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The animal meats contain harmful fat and cholesterol contents but plants are the important sources of secondary metabolites that play important role against diseases, and showed less side effects. Jute, Kenaf and Mesta are self-pollinated annual herbaceous plants used to produce fibre contents. These plants are also used for nutritional purposes. Jute leaves contain vitamins, minerals, energies, macromolecules, phytochemicals, micronutrients, amino acids, anti-oxidants essential to promote human health. Only two species of jute (C. capsularis and C. olitorius) are commercially cultivated for fibre content. Olitorius leaves are sweet but capsularis leaves are bitter in taste. The young twigs and leaves of olitroius jute are used as delicious vegetable, and some capsularis cultivars released in Bangladesh can be used as leafy vegetables at young stage. C. olitorius is known as Molokhia and used as green leafy vegetable (GLV) in African and Eastern countries as a viscous soup. Hibiscus (Kenaf and Mesta) plants have antioxidants, anticancer, antibacterial and anti-cholesterol qualities. These plants produce multi-coloured lovely flowers used to grace our environment. Kenaf (H. Cannabinus) seeds contain essential amino acids and used as feed meals for the birds in different countries. Mesta or Roselle (H. sabdariffa) leaves and calyces have both vegetable and medicinal values.
Breeding Division, Bangladesh Jute Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Dhaka, Bangladesh
*Address all correspondence to: mukulbjribreeding@gmail.com
1. Introduction
Jute is the English version of the current Bengali word ‘Pat or Paat’. Jute is an annual and short day natural fibre plant of the Malvaceae or Tiliaceae or currently Sparminniaceae family under the Corchorus genus [1, 2]. It is a kind of fibre, which is obtained from two commercially cultivated species (C. capsularis and C. olitorius). It is an important cash crop of Bangladesh. Once it was the golden fibre of Bangladesh not only for the rich golden colour of the fibre but also, metaphorically, for jute’s valuable contribution to the national economy of country.
There are over 30 species, which belong to this genus. This plant is grown in the summer season (Kharif-I) for fibre purpose [3]. But it can be grown throughout the year under the temperature above 20°C for vegetable as well as seed production purpose. Nutrition is a basic human need and a prerequisite for a healthy life. Nowadays, people are becoming well aware of the nutritional benefits of fresh vegetables and fruits, and thereby searching for more diversity in their food to get the utmost nutrition. The main focus of consumers is on those foods that are rich in vitamins (A, C, and E), antioxidants, and minerals such as potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg).
A diet rich in vegetables and fruits can lower blood pressure, reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke, prevent some types of cancer, lower risk of eye and digestive problems, and have a positive effect upon blood sugar, which can help to keep appetite in check [4]. Eating non-starchy vegetables and fruits such as apples, pears, and green leafy vegetables may even promote weight loss. Their low glycaemic loads prevent blood sugar spikes that can increase hunger. The green leafy vegetables (GLVs) include jute (Molokhia), mesta (Roselle), spinach, lettuce, curly lettuce, chard, purslane, chicory, etc., are rich sources of nutrients, high in dietary fibre, low in lipids, and rich in folate, ascorbic acid, vitamin K, Mg, and K. They also carry plenty of phytochemicals such as β-carotene flavonoids. Jute leaves are important sources of minerals (iron and calcium), vitamins (A, C, and riboflavin), and fibre. Young, fresh leaves contain more vitamin C than mature plants [5]. The green outer leaves of lettuce and cabbage are richer in vitamins, calcium, and iron than white inner leaves. Thinner and greener leaves are more nutritious and usually have lower calories. The GLVs and fresh fruits are gaining a significant place in the food pyramid, being good sources of trace elements and other bioactive compounds. Vegetables are the fresh and edible parts of herbaceous plants extremely valuable for health maintenance and disease prevention. These are mainly appreciated due to their high vitamins, carbohydrates, and especially their mineral contents. The higher the average daily intake of fruits and vegetables, the lower the chances of developing cardiovascular diseases [6]. Most vegetables are naturally low in fat and calories. Diets rich in potassium may help to maintain healthy blood pressure. Vegetables provide nutrients vital for health and maintenance of our body.
