Postharvest Handling Methods, Processes and Practices for Pepper

Abstract

Pepper belongs to the family Solanaceae. It is cultivated for its pungency, flavor, color, taste, export potential, capsaicin and oleoresin content. It is classified as sweet or hot pepper, depending on the capsaicin content of the fruit. World pepper production was around 3.5 million tons between 2009 and 2019, with 35% from Vietnam as the largest producer and exporter, followed by India and Indonesia. Vietnam pepper production increased progressively by 12.4% in 2014. The country was the major producer, followed by Brazil, Indonesia and India. To enhance adequate supply of pepper fruits and stabilize its soaring price, there must be efficient postharvest handling, processing and preservation methods compatible with the socio-economic and cultural practices of the producer. Data showed that improper postharvest handling of pepper results in huge postharvest losses. With this, handling must be a crucial part of an integrated systematic approach to maintaining the final product’s quality.

1. Introduction

Postharvest technology is an essential part of agricultural production and utilization system. It is vital in loss reduction, value addition, food security, employment and income generation. Therefore, there is an urgent need for a postharvest technology revolution with strong linkages to proper processing, preservation, storage, marketing and distribution of pepper fruits [1]. Inappropriate postharvest handlings of pepper result in huge losses [2]. Poor handling practices lead to substantial postharvest losses. These practices include;- harvesting at an improper maturity stage, wrong harvesting method, use of inappropriate field packaging materials, harvesting at an ill-chosen time of the day, poor transportation, inadequate storage system and improper processing and preservation methods. Ineffective postharvest handling will reduce fruits’ shelf life, hasten postharvest decay and reduce marketability [3, 4]. Physiologically, pepper fruit lacks natural wax at an immature stage, which hastens moisture loss and reduces quality. Postharvest losses have been estimated to be about 26–35 per cent for local markets and 50 per cent for exports [5, 6, 7, 8]. Successful storage requires a good product, proper temperature and atmospheric humidity, the right stage of maturity, proper harvesting method, right harvesting time, suitable sanitation procedure and freedom from diseases and injury. These factors enhance and determine the shelf life of pepper in storage, while impacts of damages such as bruises, rupture and puncture can be reduced by proper handling [9]. Pepper fruits are harvested, handled and stored just as it suits each individual. Postharvest handling method and storage of pepper fruits are based on demand and supply. The consequence is that the system has not led to necessary and efficient postharvest handling and storage of pepper fruits. Due to the absence of a proper postharvest management system, a bulk quantity of the fruits gets damaged during handling, transportation and marketing, resulting in substantial annual losses [10, 11, 12, 13].

2. Pepper

Pepper is a herbaceous plant with a tap root system. It grows up to 10-20 mm long and 3-7 mm in diameter, and fruit weight ranges from 128 to 210 g depending upon cultivars. The fruit grows from green through pale yellow to mature bright red [14]. There are 26 different species of pepper, but the most widely cultivated are Capsicum chinense, Capsicum frutescens, Capsicum annum, Capsicum baccatum and Capsicum pubescens [15]. The centre of diversity for Capsicum species is in South-central and South America, with most species having the same range in Brazil and Bolivia [16]. The primary centre of origin for domesticated C. annum is in semi-tropical Mexico [17, 18]. Bolivia is considered the centre of domestication for C. baccatum (Aji) and C. Pubescens (rocoto). Pepper’s diversity is associated with its different names; chilly, chily, mirchi, chili, chile, Aji, paprika and capsicum for plants in the genus capsicum [19]. Pepper can appear in the local dialects as follows:

Nigeria

Yoruba Rodo

Ibo Osse nkrisi

Hausa Barkono/Tasshi

Afrikaans Brand rissie

Amharic Mit’mita berbere

Arabic Fulfill ahmar

2.1 Common names for capsicum

Aji: This is a South American term used for chili.

Anaheim: They are blunt-nosed, long and narrow with a green or reddish color.

