Predictors Hampering Treatment of Offenders in Nigeria’s Custodian Centres

Abstract

This study examined silent variables that influence the treatment of offenders in Nigerian custodian centres. The research was conducted using both primary and secondary data. Questionnaires were distributed to 400 respondents randomly selected from correctional institutions across the three senatorial districts of Cross River State, while the in-depth interview was conducted on 6 participants each across the selected custodian centres. The presentation of data was done using frequency distribution tables, and relevant narratives. The test of hypotheses was done using Pearson product moment correlation (PPMC) and the qualitative data were analysed using content analysis. The study found that corruption, inadequate rehabilitation equipment and low funding strongly influence the treatment of offenders in custodian centres in Cross River State, Nigeria. The study, therefore, recommends that the government through a special committee constituted should judiciously oversee the execution of the previously suggested prison reforms, which include but are not limited to provision of the needed infrastructures that will cater for the welfare of the inmates, pardoning awaiting trail offenders that have spent reasonable number of years in custody without conviction, this will help solve the challenge of overcrowding in correctional institutions across the country.

1. Introduction

Globally, custodian centres are built to serve as rehabilitation and correctional institutions for individuals who are guilty of breaching the law [1]. In other words, custodian institutions are established to be places of rehabilitation and reformation for proper reintegration of offenders on release from the centre [2, 3]. Indubitably, treatment services have been considered an important factor in the treatment, transformation and reintegration of offenders, a position that has been re-echoed by scholars, criminal justice system practitioners, social workers, psychologists, counsellors, government, non-governmental organisations and the public at large [4, 5]. These group of experts agree that rehabilitation programmes will assist offenders in acquiring critical social skills, vocational training, attitude and behavioural adjustments and knowledge that will enable them to be more helpful to themselves and society upon release and reintegration to the society [6]. The treatment and subsequent reintegration of convicts may be aided by the available plethora of rehabilitation programmes such as education programmes, vocational training and capacity development [7, 8]; which are designed to equip convicts with relevant life skills and knowledge that would empower them to be self-reliant after serving their jail term [7, 8]. Validating the above submission, Murhula & Singh [9] noted that there is no better way to help offenders happily reunite in their respective society than to provide them with skills that they need to succeed in the outside world.

Similarly, Okala et al. [10] indicated that rehabilitation programmes in correctional centres attempt to prepare the inmates for their reintegration into society, using the criminal punishments as a chance to change the convict into patriotic and disciplined member of the society. They further stated that for appropriate reintegration of offenders in custodian centres in Nigeria, inmates should be encouraged to engage in any available rehabilitation programme(s) while serving their jail term. This is particularly significant for offenders since many of them were taken into custody with a variety of social, economic and educational disadvantages. Singh [11]; Adetunji and Nel [1] reported that the lack of basic rehabilitation infrastructure, corruption, congestion and awaiting trial problem, among other perennial issues have severely hampered rehabilitation programmes in correctional centres in Nigeria and the world at large. Other challenges affecting the treatment of offenders include but are not limited to ‘poor feeding of inmates, lack of adequate medical care for inmates due to lack of requisite facilities and lack of recreational and vocational training for inmates’. As a result of the above conditions, ex-convicts who have been released from custodian centres face many difficulties in finding work and reintegrating into society [8, 12, 13].

Unfortunately, due to the inherent lapses in the system, the correctional institution, which is supposed to be reformatory has eventually turned to be punitive, thereby defeating its true essence at the first instance of its establishment [14]. The implication of this reversed system of prison administration is that the inmates come out more criminally minded than they were before conviction in Nigeria. Moreso, the transpose practised in Nigeria is contrary to what is obtainable in developed clime, where offenders are denied only their freedom upon incarceration; and genuinely allowed the benefits of enjoying infrastructure accessible to people outside the custodian centres and, as such, easily get reintegrated into society when they finish serving their terms; they are not stigmatised on regaining their freedom. To address these concerns the Nigerian Correctional Service Act was signed into law in 2019, to improve the welfare of inmates and enhance the treatment programmes for offenders in Nigerian custodian centres. The new legislation guiding the operation of custodian centres was segmented into ‘Custodial Service’ and ‘Non-custodial Service’. The new law stipulates that while offenders are serving their jail terms, the focus will be on correctional service geared towards their reintegration into society, rather than punishment and incarceration. ‘The new Act is also targeted at empowering inmates through the deployment of educational and vocational skills training programmes, and facilitating incentives and income generation through Custodial Centres, farms and industries’ [15, 16].