2. Genetic diversity and population structure of JAF crops
Population genetics is the branch of genetics that deals with the consequence of Mendelian inheritance or the description of observed or inferred heritable features in population, rather than families through space and time [7]. Population genetics is concerned with genetic differences within and across populations, and the dynamics of how populations evolve as a result of the propagation of genetic mutations occurring within the germlines of individuals [8]. It is the branch of biology that provides the deepest and clearest understanding of how evolutionary change occurs [9]. Population genetics is particularly relevant today in the expanding quest to understand the basis for genetic variation in susceptibility to complex diseases. Population genetics seeks to understand how and why the frequencies of alleles and genotypes change over time within and between populations. The researchers found genetic variations within the same species for certain traits of jute and allied fibre crops. Jute is the second most important global natural fibre crop after cotton. Jute consists of approximately 50–60 species that grow in the tropics, subtropics, and warm temperate regions of the world (mainly in Asia and Africa) [10]. Analyses of the genetic diversity and population structure of the germplasm are useful for improving jute breeding [11]. However, only two cultivated species, C. capsularis L. and C. olitorius L., are mostly used commercially with an annual global production of 2.65 million tonnes [12]. However, jute possesses narrow genetic diversity since there are limited breeding parent combinations and only a few varieties are cultivated [13].
Therefore, it is important to expand the genetic basis of the breeding populations to promote jute breeding. More than 2000 jute accessions are stored in the National Bast Fiber Germplasm Middle-term Storage, Changsha, China [14]. Moreover, jute accessions derived from the same pedigree may have different names in different places owing to the exchange of germplasm across different countries or regions. The Breeding Division of BJRI has developed 54 varieties of jute and allied fibre (JAF) crops (Table 1) through various breeding approaches and selection processes using a large collection of germplasms from different countries of the world [15]. More than 6550 germplasms of JAF crops have been conserved and are maintaining by the Gene Bank under Genetic Resources and Seed (GRS) division of BJRI. The GRS division provides seed materials to the other departments of BJRI and other organizations who are directly involved with JAF crop research activities.
List of jute and allied fibre crops in Bangladesh with their development method, release year, organization, utilization purpose, and cultivation status [15].
PLS = pure line selection; F = fibre; V = vegetable; C = cultivating; N.C. = not cultivating; RY = release year; RI = releasing Institute; and VM = vegetable mesta.
3. Origin, distribution, and morphometric characters of JAF vegetable crops
3.1 Jute (Corchorus spp.)
Jute (Corchorus spp.) is a diploid (2n = 2x = 14) fibre crop, which ranks second in importance next to cotton as a natural fibre and occupies important place in the economy Bangladesh and India [16, 17]. White jute (C. capsularis) was originated from India or Indo-Burma and south China; and Tossa jute (C. olitorius) originated from Africa [18]. C. olitorius is known as Molokhia, used as green leafy vegetable, viscous soup in African regions, Middle-Eastern countries, and valued for its nutrient composition [19]. So primary centre of origin of jute is Africa and secondary is Indian subcontinent. The draft genomes of the two cultivated jute species differ with respect to genome sizes. C. olitorius has a draft genome size of ∼448 Mb, while C. capsularis has ∼404 Mb [20]. These two species are cultivating in different countries of the world. India, Bangladesh, and China are the world’s major producers of jute. Other countries of considerable importance are Brazil, Mexico, China, Venezuela, Egypt, Sudan, Sri Lanka, Middle East, Taiwan, and parts of tropical Africa and Asia. At present, Bangladesh has occupied near about the first position in terms of both production and export of jute and jute products in the world [3]. Information on the genetic diversity within and among closely related crop varieties is essential for crop improvement and to meet the diverse goals such as producing cultivars with increased yield, wider adaptability, desirable quality, pest, and disease resistance [17, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25].
