Arthropods: Prospect of Household Food Security

Abstract

Food security is a “situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preference for an active and healthy life”. With a growing world population and increasingly demanding consumers, the production of sufficient protein from livestock, poultry, and fish represents a serious challenge for the future and prompts the need for other sources of nutrition to be explored. Approximately more than 1,900 arthropod species are edible. This requires the development of cost-effective, automated mass-rearing facilities that provide a reliable, stable, and safe product for consumption. This chapter discusses arthropods as food, arthropods as animal feed, nutritional composition, the secondary metabolites of edible insects and potential medicinal substances, development and utilization of edible insect’s resources, insect farming, impact of insect quality on consumers’ preference and acceptability (insect processing and product quality, processing and marketing, and consumer acceptance), food safety and legislation, as well as the way forward.

1. Introduction

The largest phylum in the animal kingdom, which includes well-known insects, spiders, ticks, and crustaceans, as well as numerous smaller, lesser-known species and a plethora of bizarre forms only known as fossils. Arthropods account for approximately 95% of all animal species. The number of recognized species is expected to be in excess of one million, with insects accounting for the majority. Nobody is sure how many arthropod species there are. Authorities believe it might be in the tens of millions [1]. The body of an adult arthropod is normally made up of a succession of ring-like segments with a pair of numerous jointed limbs on each segment that move on each other via muscles. However, other parasites, such as pentastomids and rhizocephalans, show no signs of segmentation as adults. Arthropods’ integument produces a stratified cuticle containing chitin. This exoskeleton must be shed regularly to allow for growth, a process known as molting or ecdysis. Young stages change significantly from adults, and some parasitic organisms have extremely distinct body forms than their closest relatives. Arthropods are distinguished from all other creatures by their traits [1].

Food insecurity is worsening as a result of rising population and constraints on food importation, among other things. As a result, there is a high prevalence of hunger and malnutrition, with children and women being particularly susceptible. Apart from the increased risk of hunger brought on by the deteriorating food situation, the widespread prevalence of Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) has resulted in high rates of illness and death, particularly among babies and children in developing nations. While every effort is being made to increase food production through conventional agriculture, including current interest in the possibilities of exploring the vast number of less familiar plant resources that exist around the world [2], almost no attention has been paid to the consumption of Arthropods, a traditionally recognized and available source of protein and fats. Furthermore, protein meals are scarce, making them out of reach for low-income households, which sadly make up the majority of the population in most emerging nations [3]. The scarcity of common animal nutrition sources and the high expense of the few available plant sources should spur urgent study into the nutritious potentials of arthropods.

2. Arthropods as food

Most species of arthropods are obtained from nature in tropical nations. More than 2000 bug species are found in an inventory of edible insect species eaten across the world using solely scientific names rather than common ones. In terms of most species consumed, certain countries stand out. This, on the other hand, is primarily due to the amount of research completed. Ramos-Elorduy, for example, published a large number of publications in Mexico on entomophagy (the eating of insects), and Belgian scientists discovered more than 60 edible caterpillars in the Democratic Republic of Congo, a former Belgian colony [4]. This also implies that many edible bug species are yet unknown, necessitating more research [4]. Insects are more commonly consumed in tropical regions because they are bigger and generally congregate in clumps, making gathering easier. In addition, because there is no winter season, bug species can be found throughout the year. Most insect species are seasonal because they are dependent on the availability of their host plant; others, such as most aquatic insects, can be found all year. Beetles (31%), caterpillars (18%), wasps, bees, and ants (15%), crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts (13%), true bugs (11%), and termites, dragonflies, flies, and others (12%) are among the insects consumed [4, 5].

Spiders and scorpions are examples of arthropods that are eaten. Some species are semi-domesticated, meaning that some precautions are taken to make harvesting more predictable [6]. Palm trees, for example, may be chopped down to encourage palm weevils of the genus Rhynchophorus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) to lay their eggs on the trunk. The larvae are gathered when a particular amount of time has passed. In many areas of the world, these larvae are considered a delicacy. In the tropics, nothing is known about how frequently and how much insects are consumed [7]. This is due to the fact that insects are not counted as food or feed in national agricultural statistics. In underdeveloped nations, the vast majority of insects are collected from natural populations in nature, farmlands, or woods. Edible insects provide a low-cost and effective way for vulnerable groups to enhance their livelihoods and the quality of their traditional foods. In western nations, the use of insects as food has recently acquired popularity. Several businesses have begun to breed insects for human consumption. In the United States, for example, crickets are frequently used in processed foods like as protein bars. They are already available in supermarkets in several countries.

