Invasive alien weed species world wide.
Abstract
A species is considered to be invasive if it establishes, persists, and spreads widely inside a natural ecosystem, stunting the growth of native plants and giving them room to overtake crops and native plants. Non-native plant species that have been brought into a new geographic area and have a negative effect on the ecosystems supporting horticulture and agriculture are known as invasive plant species. Invasive/noxious weeds, which are widely distributed in many types of ecosystems, significantly reduce crop production. Compared to native species, invading plant species have a higher potential to move their niche more rapidly and are more likely to adapt to new environments. The timing, speed, and longevity of seed germination have indeed been discovered to change as a result of climate change, which has consequences for plant invasions. More than native plant species, invasive plant species gain from atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) enrichment, greenhouse gas emissions, and global warming. A loss of native biodiversity due to invasive species includes species extinction, changes in hydrology, and altered ecosystem function.
Keywords
- invasive alien plant
- global warming
- climate change
- weed shift
- crop weed competition
1. Introduction
The invasive species is significant on a global importance. A non-native plant or other organism is considered an invasive species if it completely takes over an ecosystem and damages both its structure and function. Invasive species displace or harm local wildlife and plants, frequently posing major challenges to the area’s biodiversity and creating unfavorable environmental conditions. There are no geographical limitations to the type or spread of invasive species. The greatest direct economic losses in crop production are caused by invasive weeds. One of the major direct causes of environmental change on a worldwide scale with a large ecological impact is biological invasion. The potential impact of invasive alien plant species on global agriculture, which continues to affect food security globally, could be significant [1]. The economic cost of plant invasion to agriculture is growing due to the increasing number of new introductions which create a tremendous impact on crop production. The invasive alien plants /weeds have many similar biological attributes/traits relating to high reproduction and stress tolerance. The traits include germination of seeds, rapid seedling growth, vegetative and sexual reproduction at early stage aggressive spread by runners or rhizomes, diverse dispersal mechanisms and the ability to tolerate a wide range of environmental condition.
Warming of the earth surface is inevitable due to influence of greenhouse gas emission and instinctive climate variability. The average temperature of the earth has increased considerably by 1.53o C from 1900 to 2020 which has impacted the growing seasons of crops leading to reductions in crop yields [2]. Ramification of crop productivity is considerably noticeable on crop productivity. Potential growth and distribution of invasive plant species are accelerated by climate changes like rise in temperature, atmospheric carbon-dioxide level, nitrous oxide, methane gas emission, extreme weather conditions and change in rainfall pattern. Invasive plants reduce agricultural productivity by way of considerable mechanisms: competition for light, water, nutrient, allelopathy effects and decrease the crop yields and inhibition of seed germination [3].
Invasive and climate change are two of the primary factors which alter ecological systems. Temperature, precipitation, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and measurements of organismal response in field conditions are manipulations of factors anticipated to vary with climate change. Therefore, the objective of the book chapter is to discuss the effect of climate change on invasive weed floral composition, distribution and effect on crop production.
2. Influence of invasive alien plants on N and P Pool in soil and plant
The success of invasion is mainly the result of the status of soil or growing environment of invasive alien plants (Figure 1). NH4+ concentration in soil evaded by
Invasive alien weeds such as
3. Climate change and weed invasion
Climate is known as the main environmental driver of species distribution, and there have been extensive studies on the distribution areas of invasive plants in determining invasive spreading [11]. Movement of weed species from native range to new areas naturally makes non-native species invasive with negative impact on native species of arable ecosystem. Climate change provides the opportunity for weeds to invade new ecosystems. Climate changes enhances the adaptability of the introduced plants to the new host range and increasing the risk of invasion in native and managed ecosystem since they are suited to new environments and successful in resource utilization in elevated CO2 concentration. Interactions between climate change and management practices may turn invasive species with high potential to spread widely causing impact on productivity. Weeds can be highly response to increased CO2 concentration [12]. Invasive and climate change are two of the primary factors which alter ecological systems.