There are 80% tossa jute, 7% white jute, and 13% allied fibre crops growing in Bangladesh. Jute is natural fibre and totally biodegradable, cash crop of Bangladesh, called ‘golden fibre’. Jute is a rain water dependent crop, and its cultivation requires low amount of fertilizer and pesticide than other crops. The jute plants of 1 m [2] area can absorb 0.23–0.44 mg CO2. The jute plants of 1 hectare area at 100 days old can consume ∼15 tons of CO2, and release ∼11.0 tons of O2 to the atmosphere and keep the environment clean and rich in O2. This plant can contribute to save the environment through controlling the greenhouse gas emission as well as rising of environmental temperature. Jute can be used to make paper pulp, and jute sticks are used as fuel, to make charcoal, printer ink, cosmetic’s elements, tooth paste, car parts, etc. Jute plant consists of some chemicals, that is, cellulose (70%), hemi-cellulose (20%), lignin (10%); while jute stick contains 30% cellulose and takes about 15 years to produce. Recently, a renowned scientist named Mubarak Ahmad Khan, Scientific Advisor of BJMC and Ex-Director General of BAEC, has developed a new technology from jute fibre. He developed polythene type bag from jute fibre called ‘Sonali Bag’ (Figure 1). The name ‘Sonali Bag’ was given by Honourable Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh in 2015. The Sonali Bag is a biodegradable biopolymer, made of jute cellulose and eco-friendly. It is totally biodegradable, compostable, water soluble; it does not melt in fire like plastic material, which produces ash after burning. The polythene or plastics take long time to decompose in soil, and these are harmful for the environment. Polythene is used in Bangladesh since 1982, and the use of plastic was banned since 2002 [26]. But, plastics are using till now. Jute may be a good source of biopolymer to be used for industrial purposes. The ‘Sonali Bag’ will be commercialized very soon to be an alarm to plastic bags in Bangladesh. Jute-based other products are personal protection equipment (PPE), face mask, sanitary napkin, etc. Recently, Farhana Sultana, an assistant scientist at ICDDR’B, has won the grand award for her excellent innovation of a machine to make jute cellulose-based disposable sanitary pads for long-term menstrual health and hygiene of women and girls. She has designed and piloted the jute cellulose-based disposable pad project in partnership with Dr. Mubarak Ahmed Khan of BJMC.
Figure 1.
Eco-friendly jute golden bag or Sonali bag made of jute fibre.
3.2 Allied fibre crops
The other two fibre crop species namely Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) and Mesta (H. sabdariffa L.) are also belonging the Malvaceae family. Both species were originated in Africa [27]. Kenaf is a tall annual herbaceous woody tropical plant having great potential for fibre, energy, and feedstock [28, 29]. Kenaf is composed of various active components including tannins, saponins, polyphenolics, alkaloids, essential oils, and steroids. Kenaf seed has been the waste part of kenaf plant. It is an annual crop, which is normally cultivated in the tropics and subtropics, where temperatures are greater than 20°C [15]. It is harvested for fibre soon after its flowering. Linoleic, oleic, and palmictic acids were the predominant fatty acids in kenaf seed oil. Under good conditions, Kenaf will grow to a height of 5–6 m in 6–8 months and can yield up to 30–35 t ha−1 of dry woody material. It is grown in Bangladesh, Thailand, China, India, Australia, and USA. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (Mesta), also known as Roselle, is an ideal crop for developing countries as it is relatively easy to grow, can be grown as part of multi-cropping systems, and can be used as food and fibre. In Bangladesh, India, China, the Mesta seeds are used for their oil and the plant is used for its medicinal properties, while in West Africa the leaves and powdered seeds are used in meals. Additionally, it is used in the pharmaceutical and food industries. Among the fibre crops except cotton, 7% kenaf and 6% Mesta species are grown in Bangladesh [30]. The popularity of Kenaf is increasing day by day due to its low production costs, fibre and fodder uses, and cultivation in the fellow lands. The fibres of Kenaf & Mesta are coarse type but used for making rope, bags, sacks, etc. in industries.