3. Arthropods as animal feed

Arthropods have been studied as a feed constituents for aquatic and domestic animals. Insect meal has been shown to have appropriate palatability for chickens, pigs, fish species, and ruminants. Insects can replace 25–100% of soymeal or fishmeal depending on the animal type [8]. The Black soldier fly Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) and the Domestic house fly Musca domestica are the most promising species for large-scale production (Diptera: Muscidae). Mealworms, termites, grasshoppers, crickets, and caterpillars are among the other species that are evaluated (such as the silkworm). The use of the Black soldier fly as a feed for chickens, pigs, channel catfish, African catfish, blue tilapia, turbot, and rainbow trout has been examined [8]. Agricultural by-products such as coffee pulp, palm kernel meal, and manure, as well as organic waste materials such as fish offal, market waste, municipal organic waste, dewatered fecal sludge, organic leachates, and Distiller’s Dried Grains with Solubles (DDGS) can all be recycled using fly larvae [9].

The use of insects in aquaculture has recently attracted a lot of attention. This is due to the decreasing availability of fishmeal as a primary source of dietary protein in compounded feed for a number of important farmed species [10]. Fishmeal is manufactured from pelagic fish caught in international seas. International fisheries are overfished, and existing techniques are unsustainable [11]. Fish and shellfish farming has been the fastest growing food producing sector in the previous several decades (it is still expanding at 6% per year) and has become a major business in many nations, increasing demand for fishmeal [11]. In 2012, farmed food fish accounted for 42% of all fish produced worldwide, including both capture and aquaculture (it was just 13% in 1990) [11]. As a result, fishmeal and fish oil output has decreased from 30 million tons (live weight) in 1994 to 16 million tons in 2012 [12]. This scarcity has driven a hunt for other protein sources, including the utilization of insects [11]. Insect meal is a promising alternative to soymeal in aquaculture, as vegetable-based diets have a number of drawbacks. These include amino acid imbalances, anti-nutritional elements, low palatability, and a large amount of fiber and non-starch polysaccharides [13].

Insects have been allowed in aquaculture feed since 2013, according to a European Union (EU) regulation. In Norway, research has shown that insect meal is an excellent protein source for farmed salmon [14]. The Norwegian Research Council has invested over one million euros to research the possibilities of employing insects as a safe and nutritious fish feed element [14].

4. Nutritional composition

The nutritional profile of edible insects is difficult to generalize. Despite the wide variety, data from 236 edible insect species demonstrate that they offer adequate energy and protein, fulfill human amino acid needs, are high in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, and are rich in various minerals and vitamins [15, 16]. In comparison to normal beef, the high iron and zinc concentration is particularly interesting. As a result, entomophagy has been recommended to address these mineral deficiencies in underdeveloped nations, particularly in light of the fact that the global population at risk for these deficiencies is more than 17% for zinc and 25% for iron [17].

Mealworms and crickets, for example, contain a protein level of 19 to 22%, making them suitable for human consumption [18]. In terms of protein content, this is equivalent to typical meat products [17]. The scientists found that the necessary amino acid levels in the insect species they studied were equivalent to soybean proteins, but lower than casein. Gels might be produced and soluble fractions obtained using a simple water extraction process for potential culinary applications [19].

4.1 Edible insect protein

Insects can be a more effective source of protein, and edible insects have a bright future [20]. Protein concentration varies depending on the insect condition, according to studies. Adults have the largest protein concentration, followed by pupas, and finally larvae [20]. According to protein estimates of insects of various ages, the adult has 71.07% protein content, the pupa has 58.59% protein content, and the larva has 50.83% protein content [5]. The protein composition of insects from various tropics differs as well. Orthoptera is ranked higher than Homoptera, as well as Odonata, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, and Coleoptera [21].

Amino acid is the fundamental functional unit of biological macromolecular protein, as well as a significant component of the food that insects consume. The amino acid concentration of edible insects ranges from 10 to 70%, with 10 to 30% being necessary amino acids. The majority of insect amino acid ratios are adequate and have approached or even exceeded the WHO/FAO recommended ratios [5]. The presence of a considerable number of free amino acids linked to insect freshness was also discovered [22]. The content of free amino acid of edible insects in the blood is about 3000–23,400 mg/kg, which is more than any other higher animal in the cosmos [22].