Manipulation of factors likely to change with climate is temperature, precipitation, nitrous oxide levels and carbon dioxide and measurement of organismal response under field conditions integrate the biotic and abiotic factors individuals. Invasive species are most commonly defined as a non-native plant or other organism that dominates the encountered ecosystem and impairs its function and structure. Invasive species displace or damage native fauna and flora often posing serious threats to local biodiversity and causing adverse environment stress. Invasive alien species are one of the major threats to global and local diversity. The threats caused by invasive plant species in agricultural ecosystem include hybridization and species completion. Global warming may result in the expansion in the habitat range of invasive species and the contraction or displacement of the habitat range of indigenous species [13].
Plant invasion is a serious threat to global biodiversity and hence deleterious to ecology and nature biodiversity. Invasive plants metamorphose the landscape ecology in a highly complex manner leading to ecological explosion. Global terrestrial crops are invaded by various invasive weed species [14]. Alien species that endanger ecosystems, habitats, or species, as well as agricultural production, are considered invasive species. Recent advances in genetics and molecular biology have paved the way for impacts on ecology and global biodiversity. The histories of invasion and agriculture are internally linked with many crops being invasive species. Agricultural biotechnology which is the insertion of genes into crops has generated concern over the risk of producing new invasive species or exacerbating current weed problems. The modern intensive agriculture paved the way for invasive weeds to spread across the globe. Land use changes which is conversion of forests/grasslands into agroecosystem habitat fragmentation as well as increase the level of organic pollutants resulting in the increase level of CO2/climate change. Global climate changes are directly linked to biological invasions resulting in biodiversity loss (Figure 2). Global change stressors like climate change variability and changes in land use are major drivers of ecosystem alterations. Climate is the principal determinant of vegetation distribution from regional to global levels. The global climate is changing; along with measuring temperature and CO2 level changes are considered major drivers of climate change [15].
Climate conditions exert a significant influence in the spread, population dynamics, life cycle duration, infestation pressure and the overall occurrence of invasive species. Invasive weeds will be influenced by climate change. The direct and indirect consequence of increasing CO2 or climate change which differentially affects the growth of invasive weeds and crops will alter crop weed competitive interactions. Climate change has a big impact on invasive weed species’ distribution, population dynamics, life cycles, pressure from infestations, and overall occurrence [16].
3.1 Consequences due to invasive weeds
Biological invasion has become one of the major causes of economic and environmental damage in most of the countries across the world and its impact have been predicted to increase ever further under future climatic conditions. The Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) emphasized biological invasion as one of the drivers of biodiversity decline. Invasive potential of species enables weeds to be successful invaders and colonizers of the novel environments whether introduced deliberately or accidently. Developing regions are fast witnessing the change across all countries. Losses caused by invasive weeds are thrashing of biodiversity from native ecosystems [18], alteration in ecosystem, decline in abundance and richness of native flora and alteration in community structure. The risk of introduction of alien invasive weeds has enhanced due to global climate change. It is estimated 20–30 percent of all introduced species worldwide cause a problem. The impact of climate change on invasive weeds indicated that weeds on the whole have a large growth in the increase in atmosphere CO2 concentration relation to plant species and rising CO2 can be sustainable for invasive noxious species within plant communities [19]. Global efforts are very important to control the invasive weed species. Differences between native and exotic plant species in their mode of resource utilization may cause a change in soil structure, its profile, decomposition, nutrient content of soil and moisture availability. Invasive weed species is a serious hindrance to conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. The impact of climate change on invasive weeds and indicated that the invasive, noxious weeds on the whole have a larger growth in the projected increases in atmospheric CO2 concentration in relation to other plant species [20]. Ecological integrity and biodiversity of agriculture ecosystems have been seriously threatened by expansion of invasive weed species across globe. Climate change induced transformations in the invasive weed flora of arable ecosystems. Thermophilic weeds and late emerging invasive weeds have become more abundant in cropping system. Prominent invasive weed species like
3.2 Invasive alien species/weeds and their distribution
Invasive alien weed species shift is an important aftermath of global climate change in ecosystem that affects weed management strategies and agricultural productivity (Table 1). Climate change is viewed as a cause in accelerating the rate of invasion by alien species in addition to the globalization of anthropogenic activities.