3.3 Jute and allied fibre crop research in Bangladesh
Jute is one of the mainstays of Bangladesh. It accounts for about 6% of the foreign currency earnings from export. Bangladesh grew 85.76 lakh tonnes of jute in FY2018–19 and 80 lakh tonnes in FY2019–20. Bangladesh currently exports 282 jute and jute-based goods to around 135 countries around the globe. Bangladesh has shut down the Adamjee Jute Mills in 2002. Of the 32 jute mills under the BJMC, 25 remained active after their shutdown last year. These jute mills employ around 2 lakh people. The Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI) is an oldest mono-crop research institute in the country established in 1951 [30, 31]. Jute Research was first started in Dhaka with the creation of a Fibre Expert’s position and assumption of the responsibility by Sir R.S. Finlow in 1904 under the Bengal Department of Agriculture (1904–1939). To intensify research on jute and allied fibres, Jute Agricultural Research Laboratory (JARL) was established by the Indian Central Jute Committee (ICJC) in Dhaka in 1939. BJRI has three main branches, namely 1) Agriculture Research on Jute, 2) Technological Research on Jute, and 3) Jute and Textile Product Development Research. According to Al-Mamun et al. [15], Mukul [32], Haque et al. [33], the Breeding Division of BJRI has developed 54 varieties of jute and allied fibre crops including 28 C. capsularis, 18 C. olitorius, 4 H. cannabinus, and 4 H. sabdariffa species (Table 1). About 50% of the varieties are in field condition and cultivating by the farmers. White jute is well adapted here than tossa jute but fibre quality and market demand are high for tossa jute. So that farmers cultivate more tossa jute than white jute in Bangladesh. Kenaf crop is used as a good source of pulp for paper production as well as for industrial uses. Kenaf seeds are good source of essential amino acids and other nutrients, where Mesta crops are less demanded by the farmers due to less utilization in industries, but leaves and fruit calyces are used as vegetables and used to make various food staffs. Kenaf and Mesta need very less cost of production. These plants can be grow well in fellow, less fertile, uncultivated lands with low organic matter content [34].
4. Jute, Kenaf, and Mesta are sources of green leafy vegetables and essential nutrients
In Bangladesh, the young-fresh leaves and shoot tips of C. olitorius varieties (Figure 2) are used as leafy or green leafy vegetables (GLVs) due to its sweet taste [11]. It is also used as Jew’s Mallow Plant in Africa and as Sorel leaves in Asia [35]. Molokhia (C. olitorius) is a popular summer vegetable dish due to its special delicious taste; it is consumed fresh or dried in vegetable soup. White jute (C. capsularis) leaves and twigs (Figure 3) are bitter in taste but some varieties (Figures 4–7) have been developed as vegetable type with no bitterness, which is consuming in a large volume by the people. The leaves of H. cannabinus (Figure 14) is largely consumed by the domestic animals (cow, buffalo, goat, etc.) and seeds (Figure 15) are used to prepare feed meal of layar & broiler chicken, and to extract oil content with good amount of amino acids and other nutrients. The calyces and young leaves (Figure 16) of H. sabdariffa are used as fresh vegetables; seeds (Figure 17) are used for feed meals and oil purposes; and the fruit calyces are more popular for making drinks, ice creams, jellies, jams, pickles, cuisine, etc. (Figure 18).
Figure 2.
Young leaves and twigs of C. olitorius jute (O-9897) used a vegetable.
Figure 3.
Young leaves and twigs of C. olitorius jute (CVE-3) grown mainly for fibre and slightly used a vegetables.
Figure 4.
Young leaves and twigs of BJRI Deshi Pat Shak 1 (BJC-390) used as vegetable.
Figure 5.
BJRI Deshi Pat Shak 2 (Mehra red) cultivated in field.
Figure 6.
BJRI Deshi Pat Shak 3 (Mehra green) cultivated in field.
