Identifying the Gaps between Biopsychosocial Research and Human Behavior: Implications for Happiness and Well-Being

Abstract

This chapter reviews recent research in psychology, neuroscience, and quantum physics relating to perception, paradox, synchronicity, brain chemicals, brain mapping, and the so-called social brain, discussing the gaps between scientific findings and the integration of these findings into human behavior. Specific implications of the identified gaps relating to happiness and well-being are identified and seven quantum skills are introduced. These quantum skills are designed to pragmatize recent research; thus, promoting the integration of new scientific knowledge into human behavior. The authors propose future research that measures the efficacy of these skills for creating sustained happiness and well-being at the individual level, as well as increased global flourishing.

1. Introduction

The desire for happiness appears to be universal, though its attainment remains elusive. Significant differences in the definition of happiness across cultures, coupled with widely varying theories regarding how it can be achieved, add measurement complexity. For example, Western cultures typically associate happiness with positive affect; thus, Western happiness research has historically defined happiness as the presence of positive emotions [1]. The Western happiness literature primarily uses measures of subjective well-being (SWB) as a proxy for happiness [2, 3]; and Western psychological theories of happiness typically focus on individualistic values such as autonomy, self-esteem, and mastery [4]. Even though the Western happiness literature differs considerably as to the factors that contribute to happiness, there is general agreement that the result of happiness is an emotional sense of subjective well-being (SWB).

On the other hand, Eastern cultures associate happiness with contentment or peace of mind [5, 6]. Happiness is not associated with positive affect; and, contrary to Western cultures, Eastern cultures do not view happiness as incompatible with suffering [7]. Thus, it is not surprising that while Western theories associate happiness with high arousal positive states (e.g., excitement), Eastern happiness theories typically define happiness using terms associated with low arousal states (e.g., calmness) [8]. Eastern beliefs regarding happiness have their roots in ancient religions (e.g., Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sufism); yet they are reflected in contemporary Eastern secular cultural values such as cooperation and harmony [1].

In addition to cultural differences, the happiness literature has attempted to differentiate between hedonic happiness/well-being (i.e., positive affect) and eudaimonic happiness/well-being (i.e., self-actualization) [2, 9]. Though many studies have attempted to differentiate these two concepts, there has not been a consistent definition of the two terms; thus, measurement issues add complexity and confusion to the findings. Additionally, there appears to be an overlap between the two constructs as measures of hedonic and eudaimonic happiness strongly correlate [10]. Kashdan et al. [3] comment: “until issues of definition, methodology, and relatedness are better understood, research programs attending to differences in these types of well-being will be relatively weak and difficult to interpret meaningfully” (p. 227).

As most Western research uses happiness and well-being as interchangeable, or at least inter-related concepts [11], this chapter will not differentiate between them. Though there may be differences between happiness (feeling good) and well-being (feeling fulfilled) this chapter will not make such a distinction. Rather the authors will follow the precedent of other research and use the term well-being as an overarching construct that encompasses happiness [12]. However, contrary to other Western research that focuses on techniques for increasing well-being by increasing positive affect, this chapter presents a comprehensive set of life skills grounded in concepts that are congruent with both Western and Eastern perspectives about happiness, as well as both eudemonic and hedonic constructs. These skills are derived from concepts in quantum physics and recent discoveries in neuroscience, as well as research in the field of positive psychology. They enable users to apply a comprehensive set of research findings from three disparate disciples in order to close the gap between what is known scientifically and the beliefs and behaviors of the general population. It is hypothesized that closing this gap will lead to higher levels of happiness and well-being.

2. Positive psychology research

During the last decade of the twentieth century, the field of psychology began to shift from a focus on pathology to a focus on possibility [13]. While numerous factors contributed to this shift, a growing body of research on the subjectivity of human perception undoubtedly played a significant role [14, 15]. The 1990s were characterized by breakthrough research into the perceptual process, enabled by positron emission tomography (PET) and later functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Research into the role of intention and attention in the perceptual process led to an increasing awareness that intention is the psychological process by which humans create reality [16]. Intention shifts attention; thus, providing access to new perceptual choices that otherwise would have been missed.

Positive psychology focuses on identifying factors that enable people to live a good life—a life of happiness. Obviously, intention is a key factor. Intention causes people to focus their attention on certain goals, while ignoring a plethora of other perceptual possibilities, thus aligning perceptions with desires. This led to the first wave of positive psychology interventions including affirmations, visual imagery, and gratitude journals, to name only a few. More recently a growing body of researchers has labeled positive psychology as hedonic due to its focus on individual mastery and positive affect as the critical ingredients for achieving happiness [17]. In other words, the early research in positive psychology framed happiness as the absence of negative emotions and focused more on individual agency than on human connectivity.