Scientific Name | Family | Origin | Distribution | Propagation |
---|---|---|---|---|
Asteraceae | Brazil (South America) | Widespread in the tropics. | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Mexico (Central America) | Tropical and Subtropical region | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Tropical America | Tropical and Subtropical region | Seed | |
Amaranthaceae | Colombia (Tropical America) | Asia and Africa | Seed | |
Amaranthaceae | South America | China, Australia, Thailand | Vegetative | |
Amaranthaceae | Tropical America | Tropical Africa, Asia, and Australia | Seeds, Vegetative | |
Amaranthaceae | Tropical America | Tropical Africa and Asia | Seed | |
Asteraceae | North and Central America | Europe, Africa and Asia | Seed | |
Asteraceae | North America | Temperate Europe and Asia | Seed | |
Lythraceae | Tropical Africa | Tropical Asia, Africa and America | Seed | |
Papaveraceae | Tropical and South America | Tropical and Subtropical region | Seed | |
Acanthaceae | Tropical Asia | Tropical Africa and America | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Tropical America | Tropical of regions Africa and Asia | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Tropical America | Asia and Africa | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Tropical America | Asia, tropical Africa and Australia | Seed | |
Brassicaceae | Mediterranean Region | Wide temperate region | Seed | |
Caesalpiniaceae | Tropical South America | Tropical and Subtropical Africa Asia | Seed | |
Amaranthaceae | Tropical Africa | Tropical and Sub tropical Asia | Seed | |
Apiaceae | Tropical Asia | Widespread in the tropical regions | Seed, Vegetative | |
Amaranthaceae | Europe | Temperate and Subtropical region | Seed | |
Poaceae | Tropical America | Tropical and Sub tropical Asia | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Tropical America | Humid tropical Asia and Africa | Seed | |
Asteraceae | South eastern Europe | Subtropical and temperate region | Seed, Vegetative | |
Cleomaceae | Tropical America | Tropical and Subtropical worldwide | Seed | |
Cleomaceae | Tropical America | Tropical Africa Asia and Australia | Seed | |
Cleomaceae | Tropical America | Tropical and Subtropical region | Seed | |
Commelinaceae | Tropical Asia | Tropical Africa and Subtropical Asia | Seed, Vegetative | |
Cuscutaceae | Mediterranean | Distributed worldwide | Seed | |
Cuscutaceae | Tropical Asia | Distributed worldwide | Seed | |
Commelinaceae | Indian sub-continent | South East Asia and Australia | Seed, Vegetative | |
Cyperaceae | Tropical America | Distributed worldwide | Seed | |
Cyperaceae | Tropical America | Distributed worldwide | Seed | |
Fabaceae | Central and Southern Europe | Temperate and sub-tropical region | Seed | |
Poaceae | Tropical Africa | Tropical, Subtropical and warm temperate | Seed | |
Solanaceae | Tropical America | Tropical and Subtropical Asia & Africa | Seed | |
Solanaceae | Tropical America | Tropics and Subtropics worldwide | Seed | |
Amaranthaceae | Southwest Asia | Tropical Africa and Malesia | Seed | |
Poaceae | Eurasia | Temperate warm region of world | Seed | |
Poaceae | Tropical America | Through tropical and South Africa | Seed | |
Poaceae | Tropical South America | Worldwide Tropics and Subtropics | Seed | |
Poaceae | Tropical South America | Worldwide Tropics and Subtropics | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Tropical America | Tropical, Subtropical and warm temperate | Seed | |
Pontederiaceae | Tropical America | Distributed worldwide | Vegetative | |
Poaceae | Eurasia | Distributed worldwide | Seed | |
Poaceae | Europe | Distributed to temperate region | Seed | |
Equisetaceae | Europe | Distributed Europe and Asia | Seeds and Rhizomes | |
Euphorbiaceae | South America | Subtropical areas worldwide | Seed | |
Euphorbiaceae | Tropical America | Widespread Tropical and Subtropical | Seed | |
Convolvulaceae | South America | Tropical and Subtropical regions | Seed | |
Cyperaceae | Tropical America | Distributed worldwide | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Tropical Central America | Tropical regions | Seed | |
Laminaceae | Europe | North America, Australia and New Zealand | Vegetative and Seed | |