Bolita: Bolita is dark red, oval-shaped chili fruit with very high pungency.

Cascabel: Dried form of bolita.

Cayenne chili: It is long and slender with dark green color. It turns red at maturity.

Chiltepin: It is one of the oldest and original chili species. It has tiny round-shaped fruit.

Habanero: They are well known in Mexico and USA; they have thick flesh and green color, cylindrical and oval-shaped, which turns red when ripe.

Jamaican Hot: It originated from Jamaica. The color is green when immature and turns to yellow color at maturity.

Mirasol: They are beautiful, smooth, shining red skin and oval-shaped with high pungency. When dried, it is known as ‘guajillo’ or ‘puya’.

Paprika: Paprika belongs to Capsicum annum; it originated from Mexico. It is usually dried and ground for seasoning.

Pasilla chili: It is long and thin with green color, which turns dark brown when it matures; it is mild to medium in pungency. The ripe pasilla is called “Chilaca’ or “Chiles Negro’.

Pimento: This is Spanish paprika called pimento chili or cherry pepper. It is extremely mild in pungency; it is large heart-shaped red pepper with sweet, aromatic and succulent fruit.

Poblano: It originated from Pueblo in Mexico. It is heart-shaped green in color when unripe and turns red or brown at maturity. The pungency ranges from mild to moderate. The dried poblanos are known as Mulato and Ancho.

Scot’s Bonnet or Scotch Bonnet: They are very high in pungency and may cause blisters to the tongue, dizziness and severe heartburn. They are irregular in shape with yellow, orange or red color.

Serrano: They are small, round in shape and slightly pointed at the end. They are smooth dark green when unripe and turn scarlet red, brown, orange and then yellow as they ripen with high pungency. They originated from the foothills of Puebla in Mexico.

Birdseye or Dhani Chillies: It is also known as African Devil Chile. It is tiny, green and bright red at maturity. It is grown in many African countries.

Byadagi or Kaddi Chillies are grown in Goa and Dharwar in Karnataka. These chillies are also called Kaddi chillies and wrinkled red when dried.

Guntur Sanman Chillies: These chillies are cultivated in the Guntur, Warangal and Khammam district of Andra Pradesh. The Guntur chillies are long with thick red skin with very high pungency.

Hindpur Chillies: These are found in Andhra Pradesh in India. These chillies are extremely pungent and red. The harvesting season for these chillies is from December to March.

Jwala Chillies: The most popular form of chili in India. Jwala is long and slender; when unripe, it has green color and turns red when ripe. Jwala means “volcano’ in Hindi and is highly pungent. Jwala is found in Kheda and Mehsana in Gujarat.

Kanthari Chillies: The Kanathari chillies are grown in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. They are small and ivory white in color. They are highly pungent.

Kashmiri Mirch: It is grown in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir. It has smooth, shining skin and is fleshy with dark red color. They are mild in pungency.

Mundu Chillies or Gundu Molzuka: Are found in Tamil Nadu and Anantpur in Andhra Pradesh. They are roundish fruit with a moderately pungent yellowish red color.

Nalcheti Chillies: They are grown in Nagpur and Maharashtra. They are long and red when dried with high pungency.

Tomato Chili or Warangal Chappatta: These are found in Warangal, Khammam and the Godavari district of Andra Pradesh. These chillies are short, dark red in color, and when dried, these chillies have moderate pungency.

