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The modern technologies have been revolutionized due to tremendous progress in Internet-of-Things (IoT). Sensors are a core component to make a bridge between the Internet and surrounding environments. The progress in power efficient communication network makes it possible to deploy the sensors in remote areas. The major drawback of these sensors is that they use Li-ion battery for power supply, which needs frequent recharging/replacement due to massive number of connected devices to IoT. The hazardous chemicals left in environment after the use of battery is another concern. Since modern nanoscale sensors need only nanoscale power (of order of μWatt), nanogenerators can play an important role to provide self-powered sensors, which is growing technology that can harvest small-scale energy from piezo- and pyroelectric effect. However, this technique is lightweight but not cost-effective and biodegradable. We have proposed a green, sustainable energy harvesting system based on living plants because plants are the undisputed champion of solar power that operates at nearly 100% efficiency. Plant-based energy generation is a method that harvests electrical energy from living plants due to a chemical reaction between the plant and a pair of electrodes. This energy is available 24×7 day and night irrespective of environmental conditions.
Electronics and Communication Engineering, NIIT University, Alwar, Rajasthan, India
*Address all correspondence to: aks_1993@yahoo.co.uk
1. Introduction
The Internet makes the world a small village that permits the interaction between smart things and the effective integration of real-world information and knowledge in the digital world. These things include not only communication devices, but also physical objects, like cars, computer, and home appliances, which are controlled through wireless communication networks (WSNs). The Internet of Things (or IoT) refers to the connection of billions of physical devices such as sensors, actuators, mobile phones, drones, etc., to the internet to collect and share the data for making collaborative decisions to accomplish the tasks in an optimal manner [1, 2]. Due to the growing awareness of environmental issues around the world, green IoT technology initiatives should be taken into consideration. Green IoT focuses on reducing IoT energy usage which is a necessity for fulfilling the requirement of reducing CO2emissions. Harvesting energy from non-conventional sources in the environment has received attention over the past decade due to miniaturization of the devices which makes it possible to consume lower power (of order of mW/nanoW) in many applications. Traditionally, sensors, wearable, and portable electronic devices, mobile phones, automatic security systems, etc., need Li-ion battery for their external power supply which is not perpetual and free of maintenance because the battery has a limited lifetime and needs frequent recharging and replacement. Researchers have proposed nanogenerators for harvesting energy from the ambient mechanical motion to make the sensors self-powered [3, 4, 5, 6]. Nanogenerators are generally an energy-harvesting device that generate electricity from waste mechanical energy [7, 8, 9]. There are several ambient energy-harvesting techniques based on the piezoelectric effect, triboelectric effect, pyroelectric effect, and electromagnetic induction [10, 11, 12, 13]. Nanogenerators are an evolving energy-harvesting technology that convert various forms of mechanical energy such as human motion, vibration, flowing water, raindrops, wind, and waste heat into electrical energy [14, 15, 16]. This technique is not cost-effective as well as not available 24×7 days. Due to these reasons, it is necessary to look at some other alternative green sources for autonomous self-powered sensors. Although, harvesting electrical energy from the sun is a matured and well-accepted technique, [17, 18, 19] this technique has a limitation that it remains functional only in the presence of sunlight. Recently scientific explorations showed that plants may become a potential source of bioenergy that is not only renewable but also sustainable and cheap [20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. Plants are called autotrophs because they can use energy from light to make their own food. In the presence of light and chlorophyll, water, and carbon di-oxide (CO2) are chemically combined in leaf of plants to make glucose. The produced glucose supports the growth of the plants. This process is called photosynthesis and is performed by all plants [25, 26, 27]. Respiration in plants, on the other hand, is a reverse process of photosynthesis in which glucose molecules (obtained during photosynthesis process) are broken down in presence of oxygen to liberate energy [28, 29, 30]. These two processes induce the flow of electrons inside the plants which can be captured by pair of electrodes to harvest electrical potential [31, 32, 33]. By embedding electrodes into the plants and employing an electrochemistry process, the chemical energy can be converted into electrical energy via an oxidization-reduction reaction [34] process. The oxidization process, which happens at the anode electrode, and reduction process, which happens at the cathode electrode, causes the electron to flow from anode to cathode to produce electricity. This system is termed plant-based cell (PBC) which provides a direct method to harvest DC electrical energy from living plants which can be potentially used to power up ultra-low-power devices and IoT sensor nodes in the future. The rate of photosynthesis and respiration processes are influenced by external environmental factors, such as concentration of oxygen and carbon-di-oxide in the air, amount of water in the soil as well as nutrient conditions of soil [35, 36]. Other external stimuli, like stress due to