Asteraceae | Tropical America | Distributed worldwide | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Tropical America | South America, Tropical Asia and Africa | Seed | |
Amaranthaceae | Tropical America | Distributed worldwide | Seed | |
Balsiminaceae | North America | Temperate region | Seed | |
Poaceae | Tropical America | Tropical and Warm Temperate region | Seeds | |
Convolvulaceae | South America | Tropical and Subtropical region. | Seed | |
Cyperaceae | South East Asia | Distributed worldwide | Seedsand Rhizomes | |
Asteraceae | Tropical Central America | Tropical and Subtropical regions | Seed | |
Verbenaceae | Tropical America | Tropical and Subtropical regions | Seed | |
Poaceae | Central America | Tropical and Subtropical regions | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Europe | Distributed worldwide temperate region | Seed | |
Poaceae | Tropical Asia | Africa, Central and South America | Seed and Vegetative | |
Poaceae | Central America | Distributed worldwide | Seed and Vegetative | |
Onagraceae | Tropical America | South East Asia and Malesia | Seed | |
Onagraceae | Tropical Africa | Throughout the Tropical world | Seed | |
Onagraceae | Tropical Africa | Throughout the Tropical world | Seed | |
Marsileaceae | Southern and Central Europe | North America and Asia | Rhizomes | |
Convolvulaceae | Tropical America | Worldwide Tropical and Subtropical | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Tropical America | Tropical area Africa and Asia | Seed | |
Mimosaceae | South and Central America | Tropical regions of the World | Seed | |
Mimosaceae | South and Central America | Tropical regions of the World | Seed | |
Nyctaginaceae | Peru | Warmer parts across World | Seed | |
Pontederiaceae | Tropical America | Tropical and Subtropical wet areas | Seed | |
Tropaeolaceae | South America | Distributed worldwide | Seed | |
Solanaceae | Tropical America | Tropical regions of the World | Seed | |
Poaceae | Africa | Tropics and Subtropics | Seed and rhizomes | |
Asteraceae | Tropical and North America | Throughout the World | Seed | |
Poaceae | South America | Humid Tropics and Subtropics | Seed | |
Poaceae | Tropical and Subtropical America | Tropical and Subtropical region | Seed | |
Poaceae | South America | Tropical Asia, Africa and Australia | Seed | |
Passifloraceae | Tropical and South America | Tropical region of Asia and Africa | Seed | |
Poaceae | Tropical America | Tropical and Subtropical region | Seed | |
Verbenaceae | South America | Tropical and Subtropical region | Seed | |
Euphorbiaceae | Mascarene Islands | Africa, Southern Europe and Asia | Seed | |
Solanaceae | Tropical America | Asia and Africa | Seed | |
Araceae | Tropical America | Tropical and Subtropical region | Vegetative | |
Plantaginaceae | Eurasia | South Asia, Australia and North America | Seed | |
Portulacaceae | Tropical Central America | Tropical and Subtropical region | Seeds | |
Portulacaceae | Tropical South America | Africa and Tropical Asia | Seed | |
Mimosaceae | Mexico | Tropical and Subtropical region | Seed | |
Lythraceae | Tropical Asia | Tropical Africa America and Australia | spores | |
Acanthaceae | Tropical America | South East Asia and Tropical Africa | Seed | |
Salviniaceae | South Eastern Brazil | Wide spread across tropical world | Vegetative | |
Malvaceae | Tropical America | Pacific and South East Asia | Seed | |
Solanaceae | Brazil | Worldwide distribution | Seed | |
Solanaceae | Tropical America | Tropical and Subtropical region | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Mediterranean | Tropical and Subtropical region | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Mediterranean | Tropical and Subtropical region | Seed | |
Papilionaceae | Tropical America | Tropical Africa and Asia | Seed | |
Verbenaceae | Tropical America | Subtropical Asia Africa and Oceania | Seed | |
Verbenaceae | Tropical America | Tropical Africa, Asia and Pacific region | Seed | |
Caryophyllaceae | Europe | Throughout the world | Seed | |
Euphorbiaceae | Tropical Africa | Tropical region of America and Asia | Seed | |
Asteraceae | West Indies | Warmer region of the world | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Europe | Temperate region of the world | Seed | |