2.1.1 Factors influencing the nutritional composition of pepper

2.1.1.1 Maturity stage and harvesting method

Pepper’s maturity is in three distinct stages during their developmental stages. These stages are immature green, mature green and mature red. It starts from immature green to mature green, pepper fruit increases in firmness and pungency, the cell walls thicken and no color change occurs. Mature green peppers are horticulturally developed and can be consumed fresh or in processed form. Harvesting of immature green peppers results in poor color, flavors and short lifespan [20]. Maturity is a major factor determining the compositional quality of fruits and vegetables. Fruit maturity depends on the cultivar and the environmental conditions before and during maturation [21]. Various workers reported that immature citrus fruits contained the highest concentration of vitamin C, whereas ripe fruits contained the least. Although vitamin C concentration decreased during the maturation of citrus fruits, the total vitamin C content per fruit tended to increase because the total volume of juice and fruit size increased with advancing maturity [22]. The method of harvest, maturity and physical injuries can influence the nutritional composition of pepper fruits. Mechanical damages (e.g. bruising, surface abrasions and cuts) can result in accelerated loss of vitamin C. The incidence and severity of such injuries are influenced by the method of harvest and handling operations. Vitamin C loss occurs when vegetables are severely cut or shredded, such as cabbage, lettuce, carrots and other vegetables sold as salad mix. Proper management should be employed to minimize physical damage to crops, whether harvesting is done by hand or by machine. Strawberries and other berries lose vitamin C quickly if bruised during harvesting [23]. Mondy and Leja found a considerable decrease in vitamin C content of injured tissue of potato tubers, while the unbruised halves appeared to show an increase in their vitamin C content [24, 25]. The harvest and postharvest techniques adopted by small-scale farmers in some developing countries were inappropriate for protecting fruits from damage and deterioration. The farmers also sometimes fail to sort out infected fruits from wholesome ones before transporting them to market, which could have reduced infection of healthy fruits and subsequent postharvest losses. Other causes of high failures include using unskilled labour for harvest, careless loading and unloading of harvested fruits, exposure of fruits to direct sunlight resulting in heat buildup and poor roads and transportation networks. Adewoyin and Babatola revealed that the shelf-life of pepper fruits harvested with pedicels at 10% ripeness and stored in refrigerator, evaporative coolant structure (ECS) and ambient condition (AC) were 27, 20 and 6 days, while those harvested at 100% ripeness were 21, 14 and 3 days, respectively. The corresponding shelf-life of pepper harvested without pedicel at 10% ripeness was 21, 18 and 5 days and those harvested at 100% ripeness were 18, 15 and 2 days. Deterioration was significantly higher in fruits harvested without pedicels than those harvested with pedicels [26].

2.1.2 Climatic condition

During the growing season, the amount and intensity of light significantly influence the amount of vitamin C formed. Vitamin C is synthesized from sugars supplied through photosynthesis in plants. Outside fruit exposed to maximum sunlight contains more vitamin C than inside and shaded fruit on the same plant. It was observed that grapefruits grown in coastal California generally contain more vitamin C than fruit grown in desert areas.

2.1.3 Cultural practices

Plant growth is generally enhanced by Nitrogen fertilizer, so a relative dilution effect may occur in the plant tissues [23]. More so, cultural practices like pruning and thinning determine the crop load and fruit size, which can influence the nutritional composition of fruits. Using pesticides and growth regulators may indirectly affect the nutritional quality of fruit. The application of gibberellins was beneficial to green tea quality, increasing vitamin C content by 18%. Excess use of Nitrogen fertilizer increases the concentration of N0₃ and simultaneously decreases that of AA. It may have a double negative effect on the quality of plant food [27, 28]. Although vitamin C concentration is positively correlated with the nitrogen supply in butter-head lettuce, it is inversely correlated with the Nitrogen supply in white cabbage and crisp-head lettuce [29, 30, 31, 32].

2.1.4 Temperature

Temperature is critical in extending shelf life and maintaining the quality of fresh pepper fruit. Prolonged keeping of fruits after harvesting and cooling or processing can result in direct loss due to water loss and decay; indirect losses can also occur, such as flavor and deterioration in nutritional quality. The temperature range and the extent of vitamin C loss depended on the type of fruit. Wu found that vitamin C reduced quickly in green beans kept at 5°C after three days but retains stability in broccoli [33, 34]. Esteve showed that vitamin C concentration in harvested fresh green asparagus stored at 4°C increased after two days [35].