Beyond the enactment of the new Act, the government is expected to work assiduously with all stakeholders to ensure that mechanisms are put in place to achieve the needed reform in all custodian centres across the country that would transform the country’s correctional centres from punitive facilities to rehabilitation/correctional centres. For this to be achievable, it is imperative to anatomise certain variables that are fundamentally frustrating the rehabilitation and reformation trajectory of inmates in Nigeria's correctional centres. The following research questions guided this study (i) to what extent has corruption hampered the treatment of offenders in custodian centres in Cross River State? (ii) how does rehabilitation equipment affect treatment of inmates in custodian centres in Cross River State? (iii) To what extent has funding affected the treatment of inmates in custodian centres in Cross River State?

2. Theoretical background

2.1 Rehabilitation theory

The rehabilitation ideas propagated in the 19th century is primarily concerned with the treatment and training of the offender with the sole aim of assisting them to become a productive, patriotic and functioning member of the society. The submissions of the theory are derived from the positivist’s argument that the causes of crime are inherent in society, and if they are understood, it is feasible to develop programmes for the benefit of criminals to prevent them from committing future crimes [17]. In its most basic form, rehabilitation implies that an inmate would be held in custody for a lengthier period of time in order to transform the offender to avoid reoffending [18].

Rehabilitation theory posits that convicts should be treated as an individual whose special needs and problems must be known in order to enable prison officials to deal effectively with him/her (Packer as cited in [19]). Thus, the ideology of rehabilitation is to strive to reform the offenders because of the assumption that by providing training programmes for offenders, they would be able to live a more meaningful life upon regaining their freedom from incarceration. Rehabilitation of inmates remains a travesty in Nigerian custodian centres because of the absence and terrible experiences offenders are subjected to. ‘Life in Nigerian correctional centre, in general, is overly regimented to the extent that there is strict control in virtually all activities of the inmates’. Inmates are typically left in a state of mental and physical devastation as a result of this treatment, which ultimately destroys them.

The inadequacy and ineffectiveness of existing institutional programmes, such as recreational services designed to ease the pressure of confinement and make inmates more receptive to rehabilitation as well as less depressed, hostile and asocial, are negatively affecting the treatment of offenders. Also, the dysfunctional nature of existing religious programmes, academic and vocational programmes as well as medical services has made rehabilitation of inmates burdensome in Nigeria [2, 20]. The implication is that an unrehabilitated inmate is a huge liability to himself and society at large. Because they see themselves as victimised rather than changed and transformed, such a person is frequently filled with a desire for vengeance. If true involvement in criminal behaviour is based on specific causative variables, then re-offending can logically be reduced if correctional interventions can change these factors and how they have influenced offenders.

3. Methods

The study design incorporates a combination of cross-sectional, self-report confessions of inmates from selected custodian centres in Cross River State, Nigeria. Data collection was carried out between April and June 2019, in custodian centres across the three Senatorial Districts of Cross River State, Nigeria namely, Southern, Northern and Central Senatorial Districts. The instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire consisting of 31 items. Information and clarifications about the survey and its purpose were provided to potential participants on the very first page of the instrument, so everyone was adequately informed about the philosophy of the study. The survey instrument was distributed to both inmates and warders who expressed interest in participating in the survey. A snowball sampling approach was also used, where participants were asked to help recruit other inmates and warders who may be interested in partaking in the study. Participants filled out the questionnaire with four Likert-type options ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The administration of the questionnaires was conducted in three months, (one month each in the three senatorial districts), during which participants congregated at the common rooms in the correctional centres except for most warders who were given the privilege to complete the questionnaires in their respective offices. The questionnaire consists of closed-ended questions, which were segmented into three parts. Section ‘A’ of the questionnaire contain respondents’ demographic data including their age, sex, marital status and level of education. Section ‘B’ contained information on substantive issues of the study raised in the research questions and hypotheses (corruption, rehabilitation equipment and funding). Section ‘C’ of the instrument was designed to measure the dependent variable, which is the treatment of offenders. A consent form was also included in the questionnaire stating that those who would decide to proceed with answering the questions had expressed their consent to participate in the study.