4.2 Carbohydrate of edible insects

Edible insects’ carbohydrates (sugars) are highly rich in glucose, triose, glycogen, erythritol, ketose sugar, fructose, and ketoheptose. The sugar content of sea algae (the constituent blood sugar of insects) is also high [23]. Edible insects carbohydrates are simple to digest and absorb with total sugar content ranging from 1–10% or even lower which is highly good for human health [24]. The total sugar content of Cyclopelta parva is 1.45%, while Tessaratoma papillosa has a sugar concentration of 0.15% [20].

The major component of edible insect skin and bones is chitin. N-Acetyl-D-glucosamine copolymer is its chemical name, and it has adsorption properties for a certain toxin. It is also a low-calorie food with a high nutritional content that is beneficial to one’s health. Chitin aids in the prevention of high blood pressure by promoting intestinal peristalsis, weight reduction owing to fat, antiaging, enhancing immunological function, and so on. The edible insect body content of chitin is generally between 15 and 18%. Chitin content varies according to insect nature, such as the chitin content of dry silkworm pupa (3.73%) and Skim pupa’s content is 5.55% [25].

4.3 Mineral elements and vitamin of edible insects

Edible insects are high in mineral elements such as calcium, phosphorus, iron, and zinc, among others, which are frequently required by the human body as supplements. Feed insects have been reported to be able to meet the Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mg mineral requirements of animals [26]. Mineral elements such as Mn, Fe, Cu, and Zn are found in abundance in locusts [26]. Zn, Se, Mn, and Mg [27] are abundant in many ants. Edible insects are high in Se, Co, Ni, and Cd trace elements, in addition to the constant element (73). The Se content of the Chinese rice locust and yellow powder bug is 4.62 and 4.75 mg/kg, respectively [28]. Se can help with detoxification, carcinogenic activity inhibition, carcinogen destruction, and cancer cell growth and division prevention [28]. Other elements found in Formica (Coptoformica) mesasiatica Dlussky [28] include Ni (1.22 mg/g), Co (1.36 mg/g), and Cr (1.52 mg/g).

Vitamins B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), B6 (pyridoxine), C, D, E, K, and carotene are all found in the bodies of insects [28]. Macrotermes annandalei contains 25.0 I.U./g of vitamin A, 85.4 I.U./g of vitamin D, and 11.7 I.U./g of vitamin E. Vitamins are necessary for sustaining the human body’s regular physiological function [28].

4.4 Lipid contents of edible insects

Oil and fats are abundant in insects [20]. Pupae and larvae have a greater fat content than adult insects [20]. The fat content of the insect decreases once it has feathered. The fat content of edible insects is usually between 10 and 50% [20]. Unsaturated fatty acid and palmitic acid are higher in edible insects [20]. Among them, linolenic acid content is higher. They can be employed as medicinal raw materials in the form of textiles and stencils [20]. The fat content of wasps was discovered in a recent study. Fat content in larvae is 29.01%, in pupae it is 27.25%, and in adults it is 17.22% [20]. Lepidoptera have more unsaturated fatty acids and palmitic acid, while Coleoptera have more oil acids [20]. Infrared spectroscopy of insect wax revealed that it is mostly made up of long-chain hydrocarbons, fatty alcohols, fatty acids, and some molecules with aromatic rings mixed in [29].

5. The nutritional evaluation of insect oil/fat

Insect oils (fat) are nutritional compounds with a wide range of physiological and biological effects. It is highly valued in research, development, and application, regardless of quantity or quality [30]. The fat content of an insect’s body varies during its life cycle. It is intimately linked to the insect species’ development [30]. Many studies have shown that the fat content of insects varies between species. In the same species, the oils (fat) of the pupa and larva were greater than those of the adults. The oil content of the insects was also greater throughout the winter [30].