Zygophyllaceae | Tropical America | Warm Temperate region of Eurasia, Africa | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Tropical Central America | Warm Temperate and Tropical region | Seed | |
Turneraceae | Tropical America | Tropical region of Asia and Africa | Seed | |
Turneraceae | Tropical America | Africa, South East Asia and Tropical Island | Seed | |
Typhaceae | Tropical America | Asia, North Africa and South Europe | Seed | |
Papilionaceae | Western Europe | Tropical Africa and Asia and Australia, NZ | Seed | |
Malvaceae | Tropical Africa | Tropical Africa and South East Asia | Seed | |
Sterculiaceae | Tropical America | Tropical region of world | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Tropical America | Africa and Temperate and South East Asia | Seed | |
Asteraceae | Tropical Asia | Worldwide | Seed |
3.3 Effect on crops by invasive alien weed species
Wide adaptability and faster growth of invaded weeds lead to dominance of weed in crop habitat Invasive weeds are responsible for 34% of agricultural losses [37] with the magnitude of impact varying between countries or location as 10% yield loss has been attributed to weeds in less developed countries and 25% in the least developed countries [38].
Rice crop is infested with different invaded weed flora consisting of aquatic, semi-aquatic and terrestrial weeds (Figure 3). The invaded weed species
Invaded weed species
3.4 Measures to control invasive weed
Understanding invasive weed species ecology, morphology, reproductive biology, physiology, and biochemistry is essential for effective management and prevention management and control through a full range of factors regulating their density, growth and competitive ability. The weed management strategies could be adapted to minimize prevalence of the invasive species for reducing to minimize the undesired effects and optimizing land use by combining prevention and control practices [52]. Invasion by alien species in agroecosystem can be best controlled by measures like crop rotation, balanced fertilization, maintenance of cover crops, intercropping diversification, and alteration in soil physical chemical and biological properties.
Enforcement of strong legislation could prevent introduction of invasive alien weed species in the country for conserving the rich biodiversity and increase crop production. Prevention, early detection and eradication of invasive alien weed species is the most economical and effective means of management. It is important to ensure new weed species of vegetative reproductive weed parts are not introduced in new areas. Mechanical, physical, biological, and chemical (herbicide) have to be used for the control of invasive weed species across the world. Mechanical control usually refers to the mowing or mechanical cutting of an invasive plant infestation to limit seed production. Manual invasive plant control usually refers to hand-pulling or digging. Cultural control and competition including re-vegetating, irrigating or fertilizing to encourage the establishment of a healthy ground or crop cover to resist invasive plants. Biological control involves using living organisms to reduce seed production and vigor of an invasive plant species. Biological control agents are not available for many invasive plant species [53].
4. Conclusion
The twenty first century threat of invasive alien weed species is extensive and distributed globally. An invasion by alien weed species is a global problem and forms one of the major drivers of global change. Invasive weeds species are one of the major problems in crop production. The threat by invasive alien plant species has been with rapid growth of globalization. The species affect crop production and biodiversity. Apart from threat to biodiversity and ecological distribution invasive alien species have significant socio-economic impact. The weeds compete with crop plants for light, moisture, nutrients and space. The mechanism of plant weed invasions has been change in climatic condition, disturbance in natural ecosystem (soil, canopy cover, habitat fragmentation, fast growing potential of alien species and chemical interference by litter of alien weed species). The high seed production capacity spread, adaptation to wide climatic and soil condition are challenges to the management across worldwide for sustainable agricultural production.