Scholarly pushback regarding this Western bias in happiness research has led to an emergent wave of scholarship referred to by a variety of labels: existential positive psychology [18], the second wave of positive psychology [19, 20], and positive psychology 2.0 [21]. At the heart of positive psychology 2.0 (PP2.0) is the recognition that optimal well-being comes from the dynamic interplay between positive and negative experiences and emotions [21]. In other words, PP2.0 recognizes the importance of dialectical (paradoxical) thinking which is based on the philosophical idea that everything is composed of opposites. For example, it is possible to feel both happy and sad, and to love and hate simultaneously. Nothing is ever all good or all bad.

Numerous scholars have expressed concern that by focusing only on the positive, the first wave of positive psychology failed to adequately acknowledge that people live in a multi-faceted reality—not a binary world. The second wave of positive psychology recognizes well-being requires “appreciating and even embracing the complex and ambivalent nature of life” ([11], p. 1757). In certain situations, positive qualities (e.g., optimism) can even be detrimental to well-being, while frequently labeled negative emotions (e.g., anxiety) are sometimes useful [11]. Cognitive flexibility is a prerequisite to seeing both the positive and negative aspects embedded in each of life’s challenges. Seeing life from multiple perspectives requires dialectical thinking.

The theoretical evolution of positive psychology not only integrates hedonic and eudaimonic definitions of well-being, but PP2.0 is also a step toward integrating Eastern and Western perspectives on happiness. As noted above, there is increasing recognition that hardship and negative emotions may be unavoidable aspects of a good life. Ho and Ho [22] comment that “true happiness includes the wisdom to embrace unhappiness as a part of life” noting that happiness may “come naturally when one is no longer obsessed with pursuing it” (p. 64).

Yet, even as the field of positive psychology is broadening its definition of happiness and well-being, a large population of Western “happiness seekers” [23] continue to focus on simply learning techniques (e.g., gratitude journals, affirmations, and vision boards) rather than expanding their worldview to incorporate the scientific discoveries of the twenty-first century and their behavior to align with these discoveries. There are tens of thousands of instantly downloadable self-help applications claiming happiness to be only a few clicks (or techniques) away [23], yet their long-term efficacy is primarily untested. This chapter is not meant to discount the value of digital self-help apps, rather it is intended to provide a complementary and much more comprehensive set of skills that integrate scientific findings from three disparate disciplines into a new way of conceptualizing, creating, and sustaining human happiness and a subjective sense of well-being.

3. Neuroscience research

During the past two decades, neuroscience research has made remarkable discoveries about the human brain. Many of these discoveries are a result of novel ways of imaging the brain such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). This noninvasive procedure creates computerized images that allow researchers to digitally track individual thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in order to map the corresponding biological pathways. Some of the pathways and circuitry identified relate to the experience of well-being. An example is the so-called social brain [24]. The social brain circuitry suggests that humans are hardwired to connect with others and that human connection is a prerequisite for optimal thriving [25]. A sense of connection reduces anxiety and depression [26]; conversely, loneliness increases mental, physical, and emotional distress [27].

Similarly, new knowledge regarding neurotransmitters such as oxytocin and dopamine provides new insights into the biochemistry of well-being. Dopamine, sometimes referred to as the pleasure chemical [28], has mental health implications far beyond the treatment of addictions [29] and ADHD [30]. Recent research indicates dopamine levels can be increased via lifestyle changes such as a high protein diet [31], physical exercise [32], adequate sleep [33], listening to music [34], sunlight exposure [35], and yoga [36], thus increasing a sense of well-being. Meditation has an especially strong correlation with increased dopamine levels. One study identified a 65% increase in dopamine production after 1 hour of meditating, compared to a control group that was resting quietly [37].

Recent research has also expanded our understanding of the role that oxytocin plays in well-being. This brain chemical, often referred to as the bonding hormone, is not only released during the birthing process to promote bonding between female mammals and their offspring, it can also be released by experiences ranging from simple human touch to eye contact with a pet [38]. Empathy and trust are both increased by oxytocin [39, 40]. Oxytocin produces antidepressant-like effects in animals [41] and low levels of oxytocin are believed to be a factor in human depression [42]. Current research is also investigating the role that serotonin plays in mood disorders and mental health issues [43].