The dry body fat level of insects was typically 10%, while many other insects have fat content of 30%, or even up to 77.16% [30]. Insects are high in fat and have a balanced fatty acid profile. The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids in edible insects is usually less than 0.4 [30]. Its partial fatty acid content ratio is similar to that of fish, therefore it may be utilized as a natural health care product. Insects’ saturated fatty acids (SFA) are largely made up of palmitic acid (C16:0), not stearic acid (C18:0), which is abundant in vertebrates [30]. In addition, insect oil contains carbon fatty acids with an odd number of carbons, such as pentadecanoic and heptadecanoic acids, which are very unusual in nature but exceedingly frequent in insects [27]. The concentration of heptadecanoic acid in termite adults, housefly larvae, and housefly adults was all greater than 2% [27]. Because odd-number carbon fatty acids have a unique raw active action, they were discovered to have higher anticancer activity [27]. As a result, many researchers are interested in the enrichment and separation of odd number carbon fatty acids in insects, resulting in a hotspot in insect oil research. Insect oil is a natural active product solvent that contains lecithin and fat soluble D raw ingredient (such as vitamin A, D, E). These active natural compounds have a significant physiological and biological function with a high value [30].

6. The secondary metabolites of edible insects and potential medicinal substances

A great number of researches in recent years have demonstrated that insect secondary metabolites are valuable sources for discovering novel leading chemicals [31]. Compounds generated from fatty acid, polyketide, terpenoid, nucleoside, and amino acid routes are among the structurally varied arthropod natural products having insect constituents. However, majority of these chemicals’ production has not been well investigated [31].

The historic use of plants as remedies, referred to as “ethnobotany,” has long been acknowledged and investigated [29]. Insects have long been used as remedies in a variety of civilizations, particularly in traditional Chinese medicine. It might be beneficial in the creation of effective medications. Another ongoing project is finding novel antibacterial structures from natural insect products. More recent investigations [31] are being conducted to investigate the therapeutic effects of isolated chemical components from insects and other arthropods.

7. Development and utilization of edible insect’s resources

Based on the diverse insects eaten resources classification, edible insects may be split into food insects, drug/medicinal insects, and drug dual-use insects, among others [22]. Edible insects are intended for everyday food intake, and they have significant nutritional value for humans to create and use. In 2013, the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) published “Edible Insects: Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security” [22]. It explains the several advantages of consuming insects for humans all around the world. It was proposed in the Fifth Latin American Congress of Dietitians and Nutritionists in 1980 to replace the human food scarcity, which sees them as part of the food source. Insects as human food in many countries has become increasingly visible now [22]. Red ants, grasshoppers, and some predaceous diving beetles (Dytiscidae) have enough insect protein to compete with lean beef, according to scientists. Adult insect protein content is abundant, far exceeding that of pork, cattle, poultry, fish, and eggs. Insects will be the third group in the future, following cell raw material and microbial protein sources, according to experts [32]. People in disadvantaged areas require important nutrients, and the services of insects and spiders are equally beneficial. In industrialized countries such as the United States, insects and spiders are higher protein foods that are considered healthful. With high fat, protein, vitamin, fiber, and mineral content, insects are a very nutritious and beneficial dietary source [22].

At the home level or in bigger industrial scale enterprises, gathering and growing insects can provide employment and economic revenue. It has the potential to employ millions of people all around the world (Reference needed). Furthermore, data suggests that most breeding insects emit less detrimental greenhouse emissions to the environment than animals (Reference needed). This discovery will aid in the reduction of food production costs and greenhouse gas emissions. In China, the processing technology of the functional food and health food industries of edible insects has accelerated at an unprecedented rate in recent years, in tandem with the advancement of contemporary science and technology. For instance, a concentrated insect protein oral beverage including honey, royal jelly, pollen, and propolis, as well as the customary shellac ash. (Reference is required) Some insect oils are primarily employed as fat soluble functional components [32].

7.1 Insect farming

The majority of bug species in tropical regions are obtained from nature. Insects, on the other hand, must be cultivated like mini-livestock if they are to become a valuable resource. Furthermore, edible insect resources in nature are already under pressure from over-exploitation, habitat deterioration, and pesticide usage [33, 34]. The collecting and selling of the Mopane caterpillar Imbrasia belina (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae), for example, jeopardizes the long-term usage of forestry resources. As a result, a harvesting period restriction has been proposed [35].

Thailand is one of the countries where insect farming plays a vital role, with 20,000 farms producing roughly 7500 tons per year with operations spreading into Laos [36]. Several multinational programs are currently functioning in Africa to encourage insect breeding for human consumption, with a focus on crickets [37]. Farming commercially significant insect species like the Mopane caterpillar has been attempted [38]. However, virus transmission within a confined population is still an issue, and it is not yet economically feasible [38]. Bug rearing firms in the Western world manufacture a variety of insect species for pet food [39]. Some firms in the Netherlands have set up dedicated manufacturing lines for human consumption of mealworms, crickets, and locusts [39]. When insects are used as feed, however, feedstock firms demand big, consistent, and consistent supply, which can only be produced in industrial automated raising facilities [39]. Increased insect production for food and feed on a big scale will provide numerous new hurdles, including disease issues. The Acheta domesticus densovirus (AdDNV) is one example, which has decimated commercial house cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) rearing throughout Europe and portions of North America [40].

