Wilderness Experiences Foster Authentic Leadership

Abstract

Against the backdrop of dramatically increased complexity, speed of change, great uncertainty, and lack of confidence, the call for “new leaders” has become louder. These contemporary challenges demand more than just a change in leadership competences. Scholars and practitioners have argued that a more fundamental shift in mindset is required. At the same time, leadership development is largely based on cognition-based learning to improve competences – skills and abilities (skillset) – through classroom exercises in traditional venues. This is in contrast to addressing the capacities of leaders – their inner resources (mindset) in the face of complex leadership challenges. Yet, changing mindsets is not easy and requires different training than competency-focused programs. However, a stay under primitive conditions in pristine nature does something to us. People relax, reflect, or even transform. Three consecutive empirical studies, conducted by the author, suggest that such a wilderness journey promotes the transformation towards purposeful, authentic leadership.

1. Introduction

A stay under primitive conditions in pristine nature does something to us. People relax, reflect, or even transform. Recent research indicates that such a journey promotes the development of purposeful, authentic leadership.

Despite the promising intentions after corporate scandals, corporate malfeasance and the 2008 financial crisis [1, 2], distrust of leadership is still problematic today. In addition, the contexts in which leaders operate have become increasingly complex over time [3, 4, 5, 6]. Focus on traditional organizational values (e.g. product and service quality, financial performance) is expanding to one with a broader orientation that also includes social responsibility and environmental stewardship [7, 8]. Moreover, in this regard, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015, provided a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future, that is, a sustainable world by 2030. The 17 goals cover a wide range of topics involving people with different needs, values, and beliefs. The SDGs are a partnership for humanity; they are multigenerational, with purpose at the core, and aim to ensure that nobody is left behind. This poses an extra tough challenge for organizations and their leaders. Yet, more and more companies see the purpose of business differently and aspire to thrive, over the long term, by serving all stakeholders [9]. The companies that embrace the opportunity from meeting the SDGs—an estimated $12 trillion and 380 million jobs globally, by 2030, in only four sectors—will thrive. However, while there is a vision of what needs to be done, progress in this vision so far has been disappointing. The multitude of contemporary challenges requires more than just a change in leadership competencies. Therefore, scholars and practitioners have argued that a more fundamental shift in mindset is required [10, 11, 12, 13]. However, leadership development is still largely based on cognition-based learning to improve competencies - skills and abilities (skillset) - rather than addressing the capabilities of leaders - their inner resources (mindset) in the face of complex leadership challenges [12]. Crossing this threshold requires social technologies, tools, methods, and leadership practices that deliver a shift in mindset and consciousness from ego-system awareness to eco-system awareness [14] —from a mindset that values one’s own well-being to a mindset that also values the well-being of one’s partners and of the whole.

More fundamentally, Maturana and Varela [15] have described the process of mind shift in an important maxim: “You can never control a living system. You can only disturb it” [15]. And with that, the argument continues: You cannot disturb a living system unless you transform its consciousness. And you cannot transform consciousness unless you make the system see and sense itself. Thus, to make a shift in mindset, the beam of conversational attention needs to be bent back to its source. Instead of just seeing others, we need to learn how to see and sense ourselves through the eyes of others and of the whole [14]. Accordingly, Woiwode et al. [16] assert that a living system is most effectively changed through inner transformations related to consciousness, ways of thinking, values, worldviews, beliefs, spirituality, and connection between man and nature. So, shifting mindsets is problematic and therefore requires different training than competency-focused programs [17, 18]. Traditional programs often rely to a bigger extent on formal learning, that is, knowledge-based learning through abstract texts. When it comes to changes in attitudes, values, and beliefs - rather than pure knowledge - experiential, emotional, and social learning is more effective than formal learning [19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. On that account, Inner Development Goals (IDG) [24] was recently founded, a non-profit organization for inner development that receives input from world-leading scientists and opinion leaders. The IDG framework of tools and qualities relate to what is needed to successfully work with complex societal issues, in particular those identified in UN’s Agenda 2030 and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. In this regard, experiential nature-based leadership transformation programs appear to be a promising tool for transforming towards purposeful, authentic leadership.