The custodian centres in the three Senatorial districts had a total of 1231 inmates as at the time this study was conducted. The sampling process generated an initial, non-random sample of 400 inmates and correctional officers who agreed to participate and received the survey. Among them, 384 inmates and correctional officers completed and returned the research instrument. Both the prison population as a whole and the samples taken from across all the prisons varied very significantly with regard to gender, marital status, educational qualifications and location. The in-depth oral interview technique was designed to be interactive. Respondents were permitted to freely explain how certain factors negatively influence the rehabilitation and reformation of inmates. In certain instances, where the issues raised were not clearly understood or explained by the subjects, word association and/or sentence completion were employed. The interviews were conducted by the researchers, who were assisted by a research assistant and equipped with a written interview guide. Interviews took place in prison chapels. The interview guide was in-depth, logical and sequential. The in-depth interviews (IDIs) were conducted using a guide that contained both ‘lead and probe questions’ prepared in accordance with the research questions. The participants who were inmates and prison warders were purposively selected from the study area with logistics and security, and to ensure that the researchers observed prison rules. The survey was approved by the University’s Ethics Committee. Anonymity and confidentiality two important ethical principles were maintained throughout the process of this study. The mixed method seems to have significantly contributed to the preservation of the validity and reliability of the study.

The reliability of questionnaire was established using Cronbach Alpha reliability formula. The questionnaire was trial tested on fifty respondents in the population who did not participate in the main study. After the administration, Cronbach Alpha was used to analyse data and determine the reliability estimate of the instrument. The instrument yielded reliability indices of 0.71–0.73 respectively for each subscale, with an overall reliability index of 0.72. According to Nenty and Umoinyang [21], any instrument with a reliability value above 0.50 is reliable and can be used for the investigation. Thus, the instrument was considered suitable to be used for this study. To ensure face and content validity the documents were validated by two Sociologists and two Criminologists in the Department of Sociology, University of Calabar, Nigeria.

Pearson product moment correlation (PPMC) and content analysis were adopted in analysing data gleaned from the field. The final sample of 384 respondents revealed that 83.00% were male while 17.00% were female. The data further shows that 5.00% of the respondents are below 20 years of age, 42.00% are between 21 and 30 years of age, 35.00% are between 31 and 40 years of age, 13.00% are 41 and 50 years of age while only 5.00% are 51 years and above. The majority of respondents 38.00% of the inmates had no formal education. This is followed by 35.00% of the respondents who had first school leaving certificate, 20.00% of the respondents had GCE/SSCE, 5.00% of the study participants had NCE/OND/Diploma. Again, 2.00% of the study participants had HND/BSC/B.Ed/BA while 0.52% of the respondents had M.S.c/Ph.D. The majority of the respondents 49.00% were single, 24.00% were married, 15.00% were divorced/separated while 12.00% were widows/widowers. Finally, 54.00% of the respondents were from Calabar custodian centre, 26.00%, 11.00% and 9.00% were in Ikom, Ogoja and Obudu, respectively.