One of the most remarkable discoveries is the identification of the brain’s neuroplasticity, an umbrella term that refers to the brain’s ability to modify, change and adapt both structure and function throughout life and in response to experience [44]. Using fMRI researchers have discovered that individuals can actually change neural connections, thus re-wiring their brains [45]. Furthermore, the development of new neural networks appears to be facilitated via positive interactions with others. Studies at Oxford University found that as adult monkeys were encouraged to interact in positive ways with other monkeys, the brain pathways linked to the social brains of these monkeys increased both in size and connectivity [46]. At the human level, research suggests that the human brain has the ability to synchronize with other brains creating increased empathy and cooperation which leads to a greater sense of well-being [47]. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIS) has shown that brain synchrony increases when individuals mirror the body movements of others; while MRI studies have demonstrated the power of eye contact to stimulate the mirror neurons in the limbic system, thus deepening a sense of connection to others and increasing awareness of others’ intentions [48].

Even though neuroscience research has made remarkable progress in understanding brain functioning, researchers have not yet fully identified the role that the brain plays in human consciousness. Chalmers [49] refers to this as the “hard problem” in neuroscience and purports that consciousness can never be explained solely via classical analysis due to the qualitative/subjective properties (i.e., qualia) of lived experience. Though other researchers [50] have a very different perspective and continue to strive to analyze the neural correlates of consciousness, there is a growing body of research suggesting that consciousness is a function of quantum processes in the brain [51]. These scholars believe brain/mind/consciousness processes are so complex that they cannot be reduced to the sum of their elementary ingredients [52]; furthermore, if consciousness is a function of quantum processes at the subatomic level of the brain, these processes will never be observable via classical brain mapping.

4. Quantum physics research

We are living in an era that could be called The Quantum Age [53]. The technological advancements of the past century have been made possible by a theory of physics called quantum mechanics. Nuclear power, computers, PET scans, and artificial intelligence represent only a few of the remarkable outcomes of this so-called “new physics.” Quantum mechanics, or quantum physics as it is commonly called, is the science of the microscopic realm. Classical, or Newtonian physics, is the science of the observable world of three-dimensional matter. Not only is the scale of investigation different, but the theories that govern the world of matter are directly opposed to the laws that govern subatomic behavior [54].

For example, Newton’s first law of motion purports that if an object is moving in a straight line, it will continue moving in a straight line forever, unless it is acted upon by an outside force. This law, a fundamental principle in classical physics, works flawlessly in the macro world. It has led to a belief that the physical world is stable and predictable. Quantum physics, however, proves this to be an incorrect assumption. At the subatomic level, particles do not behave in a predictable manner. They make unexpected and unexplainable quantum leaps which defy rational analysis [55]. At the subatomic level, the parts do not determine the behavior of the whole; rather, the whole determines the behavior of the parts. Subatomic particles can also interact across great distances of time and space, a concept referred to as nonlocal causation which means the interactions between the whole and the parts can never be precisely known [56]. Therefore, classical analytical processes are inadequate for explaining the behavior of subatomic particles.

The theory of quantum mechanics also violates Newton’s second law of motion. This law, which states that every action is accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction, is used to predict the behavior of objects in the macro world. At the subatomic level, particle behavior is impossible to predict due to nonlocal interactions [54]. In quantum physics, statistical probability replaces Newtonian predictability [57].

Newtonian physics assumes the physical world is objective. At the macro level of classical physics, observation does not change the nature of what is being observed. This is not the case at the subatomic level where human observation influences subatomic particle behavior. For example, the expectations of the scientist appear to influence how subatomic particles behave [58]. At the subatomic level, Newtonian objectivity is replaced by quantum subjectivity. Subatomic interactions are not only unexplainable and unpredictable, but they are also, in some yet unidentifiable way, affected by the intentions of their observers [59].

It is apparent that the basic principles of quantum mechanics violate the laws of classical Newtonian physics. Newton’s laws, however, still apply in the observable realm of everyday experience where quantum effects are suppressed, or, at least, camouflaged, by the Principle of Correspondence [57]. This principle, based on a mathematical formula called Planck’s constant, shows that there is a strong relationship between an object’s size and its susceptibility to quantum uncertainty. Consequently, until recently, scientists have been hesitant to apply quantum concepts to human behavior. Opinions are, however, shifting. Recent brain research suggests that we are, indeed, quantum beings [60, 61]. Humans, like everything else in the universe, are composed of subatomic particles that originated from one common particle pool. Even though humans are material beings, subject to Newton’s classical laws, they also have an invisible, nonmaterial dimension (the mind or consciousness) that may function according to quantum principles [59, 62].

5. Identifying the knowing/doing happiness gaps

The research reviewed in this chapter suggests a gap between information in the scientific literature and the worldview of many, if not most, of the world’s population. The first of these gaps relates to the subjectivity of human perception and the role of intention. Research in positive psychology and quantum physics demonstrates the subjectiveness of the three-dimensional world. Many people acknowledge that perception is reality; yet it appears that many others base their happiness on subjective, incomplete judgments regarding the material world. Perception research suggests that at least 80% of the information used to create a perception comes from the brain, while only 20% comes from external stimuli [63, 64]. New skills are needed—skills that can assist in neutralizing the tendency for selective perception, perceptual blindness, perceptual constancy, and premature cognitive commitment, all of which can be blocks to happiness [65, 66].