The central research question in this chapter is: what is the impact of wilderness experiences on the development of authentic leadership? To address this aim, in Section 2, a literature review will address the definition of authentic leadership and its capabilities, the status of leadership development in literature, and the role of trigger events in nature. The third section introduces the wilderness leadership transformation program conducted by the Foundation for Natural Leadership. The fourth section then presents the empirical studies, conducted by the author, that provide answers to the various research questions. In section five, concluding remarks are made and the findings are positioned within relevant academic debates. In the last section, some important practical implications will be presented.

2. Literature review

2.1 Authentic leadership

In the context of today’s challenging questions facing leadership, societal and academic focus has shifted to leaders who are optimistic, inspiring, authentic, demonstrate integrity, care for others, and are able to reflect on themselves [25, 26, 27, 28]. The concept of Authentic Leadership (AL) has been introduced to represent this desired leadership style [19, 29, 30, 31, 32]. Authentic leaders are guided by sound moral convictions and act in concordance with their deep-rooted beliefs and values, even under pressure. They are well aware of their self-image, strengths, and weaknesses, and strive to understand how their leadership influences peers and followers [29, 32]. Walumbwa et al. ([32], p. 94) defined authentic leadership as:

“a pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development.”

Scholars distinguish four components of authentic leadership. First is self-awareness, which refers to understanding one’s strengths and weaknesses. Through interactions with others, leaders with a strong sense of self-awareness gain valuable personal insights, including knowledge about the impact they have on others in general, and those they lead in particular. Second, internalized moral perspective, which is a process of self-regulation guided by moral standards and values. Authentic leaders are not tempted by opportunities that require violations of their core principles and obligations. Third, balanced processing of information, implies analyzing all relevant information before making a decision. Balanced processing helps authentic leaders to make the right decision for their group, organization, or society, even if this is not personally beneficial. Authentic leaders are therefore open to feedback. Fourth is relational transparency, which denotes openness and honesty in presenting oneself to others. It allows followers to understand the reasoning behind a leader‘s decision, minimizing fear of the unknown and stimulating feelings of trust [32, 33].

Empirical research on Authentic Leadership has shown positive relationships between authentic leadership and many positive individual (e.g. engagement, job satisfaction, work performance), group (e.g. teamwork), organization (organizational citizenship behavior), and society (social responsibility and environmental stewardship) outcomes [32, 33, 34]. These findings lend support to the assertion that authentic leadership responds to today’s leadership challenges [29, 30, 31]. A shift in leaders’ mindset, so they can become more authentic leaders, can be thought of as a prerequisite underpinning the depth of leaders’ self-reflection and with that promoting the effectiveness of leaders’ competences [35]. Supported by research on twins [36] and meta-analytic evidence (based on 140 independent effect sizes and from 13,656 unique participants) [37], the literature suggests that individuals can change their leadership style and improve their leadership qualities over the course of their life.

2.2 Leadership development

Leadership scholars have argued that intrapersonal leadership development practices are a loose collection of assumption-driven actions, rather than evidence-based programs [11, 38, 39]. Nevertheless, reviews suggest that leadership interventions can have the intended positive effects [37, 39, 40]. The most comprehensive review, a systematic meta-analysis of 200 empirical studies, suggested a 66% probability of achieving a positive outcome after leadership interventions [37]. On average, effect sizes were moderate, yet effectiveness varied widely across studies. Experimental studies have investigated specific outcomes of training or other interventions, such as task performance, job satisfaction, or persuasiveness. Yet, experimental studies have not focused on the effect of interventions on general authentic leadership style, rather than on specific behaviors or mental dispositions.

Only a few studies on the effects of leadership intervention include a thorough evaluation and measurement of leadership development outcomes [41, 42]. Studies with longitudinal measurements, which allow a systematic comparison of leadership attributes before and after intervention, are relatively rare [40]. A qualitative study by Baron and Parent [43] suggested that participants in a training program introspectively noticed development in three dimensions of authentic leadership (self-awareness, relational transparency, and balanced treatment of information). Another study used classroom trigger events and an exercise. The study concluded that these interventions stimulated a learning orientation towards authentic leadership based on a content analysis of students’ narratives [44]. While these findings suggest that authentic leadership development is achievable, there is still a need for quantitative research, which allows statistical testing [10, 31, 40, 44].