2.1.5 Mechanical damage

Mechanical damages such as abrasion, cuts and bruises affect the chemical composition of pericarp tissues of tomato fruit. Vitamin C content was lower by 15% in bruised locular tissue than in fruit without physical damage. Shelling green peas and green lima beans lowers their nutrient composition compared to those left in the pod [36, 37, 38].

2.1.6 Chemical treatments

Calcium dips can control physiological disorders and firmness reduction in apples and cherries. Dehydrated pineapples and guava pre-treated with cysteine hydrochloride had increased AA retention and reduced color change during storage [39]. Kiwi fruit slices stored in ethylene–free air had threefold more AA content than the control [40].

2.1.7 Irradiation

Ionizing radiation can be used to prevent sprouting, insect control or delay of ripening of certain fruits and vegetables [41]. Irradiation effect on horticultural crops at relatively low doses at 300gy had no significant effect on AA and DHA. Irradiation at 75 – 100gy irreversibly inhibited the sprouting of potatoes regardless of storage temperature. Losses in vitamin C were lower in potato irradiated for sprout control and subsequently stored at 15°C than in non-irradiated tubers stored at 2-4°C [42]. ‘Galia’ musk melons were irradiated at doses up to 1kgy as a quarantine treatment, and the treatment did not affect vitamin C content. In general, doses of 2–3 kg combined with refrigeration helped extend the shelf life of strawberries [43]. During storage, AA levels significantly increased while DHA content decreased in irradiated strawberries [40].

2.1.8 Controlled modified atmosphere

Modifying the atmospheric air (AA) during storage reduces physiological and chemical changes in fruits. For instance, AA loss can be reduced by storing apples in a low oxygen atmosphere. Veltma found out that storage of pepper for six days in a CO2-enriched atmosphere resulted in a reduction in AA content of sweet pepper kept at 13°C. Increasing CO₂ concentration in the storage atmosphere of strawberries had little effect on vitamin C content; AA was more diminished at high CO₂ than DHA [43]. Elevated CO₂ may stimulate the oxidation of AA by ascorbate peroxidase [44]. Other qualities of pepper were maintained better in MAP (Modified atmosphere package) than in air [43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49].

2.1.9 Processing methods

Processing methods are critical in preserving the beneficial properties of capsicum. Among the vitamins, ascorbic acid is very susceptible to chemical and enzymatic oxidation during the processing, cooking and storing of produce. Unblanched beans and pepper lost more than 97% of their vitamin C within one month of freezing at 23^°C. Blanching reduces vitamin C content by 28% in vacuum-sealed samples further decreased by 3%, while non-vacuum sealed lost 10% in 12 months of storage [50, 51, 52, 53]