5. Biochemical basis and nutritional profile of jute leaves
There are two types of vegetable jute in our country, such as Desi or White Jute and Tossa or Bogi or Dark jute. So far, it has been found that vegetable jute (Pat shak) contains about 17 active nutrient elements such as meat, oil, sugary fibre, ash, calcium, potassium, iron, sodium, phosphorus, beta carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, ascorbic acid, vitamin A, and water (Table 2) [36]. Deshi Pat Shak has a bitter taste due to its presence of capsin. However, since tossa jute is not bitter, it is used in making various types of soups. The nutritional value of jute leaves is astonishing. However, due to its availability and cheapness, people are not aware of its nutritional value. At present, different species of vegetables are available in the market in winter in Bangladesh, such as Puishak (Basella alba), Spinach (Spinacia oleracea), Amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor), kachushak (Colocasia esculenta), Radish Spinach (Raphanus sativus). Of all these vegetables, spinach is the most well-known, nutritious, valuable, and favourite vegetable. Comparing the nutritional value of jute with this spinach, the importance of nutritional value of jute will be easily understood. The nutritional composition of jute plant depends on plant leaves maturity. It was observed in an earlier research report, high-moisture content of jute leaves was decreased from 15th days after seed sowing to 33th days old. Leaf maturity had significant (p < 0.05) effect on the moisture of jute leaves. The ash content of jute leaves decreases at 15th to 33th days old and then increases with increasing of plant age up to maturity. In biota, ash content is an index of mineral contents, which is relatively high in jute leaf comparing to the values found in Hibiscus esculentus (8.00% DW) reported by Akindahunsi and Salawu [37]. The ash content within the range of 16.30–17.31% reported for some vegetables by Dairo and Adanlawo [38]. The crude protein content increased from 15th DASS (19.86%) till 24th DASS (26.46%) and reduced to 16.65% till final harvesting at 33th DASS. It indicates that jute leaf is advantageous as a rich source of vegetable protein over some vegetables such as raw Cocoyam leaf (3.4%), cooked Cocoyam leaf (2.1%), Amaranthus (6.1%), and Moringa oleifera (4.2%) as reported by Adepoju et al. [39]. According to Ali et al. [36], the maturity of jute leaf does not affect its fat content ranging from 1.54 to 2.95%; it revealed that jute plant is lower in fat content like Crassocephalum crepidioides (12.45%) and Senecio biafrae (14.21%) reported by Dairo and Adanlawo [38], but higher than value reported for Brassica oleracea (0.26%) by Emebu and Anyika [40]. The fibre content of jute leaves increases with the increase of leaf maturity [36]. However, jute leaves showed higher fibre content (12.04%) than Amaranthus hybridus (8.61%) reported by Akubugwo et al. [41]. Foods containing fibres remove potential carcinogens from the body, cleanse the digestive tract, and prevent excess cholesterol absorption. Fibre also adds bulk to the food and prevents the intake of excess starchy food and may therefore guard against metabolic conditions such as hypercholesterolemia and diabetes mellitus [42].
6. Comparison among the nutritional values of jute vegetable, spinach, and amaranth (per 100 g)
The nutritional value of jute leaves is very surprising. Many vegetables are available in the market, such as Puishak, Palangshak, Datashak, Kachushak, Mulashak. Of all these vegetables, spinach is the most well-known, nutritious, valuable, and beloved vegetable. A comparative analysis of the nutritional value of jute with spinach and amaranth will make clear the importance of nutritional value of jute (Table 3) [43]. Jute leaves are widely used in rural areas of Bangladesh. But if the leaves are needed in other seasons, then the leaves can be dried and powdered and stored carefully.
Nutrient elements and unit
Jute vegetable
Spinach
Amaranth
Energy (kcal)
73.00
23.00
18.00
Carbohydrates (g)
52.52
3.60
0.30
Dietary/crude fibre (g)
6.80
2.20
2.60
Crude protein (g)
3.77
3.00
n.d.
Lipid (g)
0.60
0.20
n.d.
Calcium (mg)
298.00
55.00
270 g
Iron (mg)
11.00
3.90
3.00
Carotene (mg)
1.92
1.56
1.73
Vitamin B-1 (mg) Thiamine
15.00
0.13
0.07
Vitamin B-2 (mg) Riboflavin
28.00
0.23
0.22
Vitamin-C (mg)
64.00
65.00
42.00
Table 3.
Comparison jute vegetable, spinach, and amaranth for nutritional compositions [43, 44].