The qualitative and longitudinal quantitative studies described in this chapter indicate whether interventions in natural environments can help change the mindset of leaders, resulting in a more authentic leadership style.

2.3 Trigger events and nature settings

Various scholars suggest that “critical life events” – trigger events that shape people’s lives – are probably an important antecedent of authentic leadership [10, 29, 31, 45]. Trigger events can induce both dramatic and subtle changes in people’s perspectives and circumstances, and facilitate personal growth and development [29]. Thus, trigger events can affect mindsets [46, 47, 48]. The interaction between trigger events, initiated by a leadership development program, and reflection on them and the insight gained through coaching, for example, can lead to changes in leadership style [19, 49]. Typically, the subjective experience of trigger events can enable leaders to reflect upon their self-concept, basic beliefs, emotions, and worldview. In addition, trigger events can define anchor points from which their leadership approach and identity develop and grows [48]. In this context, Gardner et al. [29] argue that life stories and critical life events could be antecedents for authentic leadership development. Critical life events may involve childhood experiences or other major life events, such as a severe illness or a new career [29, 31, 46]. However, these experiences are described as coincidental events that can happen to a leader and not as part of a well-organized training event. Some recent studies have suggested that leadership training programs can be effective if they take place over a longer period of time and include seminars, planned trigger events, and individual coaching [10, 50, 51]. Yet, these studies fail to indicate what is meant by planned trigger events and what these should look like.

The founders of major religions and renowned mystics, shamans, philosophers, romantics, and natural history writers spent long (solitary) periods in remote nature reserves. The rites of passage and initiation ceremonies found in indigenous cultures are also often associated with extended periods in wilderness [52, 53, 54]. Maslow [55] argued that wilderness settings can evoke peak experiences. Peak experiences are transforming experiences involving holistic cognition, transcendence of ordinary time and space, and profound experiences of an integrated self, accompanied by feelings of bliss and wonder [56]. In a similar vein, Csikszentmihalyi [57] claimed that nature can nurture flow experiences, in which a person performing an activity is completely immersed in a feeling of energized focus, complete involvement, and enjoyment in the process of the activity. Both DeMares [58] and Laski [59] have specifically noted that wildlife interaction and observation can act as causal factors for peak experiences. Empirical research supports these claims [60, 61, 62, 63].

In addition, research indicates that spending time in nature can have profound psychological effects, including stress reduction [64] and attention restoration [65, 66]. Ulrich et al. [64] sought to investigate the extent to which exposure to different environments helped or hindered recovery from stress and determined whether exposure to natural environments promoted greater recovery than exposure to urban environments. Duvall and Kaplan [66] wrote extensively about the value of nature in restoring mental attention. The need for attention restoration is a response to mental fatigue. One way to restore the ability to mentally focus is by allowing fascination to reign for a while. Fascination is involuntary attention to something that is exciting, mysterious, or inherently interesting. The Kaplans [66] argued that immersion in a natural setting is particularly effective as nature can be a restorative environment that promotes fascination, allowing the brain’s turmoil to rest. The preference for natural environments is “an expression of underlying human needs” [66]. Furthermore, research suggests that nature experiences may lead to positive psychological effects, such as emotional well-being [64, 67, 68], personal development and increased self-awareness [69, 70, 71, 72, 73], self-sufficiency, independence, and self-regulation [65, 74, 75], creativity and inspiration, spirituality, greater authenticity, and connectedness [76, 77, 78], increased intentions to pro-social behavior [78, 79], and potential for contributing to sustainability [80].

Typically, peak experiences may act as trigger events constituting a ‘transitional space’ that facilitates moments of self-focused attention, self-reflection, narrative processes with peers, and opportunities to share life stories, promoting intrapersonal change [76, 77, 81].