2.2 Storage

The need for storage of agricultural produce is necessitated by seasonal changes, disasters, economic meltdown, climate change, price fluctuations, terrorism and tribal conflict. Tropical fruits are stored at a higher temperature than in the temperate region. The higher temperature increases metabolism, activities, respiratory rate, loss of moisture content and an increased rate of ripening; these reduce the shelf life of tropical fruits more rapidly. It was estimated that 25–70 per cent of the fresh fruit produced is lost after harvest [26]. Peppers stored above 7.5°C suffer water loss and shriveling. Storage below 7.5°C is best for a maximum shelf life of 3−5 weeks. Pepper dried to safe moisture content, packed tightly in sacks, can be stored in non-refrigerated warehouses for up to 6 months. Storage under low temperature reduces loss of red color and slow down insect activities. Rapid precooling of harvested pepper is essential in reducing marketing losses, and this can be done by forced air cooling, hydro cooling or vacuum cooling. If hydro cooling is used, care should be taken to prevent the development of decay. The moisture content of pepper should be kept low (10–15%) to prevent mold growth. Relative humidity of 60–70% is too higher. If the relative humidity is too low (below 10%), pods may be too brittle that they may shatter during handling, resulting in losses and the release of dust, which irritates the skin and respiratory system [54]. Using polyethene bags for dried pepper allowed for better storage and reduced dust. Packaging ensures the pod maintains a constant moisture content during storage until the grinding time. Baryeh studied the storage condition and storage life of okra and pepper in isolated concrete and heat storage unit in form of tubes and slabs. Solar heated air and the air blown around a hot internal combustion engine were passed through the tubes and slabs. The effectiveness of heat storage increased with increasing food storage length. It was demonstrated that up to 6.0 kj and 5.75 kj of heat energy could be used to store products in tropical semi-argillous mud and concrete over a 5-hr period. In a further study, concrete and mud tubes were used to store pepper, which was kept for one year without severe deterioration. The moisture content remains at the initial value of 10%, which was too low to allow germination and fungal growth [55]. Pepper can also be preserved effectively in the evaporative coolant structure for two weeks without problems associated with cold storage [56]. The objective of storage after harvest is to control the rate of deterioration and ripening, and to maintain its quality. The following characteristics are used as indices to measure the quality of pepper fruit; size, color, shape, firmness, freedom from defects, cracks, decay, sunburn, infection, physiological disorder and pathological disorder. Relative humidity, the control of relative humidity in a postharvest environment, is often as important as temperature control. In some situations, the effect of the two factors is difficult to separate because of the capacity of air to hold moisture, which varies with temperature. Relative humidity depends on the type of storage and purpose [54]. Green pepper stores best at 5–10°C for 3–4 weeks [57]. Wills also found that, in general, there is an inverse relationship between respiration rate and storage life so that produce with low respiration rate generally keep longer. It suggests that respiration could be slowed by limiting the oxygen or raising carbon dioxide concentration in the storage atmosphere. The reduction in the concentration of O₂ is necessary to achieve a dependent on the storage temperature. As the temperature lowers, the required concentration of O₂ is also reduced. For good quality, colored peppers should have 50% colouration [4].

2.3 Preservation techniques

The preservation of pepper helps in the following ways: To increase the economic value of the product by transforming it from one form to another, to remove inedible parts of produce, to improve taste, to inactivate enzymes, to make packaging easier, to reduce the cost of transportation, to make food available where it is not produced, to increase profit and to Control shortage.

2.3.1 Drying of foods

Drying is a food preservation method that involves the removal of moisture from food to a safe moisture level that inactivates microorganisms. Sun drying is only possible when the sun is available for a longer time [52]. Freeze-drying involves sublimation by converting food into ice without allowing water but through vacuum and heat applied in the drying chamber. The produce is frozen, and then water is removed by vacuum and application of heat. This coincides in the same chamber binding the moisture in food. High sugar concentration can also bind up the moisture and give the food a certain level of humidity at which micro-organisms cannot grow. Salt with high concentration can be used, resulting in high osmotic pressure that ties up the moisture and consequently inhibiting the growth of micro-organisms. It dehydrates the food by drying out and tying up moisture as it drains the microorganism’s cells [58]. Pepper fruits parboiled at 75°C for 3 minutes before sun-drying had the highest nutrient composition with respect to fat, protein and capsaicin contents among various treatments evaluated. The efficient conservation of nutrients could be attributed to the inactivation of the enzyme system and retardation of physiological processes by parboiling which consequently prevents deterioration and nutrient losses. Parboiling has been found to reduce the period of drying and the maintenance of the red color of fresh pepper [59]. During drying, two processes occur – heat application and moisture evaporation from the sample. Nutrient losses were due to a more application of heat than the removal of moisture, which increased the concentration of nutrients in the fruit.

Using oven and dry parboiled, pepper fruits accelerated the moisture removal but resulted in lower nutritional composition than sun drying. Pepper fruits subjected to heat sterilization had high crude fibre, ash content and moisture content and had the lowest crude protein, fat, carbohydrate, capsaicin and oleoresin content. The ash content was highest in sun-dried pepper fruit. This agreed with the findings of Mepba, who observed that the ash content of sun-dried vegetables was higher than the blanched samples. The parboiled pepper fruits had higher oleoresin and capsaicin content [52]. The crude fiber content of pepper fruits parboiled before oven drying or sun drying was significantly higher than those of the respective ones dried without parboiling. Oleoresin was positively correlated with all proximate content of pepper fruits except crude protein and fat content.