Nigerians gather edible insects from the wild, which is hampered by seasonality, quality time wasted during collecting, and little quantity obtained (Reference needed). As a result of its scarcity, the supply of edible insects will be disrupted, resulting in high cost. In Nigeria, insect farming will help with food provision, particularly in rural areas that are closer to the wild additional revenue for essential expenses such as food, agricultural equipment, and education; and it will help with food shortages due to seasonal drought in output (Reference needed). Insect farming for food also provides chances for landless people and women involved in the collecting, farming/cultivation, processing, and sale of insects to improve their nutrition, get employment, and earn money [41, 42]. Edible insects may be found in all of Nigeria’s ecological zones, with each geopolitical zone having a unique edible bug that can be grown for profit. According to Alamu et al. [43], of the 22 most eaten insects in Nigeria, 77.3% were Lepidoptera (27.3%), Coleoptera (27.3%), Orthoptera (22.7%), and Isoptera, Hemiptera, and Hymenoptera (22.7%). This demonstrates that edible insect consumption in Nigeria is diverse. Only a small number of insects are farmed in Nigeria, and those that are farmed are not in commercial quantities. Rhynchophorus spp., or palm weevils, are excellent low-cost providers of vital nutrients. They are extremely tasty and are commonly prepared roasted, and they have a low carbon footprint when farmed commercially. Palm weevils are a traditional meal for most rural societies (especially in the south), but they are not farmed for consumption; instead, they are harvested in the wild. Muafor et al. [44] described traditional grub harvesting and grub semi-farming as indigenous ways of palm weevil cultivation. These agricultural techniques account for 30 to 75% of household income. Ebenebe & Okpoko [45] reported that, palm weevils were reared on eight distinct culturing substrates (coconut fiber, coconut fiber with palm wine, mahogany sawdust, mahogany sawdust with palm wine, palm frond petiole, palm bunch midrib, sugarcane tops (SCT), and spoilt water melon (SWM)). In terms of materials and labor, palm weevil farming is a cost-effective business. Within three to four months, the larvae attain adulthood and may be collected for eating; they are high in protein.

Cirina forda is a Nigerian delicacy eaten mostly by people from the south. It has a high protein, fat, and necessary mineral content. Because there is now no commercial farm providing this wonderful protein source, cultivating it for food will be profitable. A large number of the insects are collected in the wild before being processed and sold in major marketplaces in Nigeria’s southwest. Cirina forda larvae may be grown on the leaves of a growing Vittelaria paradoxa tree, according to Ande and Fasoranti [46]. All instars matured and were gathered within one month. Despite the huge potential contained in the larvae, they have not been economically produced in decades. Starting this business has the potential to be very profitable. According to Ebenebe and Okpoko [45], cricket (Gymnogryllus lucens) is the most popular insect eaten in Nigeria, but it can only be caught in the wild.

8. Impact of insect quality on consumers’ preference and acceptability

Nutrient content (protein being a key component), insect quality (especially taste, flavor, look, palatability), and external variables (availability, easy pricing, suitable social milieu) are all essential considerations in accepting insects as food [47]. Forest-dwelling people have easy access to natural regions, not only in underdeveloped nations but also in rural areas such as Japan [34]. Consumer reactions to wild insects and their food products, as well as their preferences, acceptability, and consumption of insect-based meals, are currently unknown. Anecdotal evidence suggests that in Africa and India, certain wild edible insect species are preferred and accepted above cultivated ones such as silkworms or crickets [34].

Alemu et al. [43] observed no significant difference in whole or powdered termite eating in Kenya. Before purchasing termites, such as Macrotermes falciger, buyers evaluated the insect stock for freshness, presence of legs, cleanliness, species type, and oil content at the local market. Fried adults were selected by the majority of purchasers (77.6%) [43]. Long-bodied termite soldiers were in high demand and favored over late variants [48]. In Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda, the grasshopper (R. differens) is a traditional delicacy, a source of nutrition, and a delightful multifunctional insect [47]. Consumers preferred salted, boiled, and smoked grasshoppers or deep fried grasshoppers in cotton seed oil above any other single processing technique (smoking, deep frying, sun-drying, toasting, boiling) [47]. R. differens adults that had been cooked with salt, onion, and tomato and then dried were favored above those that had merely been deep-dried with salt and onion in another study. The acceptability ratings for these goods were 7.2 and 5.2, respectively (on a scale of 0–9, with 9 being the highest approval) [48].