4. Presentation of results

4.1 Research question one

To what extent has corruption hampered the treatment of offenders in custodian centres in Cross River State? Frequency and percentage were applied in providing responses to the first research question. Participants’ responses, as presented in Table 1, show their responses as follows; embezzlement of funds by correctional officers is a major problem affecting the rehabilitation and reformation of inmates: 125 (32.5) respondents strongly agreed and 240 (62.5) agreed, while 10 (2.6) disagreed and 9 (2.34) strongly disagreed. On whether funds budgeted and released for the treatment of offenders are diverted for other purposes that do not contribute to the rehabilitation of inmates: 139 (36.2) strongly agreed, 204 (53.1) agreed, 19 (4.9) disagreed and 22 (5.7) strongly disagreed. When asked why inmates are not well feed: 191 (49.7) strongly agreed, 158 (41.1) agreed, 20 (5.2) disagreed and 15 (3.9) strongly disagreed. Drugs meant for the treatment of sick inmates are diverted by warders for reasons best known to them; 201 (52.3) strongly agreed, 159 (43.22) agreed, 13 (41.4) disagreed and 11 (2.9) strongly disagreed. Rehabilitation equipment are inadequate because funds meant for that purpose are not used in acquiring rehabilitation equipment: 170 (44.3) strongly agreed and 180 (46.9) agreed, while 14 (3.6) disagreed and 20 (5.2) strongly disagreed.

S/N	Variables	No of items	Mean	SD	R
1	Corruption	5	13.74	3.52	0.71
2	Rehabilitation equipment	5	13.58	3.54	0.73
3	Funding	5	11.24	3.00	0.70
4	Treatment of offenders	5	12.63	3.84	0.71
	Overall	20	15.74	4.21	0.72

Table 1.

Cronbach Alpha reliability co-efficient test (N = 50).

Source: Field survey.

4.2 Research question two

How does rehabilitation equipment affect treatment of inmates in custodian centres in Cross River State? Descriptive statistics (frequency and percentage) was used to answer the research question. Participants’ responses as presented in Table 2 show their responses as follows; there is a sufficient number of machines used in the training of inmates for sewing in custodian centres in Cross River State: 16 (4.2) respondents strongly agreed and 21 (5.5) agreed, while 148 (38.5) disagreed and 199 (51.8) strongly disagreed. On whether there are enough carpentry tools in the workshop used in training inmates on furniture making; 17 (4.4) strongly agreed, 21 (5.5) agreed, 149 (38.8) disagreed and 197 (51.3) strongly disagreed. The available rehabilitation equipment are all working well and in good condition; 15 (3.9) strongly agreed, 10 (2.6) agreed, 185 (48.2) disagreed and 174 (45.3) strongly disagreed. The officers working in this workshop are well trained and motivated to perform their duties; 22 (5.7) strongly agreed, 24 (6.3) agreed, 159(41.4) disagreed and 179 (46.6) strongly disagreed. The equipment used in the training of offenders is modern equipment: 21 (5.5) strongly agreed and 29 (7.6) agreed, while 164 (42.7) disagreed and 170 (44.6) strongly disagreed.

S/N	Statement	SA	A	D	SD
8	Embezzlement of funds by correctional officers is a major problem affecting the rehabilitation and reformation of inmates	125 (32.5)	240 (62.5)	10 (2.6)	9 (2.3)
9	Funds budgeted and released for the treatment of offenders are diverted for other purposes that do not contribute to the rehabilitation of inmates	139 (36.2)	204 (53.1)	19 (4.9)	22 (5.7)
10	Inmates are not well feed because funds and available food items are diverted by correctional officers for their personal use	191 (49.7)	158 (41.1)	20 (5.2)	15 (3.9)
11	Drugs meant for the treatment of sick inmates are diverted by warders for reasons best known to them	201 (52.3)	159 (43.22)	13 (41.4)	11 (2.9)
12	Rehabilitation equipment is inadequate because funds meant for that purpose are not used in acquiring rehabilitation equipment	170 (44.3)	180 (46.9)	14 (3.6)	20 (5.2)

Table 2.

Response on corruption and treatment of offenders.

Source: Field survey.