wound, temperature, light intensity variations, and water disparity also influence the harvested electrical potential in the plant. The succulent plant produces much higher voltage compared to non-succulent plant because CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) plants contain more rubisco genes (or chloroplasts) [37, 38]. Succulent plants are water-retaining plants, which can store water in their leaves, stems, and roots to survive in a dry environment. Aloe barbadensis Miller (Aloe Vera), Beschorneia and Sansevieria plants belong to succulent family [39, 40]. These plants can grow in tropical, sub-tropical, warmer temperature regions, and exchange the oxygen and CO2 using CAM process at night. The CAM process allows them to withstand drought because their stomata open only at night to prevent the water from escaping via evaporation in the hot sun [41]. Researchers have paid attention to harvesting electrical energy from Aloe vera plants [42, 43, 44]. The major disadvantages of Aloe vera plants are that once the electrodes are inserted in leaf, leaf dyes faster and its survival rate is very short due to chemical reaction between electrode and the gel of Aloe vera despite its hardness and unique self-repairing ability. It also does not grow in wild but needs to be cultivated. Due to these reasons, attention has been given to Sansevieria trifasciata and Beschorneia plants to harvest electrical energy. Most Sansevierias are native to Africa, although a few originated in India and Asia. This plant is a very aggressive invasion plant and is able to grow in a great range of sunlight to a partially shaded area. The leaf of Sansevieria trifasciata plant can survive longer and even self-repaired if any wound happens after inserting the electrodes [45]. Beschorneria plant is a stemless plant with 20–35 linear, lanceolate, leathery leaves that are widened at their base. They are gray-green to green, about 40–60 cm long. The leaf margins are finely denticulate [46]. These two plants have been ignored while harvesting electrical energy compared to Aloe vera plant.
In this chapter, first time we have performed an experiment on Sansevieria and Beschorneria plants to harvest electrical energy to power up the IoT sensor nodes. A detailed study was carried out to see the effect of external and internal environmental factors on the harvested potential. The Beschorneria plant alone results in larger potential (0.96 V) in dry soil whereas Sansevieria 3 plant gives larger potential (V = 1.05 V) in presence of acidic soil which is a favorable condition for plant’s growth. The harvested potential reduces sharply under stress conditions like wet soil, wound leaf, etc. The harvested potential is 2.70 V when three different succulent plants were connected in series. By taking a suitable combination (parallel/or series) of Sansevieria and Beschorneria plants, appropriate electrical energy can be harvested to power up the IoT sensor node.
Figure 1a shows the schematic representation whereasFigure 1b illustrates the actual experimental setup to study the various aspects that influence the harvested energy from the succulent plants. We have chosen Sansevieria trifasciata, commonly called snake plant or mother-in-law’s tongue, andBeschorneria plant to conduct the experiment because these two succulent plants provide larger electrical energy compared to Aloe vera plant. The average leaf size of these two plants varies from 30 to 90 cm in length. All the experiments have been performed in an indoor laboratory unless and until specified with room temperature of 28–30°C and average humidity of 49%. The plants were located closer to a closed transparent glass window to adjust the light intensity. We have used aluminum (Al) and copper (Cu) as an electrode pair in form of a sheet. These electrode pairs are regularly cleaned to remove contaminants if any. The harvested potential is measured under various conditions. First, electrical potential was harvested from single leaf of Sansevieria plant and Beschorneria plant, but the harvested current was very low. In the second scenario, we have used two/or three succulent plants in series, parallel or series-parallel combinations. We have chosen Aloe vera, Banana, and Cactus plants for comparison. Due to the close relationship between environmental factors and the electrical signal in plants, we have performed various experiments to monitor the effect of changes in the external environment on the harvested electrical potential.
Figure 1.
Experimental setup (a) Schematic representation (b) Actual setup.
The shape of the electrode is an important factor to decide the electrical potential harvested from the living plants. During the experiment, we observed that the nail shape and sheet shape electrode pairs produce the same amount of potential (≥0.92 V) whereas touch electrode results in lower harvested potential (of order of 10 mV). Due to this reason, we have chosen a sheet shape of electrodes to conduct the experiment.
We have conducted the experiment on the soft and hard leaves of the Sansevieria trifasciata plant. It was observed that the maximum potential (V = 0.92 V) is obtained when one electrode is near root and other is on the edge of green/soft leaf compared to matured leaves (V = 0.88 V). This is due to the fact that in soft leaf the tip remains green and fleshy while in matured/or hard leaf tip becomes brown and woody which produces less glucose and results in lower number of electrons.
In general, the harvested potential from plant does not remain stable but varies with time as seen in Figure 2a. The larger and more stable potential is observed when both electrodes were inserted near the edge of two different soft leaves of Sansevieria trifasciata plant due to the constant photosynthesis process near the edge.
Figure 2.
(a) Variation of harvested potential with time. (b) Harvested potential from different soil conditions.