Renowned neuroscientist, Iain McGilchrist [67] writes: “The kind of attention we bring to bear on the world changes the nature of the world we attend to … Attention changes what kind of a thing comes into being for us: in that way it changes the world” (p. 28). Physicist Fred Alan Wolf agrees. He comments: “How matter appears depends on our minds’ choice; reality is a matter of choice” ([64], p. 129). British physicist David Bohm [59] referred to the creation of matter as a cosmic dance choreographed by human perception. The implications for human happiness are self-evident.

A second gap relates to the role of paradox. Western cultures’ over-reliance on logical, linear thinking has limited many people’s ability to think paradoxically; yet a sustained sense of well-being necessitates paradoxical thinking. We do not live in a black-and-white universe. Opposites can co-exist. Positive psychology 2.0 research purports that authentic happiness necessitates acknowledging, and even embracing, unhappiness [22]. Paradox is also deeply embedded in quantum theory. Energy can manifest as both particle and wave, and the three-dimensional world of matter is composed solely of invisible energy [54].

It is difficult for many people to acknowledge the value of paradoxical or dialectical thinking. Logic and rationality have been highly valued for centuries. Aristotle’s (384–322 B.C.) Law of the Excluded Middle paved the way for the Western world’s obsession with logical thinking [66]. Yet, the complexities of contemporary society, coupled with radical new scientific discoveries, challenge the current accuracy of Aristotle’s law. Recent research in fuzzy logic, based on the premise that the universe is non-binary, is now being widely used to inform the technological revolution [68]; yet many humans are still stuck in either/or thinking, believing things are one way or the other (e.g., good or bad; right or wrong).

Rosch purports that humans’ obsession with binary thinking originates in the structure of the brain [68]. Even though the neocortex can create and choose among paradoxical options, many people operate out of the early reptilian and limbic centers which are incapable of conceptualizing seemingly contradictory options. Additionally, many continue to rely solely on left-brain cognitive processes, thus, perceiving only a limited perspective of “reality,” failing to acknowledge that opposites co-exist. The implications for happiness are again self-evident.

A third knowing/doing gap relates to quantum theory’s proposition that there is an infinite supply of energy in the universe. According to Einstein’s famous formula E = mc², the energy contained in matter is equal to its mass multiplied by the speed of light squared. Therefore, even the smallest particle of matter contains a huge potential of concentrated energy [53]. The question becomes why do so many people have trouble accessing the physical energy that lies dormant in their bodies? The soaring statistics relating to burnout [69] and depression [70] suggest that many still feel victims of their environments rather than co-creators of their experiences.

Neuroscience research provides insight into solutions by providing evidence of the regenerative power of the human brain—not only to see things differently but to literally re-wire cognitive pathways [44] and to produce and release the so-called happiness and harmony hormones [28, 29]. Unfortunately, many, if not most, still believe happiness is a function of external events rather than a by-product of individual cognitions and behaviors. Taking responsibility for lifestyle decisions such as diet, exercise, sleep and relaxation, as well as paying conscious attention to mental processes, can impact brain chemistry and increase happiness and a sense of well-being [33, 35].

A fourth knowing/doing gap relates to ways of knowing. William James used the word noetic to describe the process of knowing without sensory input [71]. Both quantum theory and neuroscience research demonstrate the limitations of the human senses. Quantum field theory postulates that humans are connected to an infinite field of intelligence that lies beyond sensory perception [55, 72, 73]. Research suggests that mindfulness practices connect humans to this infinite field of possibility. Mindfulness transcends the limitations of the human senses which, due to human perceptual apparatus, always provide limited input. Numerous studies have found that mindfulness practices result in an increased ability to evaluate all possible choices, leading to improved decision-making [74, 75]. Borysenko [76] has found that meditation facilitates “inner listening” and leads to the identification of more creative choices. Increasing dopamine activity in the brain has also been found to be correlated with improved decision-making [77]; and eating high protein food creates increased levels of the precursor for dopamine [31]. These research findings raise questions regarding society’s current focus on collecting and analyzing ever-more Big Data in order to find the right answers.

Fuzzy logic’s Law of Incompatibility is based on the premise that “as complexity rises, precise statements lose meaning and meaningful statements lose precision” ([68], p. 42). This law demonstrates the inverse relationship between the complexity of a situation and the value of ever-more data collection. Attempting to measure complex problems often increases their fuzziness. Human happiness mandates learning to balance sensory input with noetic processing. Reality is larger than any amount of data collected.