People in Uganda favored boiled and dried grasshoppers with salt, onion, and tomatoes to those that were just boiled and dried without tomatoes in the case of R. nitidula [48]. With the exception of grasshoppers, whose legs are often removed, entire insects are valued in India; larvae, pupae, and adult termites are sometimes combined and sold together by local sellers [49]. Overall, while there was a higher acceptance for insects without much attention to the species, fear of trying an unknown product, lack of taste experience, and a belief of low social acceptance were identified as major barriers to popularizing edible insects [50]. Despite the fact that taste alone failed to distinguish insects from cheese or bread in more than half of the probands tested there was a very low acceptability [51]. Acceptability is also influenced by accurate labeling. Siozios, [52] discovered many discrepancies in identification in packets containing mopane caterpillars, winged termites, and grasshoppers while testing the correctness of insect goods on the UK market. This may make customers less willing to accept and consume insects or insect products.

Information on entomophagy, past experience and familiarity with edible insects, look, flavor, and overall likability of a species are all important considerations when choosing edible species. As a result, views regarding insects as food and food supplemented with edible insects can be influenced by information and knowledge [53]. In fact, a survey conducted two years following the introduction of edible insects in Belgium demonstrated a rising favorable reaction in terms of acceptability, according to Van Thielen et al. [54]. A comparable poll of Danish customers found that 23% of them would eat insects [55].

8.1 Insect processing and product quality

Traditionally, insects are consumed raw or processed (dried, crushed, pulverized, grounded, pickled, cooked, boiled, fried, roasted/grilled, toasted, smoked or extruded [54]. Besides these techniques, Kewuyemi et al. [56] suggested fermentation to enrich the inherent composition of insect-based products and to induce anti-microbial, nutritional and therapeutic properties. Similarly, defatted T. molitor larvae and oil could be used as food ingredients. Defatted mealworm powder is high in protein, minerals, and bioactive substances, and has a savory flavor due to the abundance of amino acids. The oil is high in tocopherol and has a long shelf life [57]. Insects are frequently fasted before processing, and big specimens are degutted or defatted since the gut may contain undigested plant material, excreta, bacteria, and other contaminants; also, degutted insects have greater crude fiber protein levels [56]. Tribal communities have consistently embraced this approach since it is efficient and practical, especially for huge lepidopteran larvae. Insects that have been processed can be freeze-dried, sun-dried, or canned. Consumer preferences, insect species availability and compatibility, social custom, religious rites, tribal ethics, and family tradition may all influence processing procedures [58]. Anuduang et al. [59] investigated the antioxidant characteristics of silkworm powder at four different drying temperatures (80, 100, 120, and 140°C) and found that the lowest drying temperature maintained the most phenolic compounds and antioxidants.

When choosing a food item based on “post-ingestive fitness,” the processing method can aid in the removal of anti-nutrients and other harmful components while also extending the shelf life. As a result, processing is necessary to retain nutritional content, increase shelf life, and obtain functional and fortified foods [57]. Products are supplemented with insect chitosan (a polysaccharide derivative of chitin) in food processing facilities, which is more soluble and so favored over raw chitin [60]. Traditional wisdom based on centuries of experience is regularly used by local communities to improve insect-based cuisine [61]. Methods can, of course, evolve and be replaced by others, since each has benefits and disadvantages that are tailored to area circumstances. In North-East India, for example, roasting, grilling, and frying are commonly used because insects taste better than boiling and baking [62].

Vitamins are generally heat sensitive, and heat processing reduces the quantity of these essential chemicals fully or partially. To avoid insect damage, storage conditions are critical. However, whereas the level of tocopherol in T. molitor and Zophobas morio did not change in various settings [63], the antioxidant capabilities of silkworm powder did. Nyangena et al. [64] investigated the effects of traditional processing techniques on the proximate composition and microbiological quality of Acheta domesticus, Ruspolia differens, Hermetia illucens, and Spodoptera litoralis, including boiling, toasting, solar-drying, oven drying, boiling + oven drying, boiling + solar-drying, toasting + oven-drying, toasting + solar-drying, toasting + oven-drying. Traditional processing enhanced microbiological safety but reduced nutritional value, according to the researchers [63].