4.3 Research question three

To what extent has funding affected the treatment of inmates in custodian centres in Cross River State? Participants’ responses as presented in Table 3 show responses as follows: budgeted funds are hardly released to officials of correctional centres; 199 (51.8) respondents strongly agreed and 98 (25.5) agreed, while 36 (9.4) disagreed and 51 (13.3) strongly disagreed. On whether the use of old equipment in the treatment of offenders is as result of government failure to adequately fund the correctional centres: 140 (36.5) strongly agreed, 199 (51.8) agreed, 19 (4.9) disagreed and 26 (6.8) strongly disagreed. The inability of correctional officers to go for training and attend workshops that would enhance their capacity is as a result of limited funds at their disposal: 180 (46.9) strongly agreed, 160 (41.7) agreed, 30 (7.8) disagreed, and 14 (3.6) strongly disagreed. The poor funding of the correctional centres is the reason why the repair of faulty equipment is difficult: 191 (49.7) strongly agreed, 160 (41.7) agreed, 19(4.9) disagreed and 14 (3.6) strongly disagreed. Inmates have access to all the necessary equipment required for their rehabilitation and reformation: 15 (3.9) strongly agreed and 20 (5.2) agreed, while 169 (44.0) disagreed and 181 (47.1) strongly disagreed.

S/N	Statement	SA	A	D	SD
13	There are sufficient number of machines used in the training of inmates for sewing in custodian centres in Cross River State	16 (4.2)	21 (5.5)	148 (38.5)	199 (51.8)
14	There are enough carpentry tools in the workshop used in training inmates on furniture making	17 (4.4)	21 (5.5)	149 (38.8)	197 (51.3)
15	The available rehabilitation equipment are all working well and in good condition	15 (3.9)	10 (2.6)	185 (48.2)	174 (45.3)
16	The officers working in this workshop are well trained and motivated to perform their duties	22 (5.7)	24 (6.3)	159 (41.4)	179 (46.6)
17	The equipment used in the training of offenders are modern equipment	21 (5.5)	29 (7.6)	164 (42.7)	170 (44.6)

Table 3.

Response on rehabilitation equipment and treatment of inmates.

Source: Field survey.

As for the treatment of offenders, results of the analysis, as indicated in Table 4, show participants' responses as follows: as for whether the rehabilitation and reformation of inmates is a difficult task because of the absence of the required treatment infrastructure: 134 (34.89) respondents strongly agreed and 162 (42.18) agreed, while 52 (13.54) disagreed and 36 (9.37) strongly disagreed. On whether released inmates do not find it difficult to re-integrate into the society: 14 (3.64) strongly agreed, 21 (5.46) agreed, 171 (44.53) disagreed and 178 (46.35) strongly disagreed. Released inmate becomes productive to the society: 93 (24.21) strongly agreed, 98 (25.52) agreed, 96 (25.00) disagreed and 97 (25.26) strongly disagreed. Released inmates do not go back to crime: 52 (13.54) strongly agreed, 36 (9.37) agreed, 134 (34.89) disagreed and 162 (42.18) strongly disagreed. As if recidivism is high in correctional service in Cross River State: 165 (42.96) strongly agreed and 144 (37.5) agreed, while 22 (5.72) disagreed and 43 (11.19) strongly disagreed.

S/N	Statement	SA	A	D	SD
18	Budgeted funds are hardly released to officials of correctional centres	199 (51.8)	98 (25.5)	36 (9.4)	51 (13.3)
19	The use of old equipment in the treatment of offenders is as result of government failure to adequately fund the correctional centres	140 (36.5)	199 (51.8)	19 (4.9)	26 (6.8)
20	The inability of correctional officers to go for training and attend workshops that would enhance their capacity is as a result of limited funds at their disposal	180 (46.9)	160 (41.7)	30 (7.8)	14 (3.6)
21	The poor funding of the correctional centres is the reason why the repair of faulty equipment is difficult	191 (49.7)	160 (41.7)	19 (4.9)	14 (3.6)
22	Inmates have access to all the necessary equipment required for their rehabilitation and reformation	15 (3.9)	20 (5.2)	169 (44.0)	181 (47.1)

Table 4.