7. Deshi pat or white jute (Corchorus capsularis L.) as vegetables
The white jute is cultivated mainly for fibre along with vegetable purpose. It is grown in Kharif-I season for fibre production and year-round cultivation of vegetable species for shak or vegetable production in Bangladesh. The C. capsularis plant generally becomes 2.50–3.80 m in height. The stems are angular in shape, green, or greenish-red, and the growth of the periderm in the stems varies at different stages of maturation. Leaves are small, thin, rough, and bitter in taste. However, BJRI Desi Pat Shak-1, 2 and 3 are not bitter. The flowers are small; the sepals and ovaries are pale yellowish and round. White jute fruits are globose type and five chambered, and seeds are small and triangular in size (Figure 8), which are green to grey in colour, and 1000 seeds weight is 2.0 g. The seeds are slightly larger and the colour is usually brown (Figure 8). However, the seeds of BJRI Desi Pat 7 (BJC-2142), the only white jute variety invented by BJRI, are bluish. The weight of 1000 seeds is about 2.90–3.30 g. Fibre colour is white or snow white (Figure 8). The amount of fibre cuttings is 15–20%. White jute is tolerant to many biotic (diseases, pests, insects) and abiotic (floods, drought, salinity, waterlogging) stresses [23, 45]. High-to-medium high land, loam, sandy loamy, and clay loam soils with drainage facilities and organic matter contents are suitable for white jute cultivation. White jute seeds can be sown through broadcasting or in rows. Line sowing method is easy for intercultural operations, low operational costs, and higher fibre yield and qualities. The BJRI has developed three white jute vegetable varieties and the BINA developed an white jute vegetable variety (Figure 7), which are good sources of vitamins, minerals, protein, and moisture content (Table 4) [46, 47, 48].
Figure 8.
Globose-type fruits, triangular-shaped seeds, and snow white fibres of Deshi/White jute (C. capsularis).
Analyses components
Advanced line
BINA Pat
BJRI Deshi Pat
Capsularis dwarf red
Shak-1
Shak-1
Shak-2
Shak-3
Protein (%)
2.37
22.83
22.66
18.45
18.45
Ash (%)
1.68
5.69
8.58
7.77
7.770
β-carotene (μg g−1)
145.85
95.59
115.8
125.4
125.4
Vitamin-C (mg per 100 g)
0.0034
63.85
67.73
74.53
74.53
Moisture (%)
78.61
80.63
84.08
85.04
85.04
Calcium (%)
n.d.
1.91
1.62
2.36
1.93
Potassium (%)
n.d.
1.39
1.75
1.61
1.67
Sodium (%)
n.d.
0.091
0.111
0.125
0.118
Phosphorus (%)
n.d.
0.636
0.654
0.62
0.588
Iron (ppm)
n.d.
1344.0
993.0
971.0
610.0
Table 4.
Biochemical analyses of white jute vegetable type varieties [46, 47, 48].
n.d. = not detected.
More amounts of seeds are required for broadcasting than line sowing. For broadcasting, 30 g seeds are required per decimal or 7.50 kg seeds per hectare of land. On the other hand, 25 g seeds are required per decimal or 6.25 kg seeds per hectare of land for line sowing method. The distance from row to row is 30 cm, plant to plant is 6–7 cm, and plant population: 30 plants m−2 or 3.0–3.5 lac plants ha−1 of land should be maintained to get higher fibre yield and qualities. Since this species was originated in Indo-Burma sub-continent, it is very adaptive to the soil and environment of Bangladesh, India, and other nearest countries. Due to the bitterness of plants or leaves, the antioxidant contents are quietly more in white jute. All the varieties of white jute are not eaten as vegetable. Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI) has developed 29 capsularis varieties where there are three varieties for vegetable purpose and 26 varieties for fibre purpose. Among 29 white jute varieties, 13 varieties (Table: 1; SL: 17–29) including 10 fibrous and 03 vegetable types are cultivating now in farmers’ fields. Another capsularis vegetable variety named BINA Pat Shak-1 (Figure 7) has been developed by the Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA) through physical mutation using gamma radiation on the CVL-1 (BJRI Deshi Pat variety) during 2003. The vegetable species of white jute are rich sources of proteins, carbohydrates, energies, vitamins, and minerals. The nutritional status of white jute vegetable species in Bangladesh are summarised here (Table 4) [46, 47, 48].