Figure 2b shows the effect of soil condition on the harvested potential. The result concludes that larger electrical potential (Vharvested = 1.05 V) is obtained from a single Sansevieria leaf when soil is acidic in nature because the acidic soil provides favorable conditions for plant’s growth [41]. This potential reduces to 0.9 V when excessive water is poured into the soil due to stress conditions.
During our experiment on various succulent plants, we have observed that the position of electrode pair on leaf affects the harvested potential. The Aloe vera plant produces 0.76 V from a single leaf which increases to 0.90 V when two electrodes are far away from each other whereas the cactus produces only 0.88 V for the same condition. We observed 0.92 V in case of Sansevieria plant when one electrode is near root and the other is near edge of a single green leaf whereas the Beschorneria plant results in 0.96 V for the same condition.
In another experiment, we connected two Sansevieria trifasciata plants in series by choosing the soft and matured leaf combination. The experiment results in 1.78 V and 38 μA current. The current increases to 45 μA when Sansevieria and Beschorneria plants were connected in series on the cost of reduced harvested voltage (Vharveste = 1.70 V). The harvested electrical potential reaches 2.44 V when three Sansevieria trifasciata plants were connected in series, but the current was only 22 μA. The maximum electrical potential of 2.75 V was observed when Sansevieria trifasciata, Aloe vera, and Beschorneria plants were connected in series. This is due to different photosynthetic rates. Therefore, it is preferable to connect different plants in series to harvest maximum electrical energy instead of using only one type of plant. The harvested potential falls drastically if Cu electrode is inserted deep inside the soil due to reduced bacterial activity.
Since Sansevieria trifasciata and Beschorneria plants were favorable succulent plants to harvest larger electrical potential, hence we have taken five possible combinations of these two plants as shown in Figure 3. Here, plant is represented by a cell.
Figure 3.
Different combinations of Sansevieria and Beschorneria plants.
Table 1 gives the experimental results of harvested potential and current in these five cases. The optimum condition for current and voltage is in case 4 which results in 72 μW electrical power due to the release of a larger number of electrons in presence of a higher photosynthesis rate.
Case
Harvested potential (V)
Current (μA)
1
0.82
70
2
0.72
60
3
1.62
23
4
1.0
72
5
0.81
65
Table 1.
Harvested potential and current for four cases.
Table 2 gives the experimental results of three series of connected succulent plants (two Sansevieria plants and one Aloe vera plant) in the presence of stress. Here, stress reflects the amount of damage or wound in the leaf after inserting the electrodes. The results show that the damage in the leaf reduces the harvested potential drastically because when all three series-connected leaves are damaged, the harvested potential is only 320 mV compared to 2.50 V when only Aloe vera’s leaf is damaged. Since the self-repair ability of Sansevieria and Beschorneria plants is larger than Aloe vera plant, therefore it is preferable to connect these two plants either in series or parallel rather than Sansevieria/Beschorneria and Aloe vera plants.
SN
Condition of leaf
Harvested potential (V)
First Sansevieria plant
Second Sansevieria plant
Aloe vera plant
1
Wounded
Slightly wounded
Fresh
0.41
2
Wounded
Slightly wounded
Wounded
0.35
3
Wounded
Wounded
Wounded
0.32
4
Fresh
Wounded
Wounded
2.08
5
Fresh
Fresh
Wounded
2.50
6
Fresh
Wounded
Fresh
1.95
Table 2.
Harvested electrical potential from three series-connected plants under stress conditions.
The size of Beschorneria leaf decides the harvested potential as seen in Figure 4. The harvested potential increases for lower leaf width (≤4 cm) and takes a lower value for width larger than 5 cm. This is due to a change in the internal resistance of the leaf. The harvested potential remains constant for 4 cm < W ≤ 5 cm. The whole experiment was performed by inserting an Al electrode on leaf and a Cu electrode inside the dry soil.
Figure 4.
Harvested potential versus width of leaf.
Figure 5 shows the variation of harvested power from succulent plants against the load resistance for ten different combinations (Table 3: case means series). The experimental results predict that maximum power can be harvested at RL = 10 KΩ for series 6 which is about 72 μW whereas lower energy results for series 7. In the case of series 4, we have observed maximum variation in harvested energy at lower load resistance. These results only reflect that by considering different combinations of Sansevieria and Beschorneria plants for different loads we can harvest sufficient electrical energy to power up the sensor node. The average short circuit current is only of the order of 5 μA.
Figure 5.
Harvested electrical power against load for various combinations.
Case
Condition
1
Two Sansevieria plants are in series
2
One Sansevieria plant and one Beschorneria plant are in series
3
Two Sansevieria plant and one Beschorneria plants are in series
4
Two Sansevieria plants are in parallel
5
One Sansevieria plant and one Beschorneria plant are in parallel
6
One Sansevieria plant and one Beschorneria plant are in series and then parallel to another Sansevieria plant
7
Two Sansevieria plants are in series and then parallel to Beschorneria plant
8
Two Sansevieria plants and one Beschorneria plant are in parallel
9
Single Sansevieria plant
10
Single Beschorneria plant
Table 3.