3. The wilderness leadership transformation program

Fueled by the widely recognized need for a new wave of leaders whose characteristics include high moral standards, honesty, and genuine care, the Foundation for Natural Leadership (FNL), based in the Netherlands, invites leaders to develop their authentic leadership capacities by bonding with nature in some of the world’s most remote wilderness places. To build their program, the FNL has drawn from a body of thought, a framework called “U Process”, coined by Joseph Jaworski (1996) [82], and further developed by Scharmer [83], Scharmer and Kaufer [14] and Senge, Scharmer, Jaworski and Flowers [84]. The U process shows how individuals, teams, organizations, and large systems can build the essential leadership capacities needed to address the root causes of today’s social, environmental, and spiritual challenges. In essence, the U process lays down the path to a person’s inner source of leadership and creativity. It is a process that invites leaders to take a fresh look at the bigger picture and use all their senses to observe issues and challenges and create creative solutions.

Grounded in this framework the wilderness leadership program is a well-defined trajectory built around the important so-called trail principles: simplicity (disconnected from the mediated world and its built structures), sensing (opening up all senses), sharing (within dyads or councils with the ‘talking-stick’), silence (during hikes and night watch), sincerity (being honest to oneself and others), service (caring for nature and each other), and self (who am I and what is my work?). It is the facilitator’s role to monitor and apply the principles during the trail.

The program consists of a four to six-day wilderness trail with a group of five to seven participants, supplemented with one or two local guides and a certified FNL facilitator. Prior to the trail, an intake conversation is held, aimed to address the participants’ motivation, as well as a meeting aimed to get the participants to know each other and to provide practical information about the program. The design of the trail meets the conditions for participants to be fully immersed in nature. Participants go into wild, remote natural places without human-made facilities, make hikes every day, and take only a backpack with a sleeping bag and food. Trails are organized in remote wilderness places in Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, South Africa, Rwanda, and Botswana. Besides camping, walking in silence, periods of solitude, and sleeping under the stars, there is ample time for self-reflection, telling life stories, one-to-one conversations, and sharing experiences while sitting in a circle with the so-called “Indian talking stick”. After the trail the individual participant and the facilitator evaluate the event and the commitments and intentions that have emerged. Finally, after 2 months, trail participants come together to share how those commitments and intentions translate into practice. Participants included both female and male leaders, working in business, banking, and (non-)governmental institutions.

Obviously, the characteristics of such a training program can be found in other settings as well. After all, Kaplan and Kaplan [72] stated that the characteristics of a restorative environment are not necessarily confined to natural settings, and research suggests that high-impact experiences are not limited to natural environments but might also occur during sports while appreciating music and visual art [85] through artistic pursuits [86] and while practicing meditation and mindfulness [87]. Yet, in recent years many consultancy companies have focused on incorporating nature into their leadership programs. Incidentally, with varying degrees of success, after all, the guidance requires professional facilitating and coaching skills and the subtlety to guide the often profound transformation processes in the right direction. In contrast to the often rational-cognitive, consultancy method (“know and tell”), the delicate attitude formation process requires a more affective approach (“ask, listen, and give support”) with room for emotion in order to guide leaders in their transformation process. An adequate facilitator and coach training is therefore required, which is sometimes neglected.

4. Empirical research

Three empirical studies have been conducted, which (1) analyze leaders’ experiences and resulting intentions to change, (2) measure the actual impact of the training program on authentic leadership, and (3) examine the role of memories of experiences on their leadership style and leadership style change.

4.1 Study 1: the role of wilderness experiences in leaders’ development towards authentic leadership

The first empirical study is guided by two research questions: (1) What did the leaders experience during a nature-based training program? And (2) What intentions are triggered by leaders’ wilderness experiences?

The study used a sample of 97 senior leaders. Content analysis was used on trail reports made by participants of a wilderness-based leadership program [88]. Participants were asked to write personal reports about their wilderness experiences, and related behavioral intentions. Participants characterized many experiences with words like “intense, a sudden realization, deeply moving, powerful, enormous feeling, elevating, being reborn”, flagging peak experiences. Four types of peak experiences were apparent: heightened sense of self, awareness of one’s core values, a sense of deeply connected attention, and being in full presence. Data analysis revealed four types of intentions: be more aware of self, live by the inner compass, improve careful listening, and become more transparent (Table 1).