References
- 1.
Fleming JP, Wersal RM, Madsen JD, Dibble ED. Weak non-linear influences of biotic and abiotic factors on invasive macrophyte occurrence. Aquatic Invasions. 2021; 16 (2):349-364 - 2.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Mitigation of Climate Change Synthesis Report. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press; 2021. p. 15. DOI: 10.1017/9781009157896 - 3.
Namkeleja SH, Thadeo T, Ndakidemi P. Allelopathic effects of Argemone mexicana to growth of native plant species. American Journal of Plant Sciences. 2014; 5 (9):1336-1344 - 4.
Hu CC, Lei YB, Tan YH, Sun XC, Xu H, Liu CQ , et al. Plant nitrogen and phosphorus utilization under invasive pressure in a montane ecosystem of tropical China. Journal of Ecology. 2019; 107 :372-386 - 5.
Uddin MDN, Robinson RW. Responses of plant species diversity and soil physical-chemical microbial properties to Phragmites australis invasion along a density gradient. Scientific Reports. 2017; 7 :11007 - 6.
Sardans J, Bartrons M, Margalef O, Gargallo-Garriga A, Janssens IA, Ciais P, et al. Plant invasion is associated with higher plant-soil nutrient concentrations in nutrient-poor environments. Global Change Biology. 2017; 23 :1282-1291 - 7.
Funk JL. The physiology of invasive plants in low-resource environments. Conservation Physiology. 2013; 1 :1-17. DOI: 10.1093/conphys/cot026 - 8.
Sun S, Chen J, Feng W, Zhang C, Huang K, Guan M, et al. Plant strategies for nitrogen acquisition and their effects on exotic plant invasions. Biodiversity Science. 2021; 29 :72-80 - 9.
Shannon-Firestone S, Reynolds HL, Phillips RP, Flory SL, Yannarell A. The role of ammonium oxidizing communities in mediating effects of an invasive plant on soil nitrification. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 2015; 90 :266-274 - 10.
Rossiter-Rachor NA, Setterfield SA, Douglas MM, Hutley LB, Cook GD, Schmidt S. Invasive Andropogon gayanus (Gamba grass) is an ecosystem transformer of nitrogen relations in Australian savanna. Ecological Applications. 2009; 19 :1546-1560 - 11.
Li T, Li Q , Xiong P, Luo Y, Zhang X, Lin GB. Direct and indirect effects of environmental factors, spatial constraints, and functional traits on shaping the plant diversity of montane forests. Ecological and Evolution. 2020; 10 (1):557-568 - 12.
Broadbent A, Stevens CJ, Peltzer DA, Ostle NJ, Orwin KH. Below ground competition drives invasive plant impact on native species regardless of nitrogen availability. Oecologia. 2018; 186 :577-587 - 13.
Bhowmik PC. Invasive weeds and climate change: Past, present and future. Journal of crop and weed. 2014; 10 (2):345-349 - 14.
Early R, Bethany AB, SDukes J, Joshua JL, Julian DO, Dana MB, et al. Global threats from invasive alien species in the twenty-first century and national response capacities. Nature Communications. 2016; 7 :12485. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms12485 - 15.
Amare T. Review on impact of climate change on weed and their management. American Journal of Biological and Environmental Statistics. 2016; 2 (3):21-27. DOI: 10.11648/j.ajbes.20160203.12 - 16.
Ziska LH. The role of climate change and increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide on weed management: Herbicide efficacy. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment. 2016; 231 :304-309 - 17.
Bajwa AA, Chauhan BS, Adkins SW. Germination ecology of two Australian biotypes of ragweed parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus) relates to their invasiveness. Weed Science. 2018; 66 :62-70 - 18.