The fifth gap relates to the interconnectivity of everything. In quantum theory, two particles, once connected, remain connected even across distances of time and space [54]. Furthermore, due to their quantum entanglement, any measurement of one of these particles impacts the behavior of the second one (Principle of Non-separability). Quantum computers, using the principles of quantum entanglement, are creating once unimaginable technological advances. This same principle has the capacity to transform our view of our relationships with each other and our planet.

Unfortunately, Western cultures with their focus on extreme individuality typically have not recognized the applicability of the non-separability principle to happiness. However, the neuroscience literature extends this concept to the macro level. For example, fNIS research demonstrates that when humans connect deeply to others by mirroring body movements and maintaining eye contact, their brains synchronize, resulting in increased empathy and cooperation, as well as an increased sense of well-being [47]. This discovery underscores the impact that humans have on each other. It also suggests that as each person begins to think and act differently, her/his changes can impact the thoughts and behavior of others [78].

The sixth gap relates to the human desire for prediction and control. The stifling of this need often results in frustration and stress. Yet, research in a variety of disparate disciplines shines a spotlight on the futility of this desire. In quantum theory subatomic particles make unexpected quantum leaps that cannot be explained through a process of rational analysis; thus, at the subatomic level, the concept of predictability is null and void. This does not mean that subatomic movements are random. It means they are not the result of a local cause [54]. Wheatley explains ([79], p. 20):

Our inability to predict individual occurrences at the quantum level is not a result of inherent disorder. Instead, the results we observe speak to a level of quantum interconnectedness … There is so much order that our attempts to separate out discrete moments create the appearance of disorder.

Research in a variety of disciplines suggests that the physical universe is a self-organizing system with intelligence embedded in its structure, evolving into ever higher levels of complexity and coherency [53]. Chaos theory demonstrates how this principle works at the macro level where it has been found that the flapping of a butterfly’s wings in Tokyo can influence the weather in New York (the so-called butterfly effect) [80]. At both the subatomic and the macro level, there appears to be an invisible ordering principle at work. If chaos is the engine of evolution, as Prigogine and Stengers [80] suggest, humans need to learn to ride the rapids of change gracefully, trusting in each other and life’s self-organizing processes. The well-being literature consistently emphasizes the important role that trust in others plays in creating a sense of well-being [81, 82, 83]. Resisting change and resenting chaos decreases the capacity for human happiness, while trust increases a sense of well-being.

The final knowing/doing gap relates to the critical role that relationships play in human happiness and well-being. Classical neuroscience research into the so-called “social brain” demonstrates that humans are hardwired to connect with others [24]. The literature clearly confirms that human connection is required for optimal flourishing. Holt-Lunstad et al. [25] found a 50% increased likelihood of survival for research participants with stronger social networks, regardless of age, sex, or initial health status. Tiwari [27] found that the effect of loneliness on the human body is equivalent to that of smoking a pack of cigarettes each day over many years. Conversely, connection reduces anxiety and depression and releases oxytocin and dopamine; thus, increasing human happiness [26]. Much of the early happiness research focused on individual mastery and personal agency. The research above suggests that more attention must be given to the role relationships play in happiness and well-being.

Relationships also appear to be a basic design feature at the subatomic level, Quantum physics research documents that matter comes into existence only through relationships. Subatomic particles are abstractions whose properties are definable and observable only through their interactions with other particles.

Physics has not, however, always been viewed as a science of relationships. Newton saw particles as distinct entities with rigid boundaries, billiard balls moved around by external forces [73]. Newtonian objects can influence each other’s external behavior, but they cannot change each other’s internal characteristics. This is not what happens in a quantum relationship where two particles can actually merge together, sharing boundaries and identities and thereby becoming a quantum system that is greater than the sum of the two individual parts. Research indicates that this “merger” phenomenon can also happen at the level of human consciousness as the brain activity of one person who is physically and sensorily isolated can influence another’s brain processes [78].

6. Quantum skills

These quantum physics discoveries, along with research in positive psychology and neuroscience, provide the conceptual foundation for seven quantum skills [53]. These skills are premised on a worldview that characterizes the universe as a dynamic, unpredictable, subjective, self-organizing system rather than as a static, predictable, objective machine. Such a view necessitates new skills that enable humans not only to see the world from a new perspective but to be in the world in a new way.

These quantum skills are designed to increase a sense of well-being by aligning individual behavior with relevant scientific breakthroughs. Currently, many of the discoveries of the past several decades remain at a level of abstraction that is unusable for those outside the scientific community. These quantum skills are an attempt to pragmatize these new discoveries and integrate them into human behavior so that those who use them can improve their sense of happiness/well-being by re-creating their lives from the inside out.