Intentions	Representative excerpts	AL Components
Be more aware of self	…the trail made me rediscover who I really am which enables me to make unprejudiced choices…	Self-awareness
	…By the trail I got to see who I am. Thereby I will make choices as to how I go live my life and work over the next few years and how I will contribute to the world around me…	(a process of reaching a deeper understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses)
Live by inner compass	…follow my core values and do the things which give me energy; walk my own path; take the time to reflect and to change…	Internalized moral behavior
	…I want to be sincere and honest and how I practice this in private and in business…	(a self-regularity process whereby leaders use their internal moral standards and values to guide their behavior rather than allow outside pressure to control them.)
Improve careful listening	…increase and evoke stillness on a regular basis creating overview and insight, radiating peace of mind, peace of action…	Balanced processing
	…Listen, listen and listen again to what is going on in people to be able to respond to this…	(Ability to analyze information objectively and explore other people’s opinions before making a decision)
Become more transparent	…going to a deeper level with my team by sharing more personal things…	Relational transparency
	… I will show more of my emotions. Emotion gives strength. I have found, although it makes me vulnerable, but that vulnerability makes me what I am…	(Openness and honesty in presenting one’s true self to others)

Table 1.

Intentions and resonance with AL component.

Being more aware of self (reported by the majority) implies the intention to better understand who one really is, to realize the importance of having an open mind, and to build in moments of reflection in their daily activities. Participants wanted to live and work more from their inner source, knowing their qualities and weaknesses. These intentions resonate with the component of self-awareness of authentic leadership, referring to a process of reaching a deeper understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses, and being cognizant of one’s impact on other people.

Living by their inner compass (reported by the majority) reflects participants’ intentions to stick to their vision and to be honest and sincere in business as well as in their personal and private contexts. They intended to follow their core values and take time to reflect on them. These intentions resonate well with the authentic leadership component of internalized moral behavior, describing the state that the leader is guided by internal moral standards and values.

Improve their capability of careful listening (reported by half of the participants) encompasses the intention to give full-hearted attention to their employees and colleagues in their work environment as well as to their beloved ones in their private daily lives. Participants intended to practice nonjudgmental listening and to increase and evoke quietness in themselves in order to create an overview and insight. In addition, they wanted to become a servant leader by wanting to empower and develop their employees, expressing stewardship, humility, respect, and authenticity. This intention resonates with the third component of authentic leadership: balanced processing, referring to the state that leaders objectively.

analyze all relevant data before making decisions, whilst soliciting views that challenge their deeply held positions.

Becoming more transparent (half of the participants) refers to the intention to make conscious choices and decisions on the basis of feelings of inner knowing and intuition, and clearly communicate those choices and decisions. Participants indicated the will to reveal more personal aspects in their teams. They were willing to show their vulnerability, creating a much more open and sincere interaction. These intentions resonate with the fourth component of authentic leadership: relational transparency, referring to openness and honesty in presenting one’s true self to others.

In conclusion, the study suggests that being immersed in nature may act as a significant life event that has the potential to foster authentic leadership.

4.2 Study 2: nature-based training program fosters authentic leadership

The second study aimed to answer the following research question: To what extent has authentic leadership increased after participation in a wilderness-based training program?

The experimental study (n = 66) tested intrapersonal change towards authentic leadership after participation in a nature-based training program that included a stay in a remote wilderness without any facilities [89]. Authentic leadership was measured before, immediately after, and 1 year after the training program. While the literature assumes authentic leadership development to be a lifelong learning process [38, 45], long-term change is by necessity implemented through a series of short-term changes. Also, the trigger event effect of immersion in wilderness could catalyze change. Therefore, the following hypothesis was tested: Participation in a nature-based training leadership transformation program increases authentic leadership.

Two weeks before the wilderness experience, participants received an invitation by email to complete the web-based pre-event survey. Ten weeks after the wilderness experience and at the end of the entire training program, participants received a similar invitation to complete the post-event survey. One year later, participants were asked to fill out a delayed post-event survey. As short-term effects might fade away over time [90], the delayed survey was needed to examine persistence of effects.

Of the training program participants, 89 (83%) completed the pre-event survey, and 66 (62%) completed the pre- and both post-event surveys. Of the participants included in the analyses, 33% were female, and the mean age was 45 (SD = 6.38). All three surveys contained the same scales. The 16-item Authentic Leadership Inventory [32] was used to measure participants’ leadership orientation.