Clements DR, Jones VL. Rapid evolution of invasive weeds under climate change: Present evidence and future research needs. Frontiers in Agronomy. 2021; 3 :664034. DOI: 10.3389/fagro.2021.664034 - 19.
Khanduri A, Biswas S, Vasistha HB, Rathod D, Jha SK. A status of invasive alien species plant diversity in Tehri district forest ecosystem of Garhwal Himalayan region. Current World Environment. 2017; 12 (2):377-388 - 20.
Ziska LH, McClung A. Differential response of cultivated and weedy (red) rice to recent and projected increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide. Agronomy Journal. 2008; 100 :1259-1263 - 21.
Ehrenfeld JG. Ecosystem consequences of biological invasions. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. 2010; 41 :59-80 - 22.
Ordonez A, Wright IJ, Olff H. Functional differences between native and alien species: A global-scale comparison. Functional Ecology. 2010; 24 :1353-1361 - 23.
Rusdy M. Imperata cylindrica: Reproduction, dispersal, and controls. CAB Reviews. 2020; 15 :1-9 - 24.
Sekar KC. Invasive alien plants of Indian Himalayan region—Diversity and implication. American Journal of Plant Sciences. 2020; 3 (2):177-184. DOI: 10.4236/ajps.2012.32021 - 25.
Smith LM, Reynolds HL. Light, allelopathy, and post-mortem invasive impact of garlic mustard on native forest understory species. Biological Invasions. 2014; 16 :1131-1144 - 26.
Clements DR. Invasive weed species and their effects. In: Zimdahl R, editor. Integrated Weed Management for Sustainable Agriculture. Cambridge, UK: Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing; 2017. pp. 65-88 - 27.
Panetta FD, Gooden B. Managing for biodiversity: Impact and action thresholds for invasive plants in natural ecosystems. NeoBiota. 2017; 34 :53-66. DOI: 10.3897/neobiota.34.22821 - 28.
Champika SK, Sujith SR. Reproductive biology of Ulex europaeus Fabaceae in the mount lofty ranges of South Australia and Srilanka. The International Journal of Plant Reproductive Biology. 2019; 11 (2):145-152 - 29.
Ahmed MA, Sameh KAE, Soad MEA, Wagdi SS, Noa ET. Jesus MC capability of the invasive tree Prosopis glandulosa Torr. To remediate soil treatment with sewage sludge. Sustainability. 2019; 11 :1-13. DOI: 10.3390/su11092711 - 30.
Humphres T, Dowling K, Turville C, Sinclair S, Florentive S. Ecology, distribution and control of the invasive weed Nassella trichotoma (Nees) hack ex Arachav. A global review of current and future challenges. Weed Research. 2020; 60 (6):392-405 - 31.
Thiney U, Banterng P, Gonkhamdee S, Katawatin R. Distributions of alien invasive weeds under climate change scenarios in mountainous Bhutan. Agronomy. 2019; 9 (8):1-16. DOI: 10.3390/agronomy9080442 - 32.
Poudel AS, Jha PK, Shrestha BB, Muniappan R. Biology and management of the invasive weed Ageratina adenophora (Asteraceae): Current state of knowledge and future research needs. Weed Research. 2019; 59 :79-92 - 33.
Florentine S, Weller S, King A, Florentine A, Dowling K, Westbrooke M, et al. Seed germination response of a noxious agricultural weed Echium plantagineum to temperature, light, pH, drought stress, salinity, heat and smoke. Crop and Pasture Science. 2018; 69 :326-333 - 34.
Tamiru G. Invasive alien weed species distribution, impacts on agriculture, challenge and reaction in Ethiopia: A review. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare. 2017; 7 (7):136-146 - 35.
Rai PK, Singh MM. Lantana camara invasion in urban forests of an indo-Burma hotspot region and its eco-sustainable management implication through bio monitoring of particulate matter. Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity. 2015; 8 (4):375-381 - 36.