Furthermore, carbohydrate was correlated with protein, fat and fiber, while crude fiber was also linked to ash content. Fat content was also associated with moisture content and crude protein. In this study, mineral element content varied among treatments; Pepper parboiled before sun-drying or oven-drying had maximum values for all the mineral elements viz.: phosphorus, zinc, iron, potassium, calcium and sodium content. The mineral elements and vitamin C composition of pepper parboiled before sun-drying were significantly higher than those of the corresponding treatments. Heat-sterilized samples had the lowest phosphorus, calcium and vitamin C content than those subjected to various drying methods. Solanke and Awonorin (2002) have also reported losses of 62 to 93% of vitamin C in cooked vegetables [60]. The high solubility of vitamin C in water and the relative ease with which it is oxidized renders it susceptible to deterioration during processing. The route and rate of oxidation of vitamin C are influenced by several factors such as pH, presence of trace metals, enzymes, oxygen availability, time and temperature. The relationship of each nutrient element evaluated indicated a strong correlation among the treatments. Phosphorus content was highly correlated with calcium, zinc, iron, potassium, and sodium. Calcium was highly correlated with zinc, iron, potassium and sodium, while magnesium was moderately correlated with zinc and iron. Vitamin C was highly associated with potassium. The relationship between nutrients and vitamin C was all positive. Zinc was also highly correlated with iron, potassium and sodium, while potassium was moderately related to sodium.

2.4 Packaging and sales

The ultimate goal of packaging is to keep pepper fruits in good condition until they are sold to consumers (Figures 1–3). Pepper fruits are packaged to protect them from injury and water loss and be convenient for handling and marketing [27]. Packages should also provide information about the produce, including the grade, handling instructions and appropriate storage temperatures. Improper packaging and transportation methods, lack of shade or precooling facilities to remove field heat to reduce respiration rate and consequent deterioration rate are the reality among small-scale farmers in most developing nations. In Nigeria, for example, Adewoyin and Babatola observed that none of the marketers and farmers used the plastic crate designed by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and Nigerian Stored Product Research Institute (NSPRI) to prevent physical damage to produce. This corroborates the findings of Olayemi et al. (2010) on the assessment of postharvest challenges of small-scale farm holders of tomatoes, bell and hot pepper in some local government areas of Kano State, who observed that peppers were typically harvested at a fully ripe stage (90%) and that most farmers still use the traditional basket and sack as their packaging material in conveying produce, which resulted in massive post-harvest losses of about 62.5%. Harvesting cardboard has been observed to be much more appropriate than polypropylene bags for fresh fruits. Harvesting cardboard boxes can go a long way in maintaining the quality of peppers for the following reasons: They bear the weight of the product compared to second-hand grain sacks, where the peppers carry the weight causing severe damage. They are easier to handle and can maintain the integrity of the fruits. Bruising, compression and friction are reduced. Figure 1 showed the marketers’ pepper using different consumer packages. The most common packaging materials used by the handlers were baskets of various sizes. Its limitations include injury and bruises due to hard rough surfaces during transportation, loading and handling after the close of the day. A survey by Adewoyin and Babatola on postharvest handling of pepper fruits by marketers showed that Hausa men were more involved in marketing pepper fruits than women. This could be attributed to the rigorous demand of the business that required constant transportation of pepper fruits from the north to the southwest. The religious background and customs in the north also restricted women to more domestic activities within the home environment (Figures 1 and 2) [61].

Figure 1.

Display of pepper fruits by handlers [Adewoyin O.B].

Figure 2.

Improper packaging of pepper fruits [Adewoyin O.B].