6.1 Quantum Seeing

The first skill, Quantum Seeing, is based on the quantum discovery that the material world is not nearly as objective as most belief. Both quantum theory and research in human perception suggest that over 80 percent of what is seen in the external world is a function of internal assumptions and beliefs. Yet, many people have little regard for the subjectivity of external reality. The word “reality” is derived from the Latin words for think (revi) and thing (res). Reality, or at least the individual experience thereof, is directly related to those things that humans think about. Zukav ([84], p. 310) explains:

Reality is what we take to be true. What we take to be true is what we believe. What we believe is based upon our perceptions. What we perceive depends upon what we look for. What we look for depends on what we think. What we think depends on what we perceive. What we perceive determines what we believe. What we believe determines what we take to be true. What we take to be true is our reality.

Beliefs reinforce perceptions and perceptions reinforce beliefs; unfortunately, it is not easy to break this cycle. It is learned early and controlled primarily at an unconscious level of awareness. However, it is possible to become more aware of intentions and as intentions change, perceptions shift accordingly. Intention is the psychological process through which reality is constructed [85]. Intentions cause attention to focus on certain stimuli, while a plethora of other perceptual possibilities are totally ignored. The skill of Quantum Seeing is a reminder that a life of happiness requires clear intention.

6.2 Quantum Thinking

The second skill, Quantum Thinking, is derived from quantum physics research that demonstrates how the physical universe functions in seemingly illogical and paradoxical ways. The most obvious quantum paradox is that the three-dimensional material world is composed solely of invisible energy. Furthermore, this energy often makes sudden, totally unpredictable quantum leaps, tunneling through barriers in ways that are both illogical and impossible at the macro level of reality. For example, subatomic particles can borrow energy from the future to tunnel through barriers that Newtonian objects would be unable to penetrate [86]. This seemingly irrational and illogical process is the basis of a highly sensitive measuring instrument called a SQUID (superconducting quantum interference device). Because of the highly illogical quantum tunneling effect, physicians can now identify and treat minute abnormalities within the human brain. Paradoxical processes can result in highly pragmatic applications. Unfortunately, many people still do not grasp the importance of paradoxical thinking, relying primarily on logical, linear, left-brain cognitive processes.

In order to think more paradoxically, the capacities of the right hemisphere of the brain must be developed. The right brain can gather up seemingly unrelated ideas and arrange them into highly creative idea constellations, thereby, bypassing the left brain’s propensity for binary thinking. The right brain hemisphere has another important creative advantage. It can process millions of visual images in microseconds and solve problems exponentially faster than the clock-bound left hemisphere. Thus, through the process of imagistic thinking people can escape the tyranny of time and enter a realm where seemingly opposite options can effortlessly superimpose themselves into highly creative solutions [87]. The skill of Quantum Thinking is a prerequisite for discovering creative solutions to the complex, paradoxical challenges of the twenty-first century.

6.3 Quantum Feeling

The third skill, Quantum Feeling, is based on the premise that humans are composed of the same energy as the rest of the universe and are, therefore, subject to universal laws of energy excitation. Research at the Institute of HeartMath suggests that the human heart is a primary source of power for the mind-body system [88]. The heart generates the strongest electromagnetic signal in the human body and the power of that signal is primarily a function of thoughts and emotions. Negative emotions (e.g., frustration, fear, anger, conflict, and stress) decrease coherence in the heart’s electromagnetic waves, causing the mind-body system to lose energy. Positive emotions (e.g., love, caring, compassion, and appreciation) increase coherence, thus increasing energy. This research confirms what many already know intuitively. Negative emotions exhaust and positive emotions energize. Knowing this to be true does not, however, solve the pervasive epidemic of stress and conflict. Fast-paced schedules drain energy. Stress-filled jobs exhaust. Interpersonal differences create conflict. The skill of Quantum Feeling enables people to feel good internally, regardless of what happens externally.

Using this skill requires learning how to harmonize opposite feelings. The participants in Delle Fave et al.’s Eudaimonic and Hedonic Happiness research project selected “harmony” as the most important self-rated component of happiness. Harmony was defined as “balancing opposite elements into a whole” ([12], p. 199). The ability to balance the inevitable positive and negative aspects of living appears to be foundational to happiness. As people use the skill of Quantum Feeling, they become alchemists, learning how to change the chemistry of their bodies by harmonizing their internal feelings and making external lifestyle choices that lead to increased levels of dopamine and oxytocin. Using this skill increases awareness of the perceptual choice point between an external stimulus and a subsequent internal response and leads to the recognition that human happiness is not diminished by people or events, but rather by perceptual and lifestyle choices.