Dar PA, Reshi ZA. Assessment of plant invasions in agroecosystems of Kashmir Himalaya for better management. Frontiers in Agronomy. 2022; 3 :788-797. DOI: 10.3389/fagro.2021.788797 - 37.
Inderjit Pergl J, van Kleunen M, Hejda M, Babu CR, Majumdar S, Singh P, et al. Naturalized alien flora of the Indian states: Biogeographic patterns, taxonomic structure and drivers of species richness. Biological Invasions. 2018; 20 (6):1625-1638 - 38.
Radicetti E, Mancinelli R. Sustainable weed control in the agro-ecosystems. Sustainability. 2021; 13 :8639. DOI: 10.3390/su13158639 - 39.
Paini DR, Sheppard AW, Cook DC, De Barro PJ, Worner SP, Thomas MB. Global threat to agriculture from invasive species. Proceeding National Academy of Sciences of the Unites States of America. 2016; 113 :7575-7579 - 40.
Funez LA, Ferreira JPR, Hassemer G, Trevisan R. First record of the invasive species Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Poaceae, Andropogoneae) in the south region of Brazil. The Journal of Biodiversity Data. 2016; 12 (4):1-4. DOI: 10.15560/12.4.1930 - 41.
Haidar H, Seyed E, Al-Alahmadi M. Effect of environmental factors on rhizome bud germination and shoot emergence of invasive Imperata cylindrica. Weed Research. 2021; 61 (5):374-384 - 42.
Rai PK. Concept of plant invasion ecology as prime factor for biodiversity crisis: Introductory review. International Research Journal of Environment Sciences. 2015; 4 (5):85-90 - 43.
Balicevic R, Ravlic M. Tea Zivkovic Allelopathic effect of invasive species giant goldenrod (Solidago gigantia Ait.) on crops and weeds. Herbologia. 2015; 15 (1):19-29 - 44.
Amare T. Review on impact of climate change on weed and their management. American journal of biological and environmental. Statistics. 2016; 2 (3):21-27 - 45.
Shahzad M, Farooq M, Hussain M. Weed spectrum in different wheat-based cropping systems under conservation and conventional tillage practices in Punjab, Pakistan. Soil and Tillage Research. 2016; 163 :71-79 - 46.
Raj R, Das TK, Kaur R, Singh R, Shekhawat K. Invasive noxious weed management research in India with special references to Cyperus rotundus, Eicchornia crassipes and Lantana camara. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2018; 88 (2):181-196 - 47.
Matsuhashi S, Asai M, Fukasawa K. Estimations and projections of Avena fatua dynamics under multiple management scenarios in crop fields using simplified longitudinal monitoring. PLoS One. 2021; 16 (1):26-31. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0245217 - 48.
Matshwene EM, Solomon WN. Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana) control in corn field using deep learning neural networks: A perspective, Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica. Section B — Soil and plant. Science. 2019; 69 (3):228-234. DOI: 10.1080/09064710.2018.1536225 - 49.
Pathak R, Vikram SN, Ranbeer SR, Indra DB. Alien plant invasion in the Indian himalayan region: State of knowledge and research priorities. Biodiversity and Conservation. 2019; 28 :3073-3102 - 50.
Peters K, Breitsameter L, Gerowitt B. Impact of climate change on weeds in agriculture: A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 2014; 34 :707-721 - 51.
Tabe Ojong MP, Alvarez M, Ihli HJ. Action on invasive species: Control strategies of Parthenium hysterophorus L. on small holder farms in Kenya. Environmental Management. 2022; 69 :861-870. DOI: 10.1007/s00267-021-01577-5 - 52.
Bansal S, Lishawa SC, Newman S, et al. Typha (cattail) invasion in north American wetlands: Biology, regional problems, impacts, ecosystem services, and management. Wetlands. 2019; 39 :645-684. DOI: 10.1007/s13157-019-01174-7 - 53.
Li W, Luo J, Tian X, et al. A new strategy for controlling invasive weeds: Selecting valuable native plants to defeat them. Scientific Reports. 2015; 5 :11004. DOI: 10.1038/srep1100