Figure 3.

Packaged peppers ready for transport [Adewoyin O.B].

Figures 2 and 3 showed the bulk handling of pepper using a polypropylene bag, which has the following limitation:

1. Peppers are tightly packed in the bag, leading to compressions, lack of proper ventilation and heat buildup. This practice results in physical and mechanical damage and enzyme reactions along the marketing chain.

2. The temperature in the bags gets very high, which leads to rapid moisture loss and shriveling.

3. The bags are placed on top of each other during transportation resulting in further fruit damage.

4. Polypropylene bags may compromise food safety because they are not sanitized after use and are not stored under conditions that ensure food safety.

5. The netted nature of the bags can severely bruise the fruits during direct.

2.5 Uses and application

Capsicum is used for food flavoring, as a coloring agent, and as an essential condiment in food. Vitamins A, C and E are also present in its fruit. The green fruit of capsicum contains three times the vitamin C content of an orange and provides the minimum daily requirement for humans [16]. As the green pod turns red, pro-vitamin A content increases until it contains twice the pro-vitamin A of a carrot. Half a tablespoon of pepper powder furnishes the minimum daily requirement of vitamin A [14]. Capsicum coating and powder are used to control browsing animals and insects. The acetone and petroleum ether extracts caused complete mortality of rice weevil (Sitophillus oryzae) in 15 days, while fruit powder was much less effective. As a pharmaceutical ingredient, its usage has grown exceedingly. It has been used in the neurogenic bladder, osteo-arthritis-psoriasis, diabetes and neuropathy [20]. It is used for cluster headaches, indigestion, heartburn, itching, obesity, rheumatoid, arthritis, bursitis, migraine and headache. It is also utilized as a counter-irritant for asthma, coughs, sore throat and relieving toothache. It relieves itching in dialysis patients; reduces long-time inflammation [21]. Red or hot peppers from Capsicum annum and Capsicum frutescens are used extensively in Mexican and Italian food. As a traditional medicinal plant, capsicum has been used as a calmative, digestive irritant, stomach stimulant, rubefacient and tonic. Other purposes of capsicum include folk remedies for dropsy, colic, diarrhea, muscle cramp and toothache. C. frutescens L has been reported to have hypoglycemic properties and can cause contact dermatitis and blisters. Excessive consumption can cause gastroenteritis and kidney damage. Pepper may aggravate symptoms of duodenal ulcers. With increased body temperature, the flow of saliva and gastric juices may be stimulated by capsicum pepper. The medicinal application of capsaicinoids has brought innovative ideas for their use. Medicinal use of capsicum has a long history dating back to the Mayas, who used it to treat cough and sore throats. The Aztecs used chile pungency to relieve toothaches. The pharmaceutical industry uses capsaicin as a counter-irritant balm for external applications [21]. Pepper is the active ingredient in heat and Sloan’s liniment to rub down liniments, used for sore muscle. It is used as an antiseptic, topical vasodilator, neural stimulant and depressant; diaphoretic for the first stage of cold when the skin is hot and dry has a protective effect on the tracheobronchial system. Capsaicin was determined to inhibit the growth of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori, which is associated with gastric ulcers [22].

3. Conclusion

Postharvest technology has become necessary to improve food safety and strengthen the nation’s food security. Appropriate handling, packaging, transportation and storage reduce post-harvest losses of pepper. For every one per cent reduction in loss, it will correspondingly save five million tons of pepper fruit annually. Processing and preservation technology helps to save excess fruit during the glut season. The technology helps to boost the export of pepper in the form of preserved and value-added products. The technical activities that must be incorporated in the pepper’s value chain include harvesting at the proper maturity stage, removal of field heat, appropriate packaging, ventilated and sound vehicles, field drying, storage, proper processing, marketing and distribution. The economic activities in the value chain of pepper, such as transporting, marketing, quality control, nutrition and extension services, serve as a means of employing a significant number of people, improving household income and increasing the nation’s economy.