Different cases for harvesting electrical power.
The voltage-current characteristics is shown in Figure 6 for different cases. Here series 1 means two Sansevieria plants are in series, series 2 indicates one Sansevieria plant and one Beschorneria plant in series whereas case 3 reflects two Sansevieria plants in series and then in parallel with Beschorneria plant. Lastly, series 4 represents case 6 as discussed in Table 3. From the results, we observed that irrespective of the harvested voltage, current is always larger in case 4 which also results in larger electrical energy.
Figure 6.
Harvested current versus harvested voltage for different combination.
We have charged the capacitor at 100 μF using the experimental setup as described for series 4 in Figure 3. Figure 7 shows the voltage and current at various time intervals. The minimum current and voltage results in the next day at about 12 noon due to the heat effect which lowers the photosynthesis activity.
Figure 7.
Charging of capacitor at different time intervals. (a) Harvested potential in capacitor at different time interval. (b) Charging of capacitor 100 μF.
For the estimation of oxygen releasing potential on the harvested electrical energy from Sansevieria plant, we have kept the plant inside the leakproof airtight green polythene bag at ambient temperature to create light conditions. The electrodes were inserted suitably to avoid any leakage of gas. After one day, we measured the average harvested potential of about 0.89 V. Dark condition is created by covering the plant with black bag along with green polythene bag. Mouth of the polythene bag was tied tightly with a provision to measure the harvested potential using multimeter in both cases. After three days, we have measured about 0.84 V in this condition whereas after 6 days the harvested potential drops to 280 mV. This shows that the Sansevieria trifasciata plant maintains its oxygen level even in the dark condition for a limited period and the harvested electrical potential is not affected in dark light for that period.
Light intensity is the main factor that control the central process of plant such as photosynthesis. To see the effect of light intensity on the harvested potential, we have put the Sansevieria trifasciata in a chamber and illuminated it with 15 W incandescent yellow and red bulbs separately. We also illuminated the plant using a 7 W LED bulb. The whole experiment was performed for 5 hours. We have measured the relative percentage change in the harvested potential after every 30 minutes using formula given by equation (1).
As seen from Figure 8, the harvested potential decreases as the exposure time increases except when plant is exposed to 15 W incandescent yellow bulb. In the case of 15 W yellow bulb, the harvested potential initially increases up to 2 hours due to increased energy of associated photon and then falls gradually due to excessive heat which reduces the photosynthesis activity in the plant. The harvested electrical potential shows a sharp decrease with exposure time in the case of 15 W red bulb due to the reduced energy of associated photon.
Figure 8.
Percentage variation of harvested potential with illumination exposure time.
We have also conducted the experiment in outdoor conditions at 3 PM in summer for following cases; when three Sansevieria plants are connected in series the harvested potential is 2.66 V which is larger than 2.46 V in the lab condition due to increased photosynthesis activity whereas when one Sansevieria, one Aloe vera, and one Beschorneria plants are connected in series, the harvested potential is 2.73 V which is lower than 2.77 V as in lab condition.
Succulent plants are favorable candidates to replace Li-ion battery in future to power up embedded IoT sensors. The chosen Sansevieria and Beschorneria plants for harvesting electrical potential is due to their higher self-repairing capability and photosynthesis rate compared to Aloe vera plant. The combination of these two plants harvests a larger potential than other succulent plants due to higher conductance of CO2 for photosynthesis. The harvested potential is more than 1 V from a single leaf of Sansevieria plant in presence of dilute acidic soil which is favorable condition for plant’s growth. The experimental findings suggest that the series and parallel combination of the succulent plants affect the harvested energy along with external stimuli, nature of soil, number of connected leaves, and position of electrodes. We have observed that if different types of succulent plants are connected either in series or parallel compared to same type of plants, the harvested energy is more. Maximum power we harvested during our experiment was 72 μW which is sufficient to power up the embedded sensors which can be further enhanced by optimizing the various factors affecting the harvested energy. The harvested electrical potential falls with time as well as the with the separation between two electrodes due to associated parasitic capacitance and resistance. The wound in the leaf affects the harvested potential severely. The CO2 content and intensity of light are other factors that affect the harvested potential from succulent plants. This study confirms that succulent plants like Sansevieria and Beschorneria plants prove themselves as the future candidate for green energy to replace the conventional battery to power up sensor nodes.
Author is thankful to Dr. Narayan Kumar, Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Engineering-NIIT University for his valuable suggestion and discussions related to the plants. Author is also thankful to Mr. Narendra Singh Bisht (Lab in-charge) for providing all the help needed to conduct the experiment.
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