6.4 Quantum Knowing

The fourth skill, Quantum Knowing, is derived from quantum field theory. Energy fields are, in the language of quantum theory, the ground state of all that is. Einstein once commented that “fields are the only reality” ([55], p. 211). The universe is not filled with energy fields; rather, the universe emerges out of an underlying quantum field. This underlying sea of potential appears to be infinite, omnipresent, and omnipotent. It is both indescribable and incalculable. The quantum field is believed to contain Bose–Einstein condensates which are the most highly ordered and highly unified structure yet found in the universe. Zohar [73] is one of a growing number of physicists who believe that Bose–Einstein processes in the brain may create the neurological structures that are prerequisites to human consciousness. If subsequent research validates a relationship between Bose–Einstein condensates and consciousness, it will lend support to the hypothesis that the quantum field itself is conscious. Consciousness, therefore, may not be a function of evolutionary sophistication, but instead may be the primary substance of physical reality. Wald ([72], pp. 1-2) explains:

Mind, rather than emerging as a late outgrowth in the evolution of life, has existed always as the matrix, the source and condition of physical reality … the stuff of which physical reality is composed is mind-stuff. It is the mind that has composed a physical universe that breeds life, and so eventually evolves creatures that know and create.

The universe is basically a set of signals or a field of information. It is much more like a Great Thought than the Great Machine metaphor of the Newtonian paradigm. Quantum Knowing is the ability to know intuitively—to connect in non-sensory ways with information in this quantum field of potentiality. Langer’s theory of mindful decision-making suggests that gathering information does not necessarily lead to better decisions [75]. Reducing uncertainty through data collection is futile because even the amount of information that could be gathered about the simplest of decisions, such as buying a computer, can involve limitless research. Rather than focusing on gathering information, Langer’s theory focuses on staying aware (mindfulness) [75]. Mindfulness is a prerequisite to transcending the limitations of the human sensory apparatus. It opens a connection to the quantum field of infinite information. Langer points out that a belief in “certainty” is actually a huge disadvantage. Certainty leads to mindlessness. When one is certain, s/he typically ceases to pay attention. However, uncertainty increases attentiveness both to external conditions and to internal intuitions. Quantum Knowing is the ability to live mindfully and know intuitively. It is a critical skill for sustaining a sense of well-being in the fast-paced, complex decision-making environment of the twenty-first century.

6.5 Quantum Acting

The fifth skill, Quantum Acting, is premised on the quantum concept of non-separability and its byproduct, non-local causation. At the subatomic level, two systems once connected remain connected, even across great distances of time and space. Any measurement of one of these systems affects the second system instantaneously. These complex “from a distance” interactions are explained by a uniquely quantum principle, the principle of non-separability, which violates the most basic principle of relatively—that nothing can travel faster than the speed of light. Even though Einstein never accepted the principle of non-separability, today this principle is a fundamental concept in quantum theory. One technological application is the development of quantum computers that have the capacity for all their components to respond instantaneously to a change in the state of one component. The capacity of quantum computers is breathtaking. This technology is still in its infancy, yet quantum computers are already capable of performing all possible computations simultaneously (quantum parallelism). Strings of hydrogen atoms hold bits of information rather than arrays of transistors. Atomic encoding enables a quantum computer to simulate the behavior of any quantum system using quantum processes such as superimposition and nonlocal correlation.

Non-local causation, also referred to as quantum entanglement, is transforming life as it is presently known through astounding technological advances; but more importantly, this same principle has the potential to shift our view of ourselves and our relationship to others and the physical universe. Gribbin ([89], p. 229) explains why:

They (research studies) tell us that particles that were once together in an interaction remain in some sense parts of a single system, which responds together to further interactions. Virtually everything we see and touch and feel is made up of collections of particles that have been involved in interactions with others right back through time, to the Big Bang in which the universe as we know it came into being. The atoms in my body are made of particles that once jostled in close proximity in the cosmic fireball with particles that are now part of a distant star, and particles that form the body of some living creature on some distant, undiscovered planet. Indeed, the particles that make up my body once jostled in close proximity and interacted with the particles that make up your body.

Everything in the universe is a part of a correlated, complex whole in which each part influences and is influenced by every other part. Quantum Acting is the ability to act with concern for the whole—the whole self, the whole community, and the whole planet. This skill can be used to design lives of impeccable action—lives that focus on intentions that are good for both the individual and the larger system. Each responsible choice not only influences that individual’s future choices; it also, because of quantum entanglement, influences the future choices of others as well. Everyone is in non-local correlation with everyone (and everything) else, and each action influences the well-being of the whole system.