The results of the pre-event survey show that, before the training program, participants were already oriented towards authentic leadership (Table 2). Still, all authentic leadership components increased after the training program. The effect sizes of all increases in authentic leadership components were in the range of .61 to .75, which can be qualified as effect sizes between medium and large. These figures confirm the hypothesis that participation in the program increases authentic leadership. Increases in authentic leadership persisted after the training program. Balanced processing increased during the year after with 0.31 (t = 4.51, p < .001); all other authentic leadership components were statistically equal for the post and 1 year-after measurement.

Authentic leadership component	Mean (SD) pre-training	Mean (SD) post-training	Mean (SD) 1 year after training	Difference pre–post	t-value	p-value	Cohen’s d
Self-awareness	3.84 (0.56)	4.21 (0.48)	4.25 (0.56)	0.37	5.23	<.001^*	0.71
Internalized moral perspective	4.26 (0.58)	4.63 (0.39)	4.58 (0.43)	0.37	4.83	<.001^*	0.75
Balanced processing	3.92 (0.58)	4.27 (0.52)	4.58 (0.43)	0.35	5.81	<.001^*	0.64
Relational transparency	4.25 (0.52)	4.56 (0.50)	4.56 (0.39)	0.31	4.67	<.001^*	0.61

Table 2.

Differences in authentic leadership components before and after training program.

The increases in authentic leadership were not statistically different between sexes and between locations of the training program as estimated by independent sample t-tests.

In conclusion, the study’s natural experiment offered evidence that all components of authentic leadership can increase among participants, following a nature-based training program. Moreover, the change did not fade away over time, as suggested by the delayed (1 year) measurement.

4.3 Study 3: episodic memories of wilderness experiences foster sustainable leadership style transformation

The last empirical study focused on two research questions: (1) Which memories of the wilderness-based training program do the leaders relive in their work situations? And (2) What changes in their leadership style do leaders perceive as influenced by their training experience memories?

The study encompasses a qualitative analysis of interviews with 36 leaders who had participated in a wilderness leadership transformation program in the past (on average 6 years before) [91]. The research evaluates (1) work situations prompting participants to recall memories of a wilderness-based leadership training program, (2) the content of such memories, and (3) the leadership attitudes and behaviors inspired by those memories.

Experiences are usually immediately forgotten, only some experiences and aspects of those experiences become part of people’s memories [91, 92]. Episodic memory involves recalling the spatial–temporal context of an original, most often first-time experience [93, 94]. It is personal, emotional, imbued with detail, and involves “players” and specific places [95]. Specifically, emotion-laden experiences constitute episodic memories [96, 97, 98] that inform self-identity, purpose, and the direction of decisions [99, 100].

Central life events are usually infused with emotion, both at the time of experience and while reminiscing [85, 92, 101]. The remembrance of an emotional event (i.e. episodic memory) often involves rich representations of the original experience [94, 99]. Also, frequent retrieval (i.e. rehearsal) of episodic memories enhances accessibility patterns, increasing the emotional and cognitive content of the events [93]. Typically, wilderness immersion can create impactful emotional experiences, constituting episodic memories that act as significant life events.

The findings of the present study suggest that at moments of emotional pressure and psychological stress, episodic memories of wilderness experiences have a positive influence on actual leadership style. Episodic memories involved moments of solitude, a deep connection with nature, and peer-to-peer counseling.

Many participants mentioned typical work situations, which evoked memories of peak experiences, such as coping with stressful situations. Interviewees mentioned situations during work where they dealt with opposition and negative feelings. For example, one interviewee responded, “When I have a difficult meeting, where I have to persuade my people to accept new realities.” (Director, Software company).

Others mentioned situations wherein they had to cope with high pressure and gain overview. An interviewee said, “When under great work stress, I am actively looking to put things into perspective” (Entrepreneur).

Additionally, about 20% of interviewees conveyed that their memories were triggered by certain types of challenging work situations (e.g. preparing and giving presentations for group meetings). A participant recalled the following situation:

A big conference was organized in America, and I really wanted to do things differently. The remembrance gave me inspiration and courage. (Director, R&D).

