimum energy being needed. Various microbes have prospective to utilize the agro waste as raw materials for their growth through fermentation processes going for generation of biofuel as an alternative to faster depleting fossil fuel. The agro waste direct or active carbon generated from it can be suitable use for wastewater treatment. Vermicompost can be produced on the degradation of various agro wastes using numerous species of worms within 3–4 month time periods, which have advantages as (a) it can proceed as biofertilizers, reinstate soil nutrients, stabilizes the soil, and augmented the fertility of soil over an extended period; (b) it sorts out the social demands and recycles the waste; and (c) it is observed to be a beneficial endeavor as a circular economy. Vermicompost is found to be better option as compared with the normal composting, commonly adopted in Asian countries, owing to its enhanced nutrient contents, i.e., nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium content. The vermicomposting also has capability to enhance the soil structure and to improve its water-holding capacity. The vermicomposting is considered to be ideal organic manure for better growth and yield of agricultural product. The agro waste can be suitably used as lowcost adsorbent for wastewater treatment. One of the most ways to generate revenue from agro waste by converting into nanocellulose and activated carbon, which have a multidisciplinary applications per today’s market demands. The agro waste can have different environmental approach that leads for waste to revenue generation.
Acknowledgments
We express thanks to NIST (Autonomous) and the institute management for providing us the required infrastructure, the support, and encouragement to write and publish the book chapter.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest in publication of this book chapter.
Notes/thanks/other declarations
Thanks to the authors of all references cited in this chapter whose research findings helped many ways to inculcate for this chapter.
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