6.6 Quantum Trusting

The sixth skill, Quantum Trusting, is the ability to trust life, recognizing that we live in an intelligent universe. Bohm’s concept of subatomic particles with “quantum potential” suggests that directions received from the quantum field influence the behavior of subatomic particles [90]. Bohm acknowledges that this potential has such complexity that any attempts at prediction are futile; however, our inability to make predictions does not mean that a system’s evolution is totally random. It simply means that it cannot be explained.

Bohm’s concept of an invisible ordering principle applies to the subatomic world of quantum phenomena. Chaos theory, based on classical physics and applicable to the macroscopic world, has a similar concept, the strange attractor. This is a computer term used to trace the evolution of a chaotic system. As chaos theory would predict, a computerized system in chaos behaves in a totally unpredictable manner. However, over time even the most chaotic systems never go beyond certain phase space boundaries, the boundary of the strange attractor. Strange attractors provide visual images of a world in which structure emerges out of chaos. Structured chaos is a remarkable paradox. It suggests that we function in a universe that is both orderly and chaotic, a world that displays structure without clockwork regularity—potentiality without predictability.

Quantum Trusting is the ability to trust life’s ever-evolving process. As people learn this skill, they begin to focus on the mystery of existence, rather than on their mastery over it. They become less intent on manipulating life and more intent on appreciating it. Happiness often comes unexpectedly when people release their obsession with searching for it and learn to trust life and each other. Learning how to trust life’s process by releasing the need to predict and control outcomes is an important skill, and a critical step towards happiness and well-being.

6.7 Quantum Being

The seventh skill, Quantum Being, is based on the relational structure of the universe. At the quantum level, matter comes into existence only through relationships. At the human level, neuroscience research regarding the so-called social brain demonstrates that the brain is hard-wired for connectivity [25]. At the level of human behavior, the literature suggests a wide range of social variables that correlate with happiness and well-being ranging from time spent with family and friends to participation in social, civic, religious, and volunteer activities [91, 92, 93]. Some scholars believe that relational factors are the most robust correlates of subjective well-being [81]. Joshanloo [1] notes that the relationship of positive interpersonal relationships to happiness appears as a key factor in both Eastern and Western research studies, though activities associated with relationships may be expressed in culturally diverse ways [94].

Quantum Being is the ability to create and sustain healthy relationships. It is through relationship that human potential is released. When relationships are approached with openness and vulnerability, change happens. These encounters often provoke unresolved issues and reopen psychological wounds, thus giving each party the opportunity to learn and heal or deny and project. Authentic relationships are, therefore, psychological mirrors. In them, people can see themselves reflected.

The skill of Quantum Being requires that humans own their feelings rather than project them onto others. As they learn to do so, they discover that all relationships are extraordinary learning opportunities; and they begin to suspect that none of them occur without reason. They also discover that those who have the most to teach them are not always their favorite people, but they are valuable contributors to their psychological well-being.

7. Summary and future recommendations

Over 50 years ago renowned psychiatrist Carl Jung predicted a conceptual integration of psychology and physics. He wrote [95]:

Sooner or later, nuclear physics and the psychology of the unconscious will draw closer together as both of them, independently of one another, and from opposite directions, push forward … If research could only advance far enough, therefore, we should arrive at an ultimate agreement between physical and psychological concepts (p. 261).

The era that Jung foresaw has arrived. Research has now identified common themes in disciplines as diverse as psychology and physics. Unfortunately, these discoveries have impacted the material world more than the subjective realm of well-being. For example, discoveries in quantum mechanics enabled a technological revolution that has totally transformed society over the past 100 years; however, these discoveries have not yet led to a significant shift in human beliefs or behaviors. This chapter attempts to do so by showing the relationship of these quantum breakthroughs to other paradigm-breaking research in positive psychology and neuroscience and integrating these findings into a set of quantum skills.

The research suggests that as humans master these seven quantum skills, they will learn to more fully utilize both of the brain’s hemispheres and greatly expand the capacity of the brain’s highest processing center, the neocortex. In so doing, they will be able to transcend the basic survival programming of our ancient reptilian brains (the R-complex) and the pain/pleasure mechanisms of the limbic system. Wade’s research [60] suggests that as people learn to fully utilize the capacity of the neocortex, conscious awareness increases; thus, giving increased ability to make conscious choice regarding thoughts and actions that support well-being.

The authors hypothesize that using these quantum skills will result in increased happiness as measured by a subjective sense of well-being. Research is needed to test the efficacy of these skills to accomplish this hypothesized result. Such a project would need to be based on a culturally inclusive definition of happiness that aligns with the research reviewed in this chapter. Future opportunities for disseminating these quantum skills include the design of a comprehensive, cross-cultural curriculum for teaching these skills at a variety of age levels. This chapter is a call for the academic community to test and teach these skills, thus reducing the current knowing/doing gap and helping to create global flourishing.