8. Tossa pat or Bogi pat or dark jute (Corchorus olitorius L.) as vegetables
The dark jute is not native to Bangladesh, and it was originated from African regions. It is cultivated for fibre production in Kharif-I season, and it can be used as vegetable. It is known as Molokhia or Jew’s Mellow Plant or Nalta jute used as vegetable as well as to make viscous soup in African regions [43]. The plants become 2.8–4.8 m tall. Its stems are tubular, green, or light red to dark red in colour depending on sunlight for red pigmentation, missing lenticels present in periderm. Tossa jute leaves are dark green, thick and smooth, and not bitter in taste. The flowers are relatively large, the petioles are green, the petals are yellow, and the ovaries are oblong. The fruits are long in shape and divided by seeds in four rows. Each row contains 25–40 seeds. Each fruit contains about 130–200 seeds. Tossa jute fruits are capsule or pod type, five chambered, seeds are small and triangular in size, green to grey or bluish green in colour, and weight of 1000 seeds is 1.8 g (Figure 9). Seed colour is usually bluish or bluish green (Figure 9), but OM-1 variety is brown in colour [49]. Fibre colour is from golden to light butter-white (Figure 9), which is very bright and clean flawless fibre. The amount of cuttings is less than that of white jute. They cannot tolerate waterlogging, and photosensitive, that is, premature flowering occurs due to early sowing before 15 March leading to determinate the vegetative growth or fibre production. High-to-medium high land, loam to sandy loamy fertile soils with drainage facilities, and organic matter contents are suitable for tossa jute cultivation. Seeds can be sown through broadcasting or in rows. Line sowing method is easy for intercultural operations, low operational costs, and higher fibre yield and qualities. More amounts of seeds are required for broadcasting than line sowing. For broadcasting, 25 g seeds are required per decimal or 6.50 kg seeds per hectare of land. On the other hand, 20 g seeds are required per decimal or 5.0 kg seeds per hectare of land for line sowing method. The distance from row to row is 30 cm, plant to plant is 6–7 cm, and plant population: 30 plants m−2 or 3.0–3.5 lac plants ha−1 of land should be maintained to get higher fibre yield and qualities. Since this species was originated in Africa, it cannot tolerate biotic and abiotic stresses in the soil and environment of Bangladesh. The breeders of BJRI are trying and already developed/identified some biotic stress tolerant germplasms, which will be used in hybridization systems and stress-tolerant tossa jute varieties will be developed. They are also taking initiatives to develop hybrid jute varieties using cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) systems in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI) has developed 18 tossa jute varieties for fibre purpose (Table: 1; S.L. No.: 30-47). An exotic tossa jute variety named JRO-524 (Navin) was introduced in Bangladesh from India. Among the 18 tossa jute varieties of BJRI, 8 varieties (Table: 1; S.L. No.: 40-47) are cultivating along with the JRO-524 by the farmers. All tossa varieties can also be eaten as vegetable at young stage. JRO-524 was developed by Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres (CRIJAF), India, through crossing bet African cv. Sudan green and indigenous cv. JRO-632 in 1977 [50, 51]. The tossa jute species are rich sources of proteins, carbohydrates, energies, vitamins, and minerals. Various nutritional uses of white jute vegetable species in Bangladesh are summarised here.
Figure 9.
Capsule or pod-type fruits, triangular-shaped seeds, and golden fibres of tossa jute (C. olitorius).
9. Preparation of various food items from jute vegetables
9.1 Fresh jute vegetables
Jute is one of the favourite vegetables of many people in Bangladesh. It is also full of various nutrients. Any dish of jute spinach with hot rice is delicious to eat. The tip of the young jute plants should be cut and washed well. The tip of young jute plants at the age of 20–40 days old should be cut off and washed well in clean water followed by draining of water completely. Then, take the jute leaves in a pan and add salt to it. After boiling for 12–15 minutes, drain the water with the slippery juice of the jute leaves. Otherwise, it will not be delicious to eat. Then, 2–3 dried chillies, onion, garlic should be fried with mustard or soybean oil in a pan till it turns brown, and then add boiled jute leaves and fry it. If you need to give salt again, you have to give it. After that, cover the fried jute vegetable for 5 minutes and this cooked jute vegetable (Figure 10) is ready to eat with hot rice, pulses, and mash.
Figure 10.
Cooked vegetable of fresh jute.