8.2 Processing and marketing

The Mopane caterpillar trade is significant business in southern Africa. Styles estimated in 1994 that an annual population of 9500 million mopane caterpillars in South Africa’s 20,000 km2 of mopane veld was worth more than US$ 80 million, with around 40% going to producers who are mostly impoverished rural women [59]. To alleviate child malnutrition, supplemental diets based on edible termites were designed and assessed in Kenya. It can be processed into economical and safe meals with acceptable nutrient density, according to the findings [65]. To stimulate entomophagy in Kenya, termites and lake flies were baked, boiled, and cooked to extend shelf life and then processed into common consumer items like crackers, muffins, sausages, and meat loaf. These are ways for making naturally gathered items available for extended periods of time. Techniques including drying, acidifying, and lactic fermentation can be used to preserve edible insects and insect products without the need of a refrigerator [30]. However, insects should be farmed to better manage and ensure the supply of such insect goods. Then freeze-drying (dehydration of the frozen insect via sublimation) is commonly used [30].

8.3 Consumer acceptance

In tropical areas, insects are a major source of protein, yet Europeans are wary of eating them. Bequaert ascribed western people’s reluctance to eating insects to ‘prejudice’ and cultural, conditioning over a century ago: “What we eat and what we do not eat is, after all, a question of tradition and fashion (rather than) anything else” [66]. DeFoliart also saw the western mindset and prejudice against eating insects as a significant impediment to the introduction of this sustainable food source. Yen [67] predicted that ‘westernization’ of insect-eating communities would lead to a shift away from entomophagy, while western countries, as main consumers of cattle protein, would miss out on a chance to lessen their environmental impact. Others have emphasized the necessity for techniques to overcome the psychological and cultural hurdles to entomophagy, citing the value of insects as human food as a difficult test case [68]. In Belgium and the Netherlands, research found that motives for sustainable food consumption promoted the acceptance of insects as a protein source [67, 69]. Customers in Thailand, where insects are a part of the local culinary culture, saw insects differently from Dutch consumers in terms of flavor and familiarity. Mealworms, for example, were greatly disliked by Thai participants owing to their link with larvae found in decaying debris [67]. The Dutch individuals, who were more familiar with mealworms as food, did not have this link. The following solutions have been offered to alleviate the aversion to eating insects [67].

1. To raise customer awareness of the product by offering information about insects as a sustainable alternative food source.

2. To make edible insects available and to teach people how to cook them.

3. To emphasize the close relationship between insects and crustaceans in animal categorization.

4. To increase the number of edible bug exposures and taste tests.

5. Create appropriate items that not only lessen the barriers to trying new things, but also taste good and are enjoyable to consume.

6. Incorporating insects into everyday foods.

7. To employ role models such as Kofi Annan, the former UN Secretary-General, who was interviewed about edible insects.

8. To target youngsters for entomophagy instruction.

9. Food safety and legislation

A number of writers have addressed food safety concerns, with urgent legal implications. Contaminants such as heavy metals, mycotoxins, pesticide residues, and infections are all potential risks. The existing research on insect eating in tropical regions shows that insects gathered for human consumption do not pose any substantial health risks [70], but there is little information on insects cultivated for food or feed. Nobody regarded insects to be food or feed at the time the legislation was enacted, therefore when the word “animal” is used in the statute, insects are frequently included. The EU Regulation 1099/2009, for example, states that animals must be murdered in approved slaughterhouses in the presence of an Animal Welfare Officer; this plainly does not apply to insects [24].

In the case of insects as food, the EU has yet to rule whether an insect product is regarded a novel food because it was not consumed “in a considerable degree” in the EU prior to May 15, 1997. If this is the case, the manufacturer must supply a Novel Food Dossier, among other documents, demonstrating that the product is safe for consumers. The EU adopted a rule in 2013 permitting the use of non-ruminant proteins in aquaculture feed for fish; a removal of the restriction on insect proteins in feed for food-producing pigs and poultry is being studied [23].

Food containing insects, such as the Yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), may cause allergy reactions in those sensitive to home dust mites and crustaceans [25]. Recent evidence reveals that insects and crustaceans (such as shrimps), which have long been thought to be taxonomically distinct branches of the arthropod family tree, are really taxonomically linked [28]. When an insect product is found to be allergic, adequate labeling is essential.