Around 30% of the interviewees relied on memories during brainstorming sessions and when creativity was needed to explicate complex issues. An interviewee stated, “Memories arise during team sessions while brainstorming” (Director). Another responded, “When preparing for important meetings and telling my personal story using metaphors” (CEO). The characteristics of work situations that evoked memories typically included other people and stress.

Furthermore, memories of experiences from the training program were frequently.

recalled. Around 40% of the respondents reported that they thought about their wilderness experiences almost daily and the remaining relived it every week.

Interviewees believed that their wilderness experiences influenced their leadership style permanently. Perceived changes included a shift in consciousness, peace of mind, increased self-confidence, and open interconnectedness with peers and followers.

The results specify that work situations evoking memories of wilderness experiences can be characterized as involving tense personal contacts, stressful occurrences, and challenging moments. Amid tense work situations, episodic memories are daily or at least weekly relived in great detail. This study indicates that leaders’ episodic memories of wilderness-based training involve moments of solitude, a deep connection with nature, and peer-to-peer counseling. Thus, episodic memories of wilderness experiences can adequately deal with challenging work situations involving peers and followers.

The present study indicates that not only direct nature experiences but also episodic memories of nature experiences can be meaningful to individuals. Hence, the present study suggests that under emotional pressure and psychological stress, such episodic memories can have a positive influence on actual leadership behavior.

Furthermore, the findings suggest that participants considered these episodic memories as impactful on their attitude towards leadership and leadership behavior and led to an enduring transformation to a more authentic leadership style.

5. Conclusion and discussion

As argued in the Introduction, contemporary challenges (e.g. distrust, pace of change, uncertainty, broader societal orientation, sustainability goals) call for a shift in leaders’ mindset, more than for improved skills and abilities (skillset). How such a shift in mindset – a transformation of leadership style – can possibly be achieved is therefore an important practical and scientific question [10, 11, 12].

The findings of the three studies suggest that the studied nature-based training program does foster more purposeful, authentic leadership. This is an example of a shift in mindset, as the components of authentic leadership, rather than learning a particular skill, reflect changes in thought and behavior: a clear self-concept, focus on moral standards, beliefs, and values, an empathetic listening attitude, and openness and honesty towards others. Therefore, it seems plausible that a nature-based leadership transformation program could be a suitable tool to achieve the inner development goals (IDG). As such, the findings suggest that commitment to authentic leadership would enhance leaders‘ ability to respond to current challenges. Greater ethical responsibility and transparency on the part of leaders could lead to greater social responsibility and environmental stewardship, as well as help, build public trust.

In the results of particularly study 1 and 3, the emotional content of the experiences and memories stands out. When participants describe their peak experiences during the trail, they often do so in terms that suggest underlying emotions. Peak experiences are positive, emotionally, and cognitively intense, stand out and have the potential to fuel lasting change in subjects [55]. In addition, during the interviews, participants relived personal, important, and emotion-laden moments, not seldom accompanied by tears in their eyes. Typically, emotions related to a past event, and identified as important in the mind, can inform current feelings, thoughts, and actions [101]. Therefore, emotional experiences must be recognized as an important means of generating insights that can bring about change - learning new things and changing mental dispositions and behaviors. With little room for emotion, however, leadership development programs predominantly opt for cognition-based trajectories, and again, mostly in workplace/classroom settings [12, 40, 41, 42]. A meta-analysis of 335 samples [102] estimated the effectiveness of leadership training over many years (1951–2014) and organizations. Their analysis indicated that leadership training is effective in improving affective, cognitive, and skills-based outcomes. Thereby, the researchers suggested that the most effective training programs include all three - cognition-based - delivery methods, that is information-, demonstration- and practice-based methods, preferably performed at a location that is on-site. Only in one sentence did they mention that “future research should examine whether affective content can improve affective outcomes to a greater extent” ([102], p. 1701). Thus, very little has been written about the role of emotions in leadership training, and there is an unavoidable lack of findings on the results of using emotion concepts to guide leadership development research. It leaves us with unanswered questions about how leaders can develop their leadership capabilities through emotional experiences. This gives rise to the suggestion that perhaps the most fruitful way to innovate leadership development is to incorporate emotional concepts to address the root causes of learning in leaders.