Response on funding and treatment of inmates.

Source: Field survey.

5. Test of hypotheses

5.1 Hypothesis one

Corruption has no strong relationship with the treatment of offenders in custodian centres in Cross River State. The data in Table 5 were tested using the Pearson product moment correlation statistics.

S/N	Statement	SA	A	D	SD
23	The rehabilitation and reformation of inmates is a difficult task because of the absence of the required treatment infrastructure	134 (34.89)	162 (42.18)	52 (13.54)	36 (9.37)
24	Released inmates do not find it difficult to re-integrate into the society	14 (3.64)	21 (5.46)	171 (44.53)	178 (46.35)
25	Released inmate becomes productive to the society	93 (24.21)	98 (25.52)	96 (25.00)	97 (25.26)
26	Released inmates do not go back to crime	52 (13.54)	36 (9.37)	134 (34.89)	162 (42.18)
27	Recidivism is high in correctional service in Cross River State	165 (42.96)	144 (37.5)	22 (5.72)	43 (11.19)

Table 5.

Response on the treatment of offenders.

Source: Field survey.

The result of the statistical analysis as presented in Table 5 indicates that the calculated r value of .144 is greater than the critical p-value of .000 at .05 level of significance and 382 degree of freedom. With this result, the null hypothesis was rejected. This, therefore, implies that corruption strongly relates to the treatment of offenders in custodian centres in Cross River State, Nigeria.

5.2 Hypothesis two

Rehabilitation equipment has no significant relationship with the treatment of offenders in custodian centres in Cross River State. Data in Table 6 were tested using Pearson product moment correlation technique.

Variables	N	SD	p-value
Corruption	382	22.95	6.08
		144	.000
Treatment of. Offenders	382	22.97	5.96

Table 6.

Summary of PPMC analysis of corruption and treatment of offenders.

^*p < .05, df = 382.

Source: Field survey.

The data presented in Table 6 indicates that the calculated r-value of .146 is greater than the critical p-value of .000 at .05 level of significance and 382 degree of freedom. With this result, the null hypothesis was rejected. This, therefore, implies that rehabilitation equipment has a significant relationship with the treatment of offenders in custodian centres in Cross River State, Nigeria.

5.3 Hypothesis three

Funding has no significant relationship with the treatment of offenders in Cross River State, Nigeria. Data in Table 7 were tested using the Pearson product moment correlation technique.

Variables	N	XSD	p-value
Rehabilitation Equipment	384	23.03	6.05.
		.146	.000
Treatment of offender	384	22.97	5.96

Table 7.

Pearson product moment correlation result of rehabilitation equipment and treatment of offenders.

*p < .05, df = 382.

Source: Field survey.

Data in Table 7 indicate that the calculated r-value of .270 is greater than the critical p-value of .000 at .05 level of significance and 382 degree of freedom. With this result, the null hypothesis was rejected. This, therefore, implies that funding has a significant relationship with the treatment of offenders in Cross River State, Nigeria (Table 8).

Variables	N	XSD	p-value
Funding	384	22.78	6.03
		.270	.000
Treatment of offender	384	22.97	5.96

Table 8.

Pearson product moment correlation result of funding and treatment of offenders in custodian centres.

*p < .05, df = 382.

Source: Field survey.

6. Discussion of findings

6.1 Corruption and treatment of offenders in custodian centres

The findings of the first hypothesis revealed that corruption has strong nexus with the treatment of offenders in custodian centres in Cross River State. The implication of this result is that corruption is visible in custodian centres in Cross River State and it is a predisposing variable negating the treatment of offenders. Information about corrupt practices in the correctional centres is not made public because of the closed nature of the institution and the inherent risk of insufficient public scrutiny in the form of both internal and external auditing, monitoring and inspection mechanisms of the activities of custodian managers. Although there are limited empirical studies that support the findings of this study, it is obvious that corruption is a major issue affecting the treatment of inmates and hampering the reintegration of offenders in Nigerian correctional centre [4, 5]. Corruption has a disproportionate impact on the well-being of inmates and most vulnerable persons in detention [2, 4, 5, 16, 22, 23, 24, 25]. It has increased the cost of running the correctional institution and reduced offenders' access to services, including health, welfare and justice. A number of those spoken to during the in-depth interview session within the custodian centres revealed that corruption resides solidly in the system, from where it is extended to other security agencies. A participant observed that:

Too much corruption has permeated the public sector under this government. To your surprise, you will find that inmates in Nigerian correctional centres around the country are completely reliant on non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to provide them with basic necessities like beds, blankets, medications and soap. All these are where the managers of the centre make their money because they believe that they are not accountable for it and so they will never supply them instead utilise the money totalling billions of naira for personal advantage.

It is sad to note that officers-in-charge of prisons make their money from prisoners’ food, and from prisoners themselves, while the inmates, both prisoners and Awaiting Trial, suffer the consequence of these corrupt practices and illegalities. While in custody, offenders are supposed to learn new hands-on skills with which they can earn legitimate income after serving their time. But corruption has made many of the workshop centres non-functional and ineffective.

6.2 Rehabilitation equipment and treatment of offenders in custodian centres

Rehabilitation equipment has a significant relationship with the treatment of offenders in custodian centres in Cross River State. The study revealed that creativity training is stalled in correctional services in Cross River State as a result of inadequate and poorly maintained correctional equipment. The findings agree with the study of Nweke and Ajah [26]; Okpa et al. [6] on challenges facing vocational training of prison inmates in Nigeria. Results reveal that the following vocational facilities do not exist in the Nigerian prison system as a result of the unavailability of the training equipment viz.: barbing and hairdressing salon, auto repairs and mechanics, shoe making, fashion designing, carpentry and electrical repairs. The recreational facilities that are lacking include table tennis, basketball and volleyball. The only recreational facility available is football. In addition, the Nigerian prison system also lacks the following educational facilities: libraries and teaching aids. Oluyemi and Amajuoyi [27]; Ukwayi et al. [14]; Ukwayi et al. [13] findings have been validated by this present study. Oluyemi and Amajuoyi [27] reported that there is a significant difference in the creativity motivation score of participants in the experimental group when compared with that of their counterparts in the control group. However, there is no significant difference in the creativity motivation score of participants in the experimental group on the basis of nature of the offence. Similarly, the finding further affirms.

Onyekachi’s [28] study revealed that lack of correction facilities for the rehabilitation of offenders in Nigerian prisons is positively related to the increase of recidivism among prison inmates. The study recommended among other things that the federal government should increase the funding of Nigeria Prison, and the need for government to amend the extant laws on prison to emphasise punishment and grant the rehabilitation of both Awaiting Trial Men (ATM) and the convicted. The aforementioned submission is consistent with the qualitative data since majority of the participants indicated that there is a correlation between correctional equipment and treatment of offenders in Cross River State, Nigeria. One of them made the following assertion:

It is only in the main office that rehabilitation equipment for prisoners may be located. The available rehabilitation equipment is/are limited and some are not in good conditions, thus affecting the rehabilitation of inmates who are interested in the rehabilitation venture. It is very common for prisoners at this facility to do menial tasks such as labouring on people's farms or hewing wood for others. Rehabilitation of convicts is impossible without the proper rehabilitation equipment.

Another participant’s response further supports the above position, thus:

Since I was admitted into this correctional facility, I have not seen anything that looks like equipment used to train inmates for a better life after serving their gaol terms. Recently, the name was changed from prison to correctional centre, without any strategic plan to equip the centres with correctional equipment necessary for the rehabilitation of inmates. A lot of things are not just right with correctional centres across Nigeria. Inmates are treated like they are less human, their health needs are not taken seriously and they are being fed with substandard meals. Tell how do u rehabilitate a person in such condition.

Both the qualitative and quantitative data suggest that an inadequate supply of correctional equipment is positively affecting the treatment of offenders, thus increasing the rate of recidivism among offenders in Nigeria.