10. The way forward

The recent surge in interest in insects as food and feed was sparked in part by the release of an FAO report in 2013, which has been downloaded more than 7 million times. Wageningen University and the FAO jointly organized the first conference on this topic, “Insects to Feed the World,” in the Netherlands in 2014. This meeting drew 450 people from 45 different nations. In the agriculture, food, feed, and health sectors, research institutes, universities, private firms, international organizations, civil society, and government agencies were all represented [71].

Edible insects harvested from natural resources support livelihoods since they may be consumed and/or sold. Research on sustainable harvesting, semi-domestication, and farming is required to avoid overexploitation. Some insect pests, such as edible grasshoppers in Mexico, can be harvested as a management tool [72].

Insect farming veterinary science is still in its infancy. Insect diseases that may emerge during large-scale rearing are poorly understood in terms of biological and genetic characterization, phylogeny, host range, transmission, persistence, epidemic potential, and animal safety, including human safety [73]. Disease transmission has been a problem in the conventional livestock industry on a global scale. Microbial contamination prevention, detection, identification, and mitigation are critical for a successful and safe insect production. Insects can be used to convert organic waste streams like manure into high-protein goods, which is an intriguing prospect. However, further empirical investigations and monitoring are needed to determine the quality of the utilized garbage and the insects created. If insect-based food or feed is contaminated with dangerous bacteria, mycotoxins, or heavy metals, the potential risk to human health must be addressed immediately [73].

In the western world, legislative barriers are currently impeding the advancement of the emerging sector of insects as food and feed. The unfamiliarity with insects as food in the European Union, according to De-Magistris et al. [74], may impact EU decision-making since consumers are “conditioned” by cultural patterns and neophobia when it comes to edible insects. As a result, there may be less receptivity to new ideas. On the one hand, the EU investigates and promotes innovative and sustainable food ingredients such as insects, but on the other, it stifles innovation by imposing a regulatory framework that protects consumers from hazards associated with novel food items.

Because it is labor demanding and feed prices are considerable, concerns have been raised about the viability of mass-producing insects. To create vast numbers of high-quality and safe insect products in a cost-effective and reliable manner, automation of manufacturing operations would be required. Another option to save feedstock costs is to employ low-value organic by-products and waste streams [75].

A lot of firms are working on this project throughout the world. One firm can process 20 tons of fly larvae every day, yielding seven tons of insect meal and three tons of insect oil. Because vast amounts of feed are necessary for pets, fish, and cattle, and because the components for fishmeal and soymeal continue to rise in price, the use of insect meal as an alternative protein source is becoming a more attractive choice. More attention is needed to optimize desired insect features by selecting specific strains or utilizing genetic enhancement procedures [75].

Cultural and individual expectations regarding the species to be used as food and how they should be prepared should be considered when developing insect-based food products. It is inadequate to emphasize the health and environmental benefits to encourage usage. Gastronomy study is also required to determine whether insects are acceptable as a sustainable food source (deliciousness). Multiple disciplinary approaches (multi-disciplinarily, inter-disciplinarily, and trans-disciplinarily) are required to advance the new agricultural sector of insects as food and feed, as complex problems must be solved that transcend traditional boundaries and require the collaboration of non-academic stakeholders [75].

11. Conclusions

The biggest phylum in the animal kingdom, containing well-known insects, spiders, ticks, and crustaceans, as well as several smaller, lesser-known species and a plethora of bizarre forms only known as fossils. Arthropods make up over 95% of all animal species [1]. There are about one million recognized species, the majority of which are insects [1]. Nobody knows how many arthropod species there are. Some officials believe it may be as high as ten million [1]. The body of an adult arthropod is normally made up of a succession of ring-like segments with a pair of numerous jointed limbs on each segment that move on each other via muscles. It is becoming obvious that arthropod resources may be mass manufactured for use in food production for sustainable development. In terms of nutritional value, food components, and chemical makeup, it is a valuable resource. Meanwhile, the use of edible arthropods has posed a problem in terms of food security, environmental conservation, and the destruction of traditional culinary culture [1].

Acknowledgments

We wish to acknowledge the publishers, for the opportunity to add to the pool of knowledge, some drops of reviewed ideas. We hereby register our profound gratitude to the editors involved in publishing this work for the required quality and desired acceptability.