Of course, self-report data should be appraised critically when it comes to drawing inferences about how effects are brought about, as the way people perceive how things work might be different from how things actually work, and people are not always necessarily honest. Yet, for some findings, it is hard to imagine that self-reports produce artifacts, such as the finding that leaders often recall episodic memories reflecting intense nature experiences when they face challenges at work.

Participants reported they had rediscovered their ‘true nature’ in stillness. Afterward, as suggested by the interviews, they regularly felt this stillness inside, creating overview and insight, and radiating peace of mind. This mindset shift goes beyond the benefits of well-being and spiritual growth, which are more focused on the self than on others, as documented by research on nature and spirituality [60, 63, 71]. A fruitful area of future research would be to examine how, by what psychological mechanisms, unfamiliar challenges in a natural environment influence changes in leadership style. Perhaps, stronger feelings of empowerment and self-confidence are important mechanisms.

Qualitative research is usually not used for identifying cause-effect relationships. Conclusions relying on findings from reports and interviews could be seen as speculative. Yet, in the studies’ context, self-report measurements are perhaps more accurate than a standard interpretation would suggest. For example, some participants perceived a specific wilderness experience as a defining moment, evoking thoughts, reflections, and intentions, and subsequently recalled that moment during important events as a leader. By assigning this meaning to the experience, framing it as an important moment, and storing the memory as a tag that denotes rich associations and is connected to behavioral intentions, they made the experience a trigger for their mindset shift. Thus, the act of perceiving a cause-effect relationship can constitute a cause-effect relationship. Following this reasoning, as participants believe wilderness experiences, storytelling, and unfamiliar challenges change them as leader, it is highly likely that these indeed contribute to leadership style change.

Furthermore, this research is leader-centric, focusing on the intentions and behavior of individual leaders. However, leadership involves a dynamic social interaction within a particular situational context. The organizational context has not been part of this research. Hence, the influence of this context on the sustainability of changed leadership style requires further research. It could, for instance, be interesting to investigate to what extent the change of leadership style is valued in organizations dominated by millennials.

6. Key practical implications

First, participants in the examined training program formulated the purpose for which they wanted to participate in the program before it started. Defining purpose is one of the key attributes at the beginning of the program. Leadership transformation is a process of personal growth, therefore careful formulation of personal purpose is important. Participants who can explicitly formulate their personal purpose, possibly assisted in a coaching conversation, make a good start in terms of self-awareness, one of the components of authentic leadership. Therefore, it is recommended that training designers build in that each leadership training starts with mapping and engaging participants’ personal. Involvement contributes to commitment and may give direction to the entire training program. Similarly, organizations might consider having their managers formulate their purpose as a starting point for the formulation of strategic organizational goals. This could contribute to the significance of these goals for those involved and thus to their personal commitment to achieving them [9].

Second, being alone in nature for a longer period of time evokes feelings of a deep connection with nature. The findings indicated that the challenge of experiencing periods of solitude in pristine nature or being alone at night-watch posed an unfamiliar physical and emotional challenge. The leaders stated that these experiences had made a deep impression. The experience of being alone made them realize the importance of taking ample time for self-reflection to create new insights (internalizing moral perspective). Moreover, they felt more self-confident and experienced more peace of mind. Leaders reported that after this experience they felt capable of dealing with other challenges as well, such as the challenge to change their leadership style to become a more authentic leader. Therefore, it makes sense to incorporate longer periods of self-reflection in leadership training programs and leadership curricula of Business schools and MBAs. Organizations can think of creating a climate in which it is possible to take breaks during meetings in which team members can take the time to let things sink in and reflect on them, for example by taking a short silent walk.

Third, participants are encouraged to consciously go into nature. It does not have to be wild nature. It can be a garden as well, as long as it is a place in which they can connect with nature again and again. Returning to this place, one gets to know it through all the different seasons and see all subtle changes. A few hours per week, just being in this place, maybe with a notebook to write things down or make a drawing. But always focusing on the relationship with the place, allowing it to become alive, to be full of meaning. Being receptive and listening, and really sensing nature could leaders help remember their trail experiences and with that the importance of being attentive to others with pure intention, becoming a more purposeful, authentic leader.