6.3 Funding and treatment of offenders in custodian centre

The findings of the third hypothesis revealed that funding has significant relationship with the treatment of offenders in Cross River State, Nigeria. The study revealed that the budgetary allocation available to correctional services in the country is grossly inadequate to cater for the holistic needs of inmates in correctional services across the country. This problem is further exacerbated by increase in the number of detainees, chronic economic crises and devaluation of Nigeria's currency. The study observed that there is little or no funding for the rehabilitation of inmates in Nigerian correction centres - this is evident in the lack of facilities for the reformatory and rehabilitative purpose abinitio design for the inmate [13, 29, 30]. The study noted that correctional services in Cross River State are poorly funded and most of the resources meant for rehabilitation are either diverted for personal use or are used for the wrong purpose, resulting to poor feeding regime of the inmates' vis-a-vice poor response to their health needs.

These findings are highly in support of Onyekachi [28], Ukwayi et al. [14] who reported that poor funding of the Nigeria correctional service largely affects the development of the human capacity resources within the Nigeria correctional service (NCS); also, the findings agree with the postulations of Nwosuji [31], whose study on the challenges of prisoners and the various government agencies in coping with the rehabilitation of prisoners after serving their various prison sentences reveals thus there are several rehabilitation programs in existence but they are generally faced with the primary constrain of resources and contributions of private individuals and non-governmental agencies are not adequate. Similarly, Onyekachi [28] study, which focused on the extent to which funding affects the administration of Nigeria correctional service (NCS) revealed that inadequate funding of prisons by federal government of Nigeria constitutes an impediment to the effective administration of Nigeria prisons. Consequently, inmates serve their gaol terms without being properly rehabilitated.

It is clear from the qualitative data that prison warders unequivocal assert that, a significant impediment to officers' operational effectiveness and convicts' successful rehabilitation is a lack of financial resources. Response from one of the warders who was questioned shows that:

Government efforts to rehabilitate offenders in correctional facilities around the nation are severely impeded by insufficient finance. The system has seen a drop in financing, which, along with the ongoing growth of gaol prisoners, has resulted in prison overcrowding.

In response to a question on how financing affects the treatment of offenders in correctional facilities, an official from the Calabar correctional facility asserts that:

A significant issue confronting all government parastatal in Nigeria is finance. Occasioned by government's declining income and the growing number of projects to complete. However, corruption in managing the correctional institution has shown that the institution is not funded by the government. Not only that the inmates are dissatisfied with the correctional epileptic services but prison personnel are also dissatisfied with the way in which their well-being is/are not taken seriously due to insufficient and smart utilisation of scarce resources. The custodian system, which should have been designed only for the purpose of correcting incarcerated convicts via counselling, rehabilitation and reform, has evolved into a breeding ground for hardened criminals who grow worse than they were before entering correctional institutions.

7. Conclusion and recommendations

Custodian institutions in Nigeria exist to ‘take into lawful custody all those certified to be so kept by courts of competent jurisdiction, produce suspects in courts as and when due, identify the causes of their anti-social dispositions, set in motion mechanisms for their treatment after conviction and training for eventual reintegration into society as normal law-abiding citizens on discharge’. The failure of Nigerian correctional centres to rehabilitate and reform offenders is undisputably tied to the current neglect of the institution by the government, which has culminated and resulted to abysmal welfare condition of inmates and officers alike. This is a problem that can be addressed if the political class through the ministry of interior supervises constantly the activities going on in the correctional institutions and adequately fund the rehabilitation programmes and other needs of the inmates to enable them to enjoy minimum comfort while serving their gaol term in these centres across Nigeria. The political elites should judiciously oversee the execution of the previously suggested prison reforms, which include among other things to; providing the needed infrastructures that will cater for the welfare of the inmates, pardoning awaiting trial offenders that have spent reasonable number of years in custody without conviction, this will help solve address overcrowding hiatus in correctional institutions across the country.