9.2 Fresh jute vegetables and pulses
Jute vegetables and pulses are also a food known as ‘Shukto’ that brings water to the tongue (Figure 11). The tip of the young jute should be cut and washed well. Now fry the black cumin seeds, dried chillies, and pulses in a pan with oil. After that, fry in a pan with jute and some amount of raw chillies and cover 2 minutes. Then, open the lid, and shake it with salt and turmeric and cover again. When the water of vegetables is dry and soft, it should be mixed with boiled pulses. When mixed with pulses, it tastes very good when eaten with hot rice.
Figure 11.
Cooked jute vegetables with pulses known as Shukto in Bangladesh.
9.3 Fresh jute vegetable’s Sholka
This is one type of food item cooked with jute vegetable, which is known as Sholka or Paelka (local) (Figure 12d) and popular at northern region Rangpur district of Bangladesh. However, it is not cooked in all areas of Rangpur. The young jute leaves should be cut into small pieces (Figure 12a–c) and add some other vegetables such as Gourd leaves, Pumpkin leaves, Basella leaves, Colocasia leaves, Moringa leaves to get rid of its bitterness. One of its ingredients is baking soda. A pinch of baking soda is given to lubricate the jute leaves. Now add a little ginger powder and stir for 10 to 15 minutes on low heat. Then, it should be covered and kept for some time. After that, it tastes great when served with food. Also, jackfruit seeds would be added with this item at cooking time, and its taste will increase a lot more.
Figure 12.
(a) Collection of young leaves and twigs of jute, (b) leaves are chopped, (c) chopped leaves are crushed, and (d) finally cooked jute vegetables known as Sholka at Rangpur of Bangladesh.
9.4 Dried jute vegetables
Dark green dried jute leaves are very popular among Japanese users (Figure 13b). A preliminary test showed that if the jute leaves were dried in an electric oven for 8 hours at a temperature of 32°C, the colour of the leaves remained green without loss (Figure 13c). In this condition, the amount of water in leaves is about 8%. Such dried leaves can be powdered to the size of 16 mash-sized filters (Figure 13d). However, in general, jute leaves can be dried at room temperature and powdered and used as a vegetable or filling material. In addition, the green leaves of jute can be chopped (Figure 13a), dried in humid air (Figure 13c) and fried using garlic, onion, mustard soybean oil, dried chillies, and eaten very tasty with rice and pulses. At present, it is a popular food item in Mymensingh district of Bangladesh.
Figure 13.
(a) Chopping and crushing of jute fleshy leaves, (b) packaging of dried jute leaves in green condition, (c) dried and crushed jute leaves in green condition, and (d) grinded powder of jute leaves in green condition for vegetable or drinks or medicinal purposes.
Kenaf is an annual bast fibre crop originated from Africa, and used as a source of fibre to many industries and medicinal constituents [52]. This crop is diploid (2n = 2x = 36) in nature, and belongs to Malvaceae family and section Furcaria [53] along with hibiscus (Hibiscus hibiscum L.), Hollyhock (Althaea rosea), Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), and Okra (Hibiscus esculentus), and is grown commercially in different countries including Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, China, Malaysia [54]. It is an alternative crop that may be a feasible source of eco-friendly cellulose. The seed capsule (fruit) that is about 1.9–2.5 cm long and 1.3–1.9 cm in diameter and hairy and contains five segments that are many-seeded (20–26 seeds) [55]. Kenaf leaves and seeds (Figures 14 and 15) are also using in traditional medicine in India and Africa for the treatment of various disease conditions. Kenaf plants or leaves (Figure 14) are used as feed meals for the domestic animal (cow) in Bangladesh. The seeds are brown, glabrous, wedge-shaped, 6 mm long, 4 mm wide, and their weight is about 35,000 to 40,000 seeds kg−1 corresponding to 25–29 g thousand grain weight (Figure 15). Kenaf fibres (Figure 15) are commonly used for paper pulp and cordage, but it is also a promising lignocellulosic feedstock for bioenergy production. The kenaf seed oil can be used for cooking and in different industrial applications. It is an important bast fibre crop and cultivated for fibre purpose. It contains long and short fibres in its stem fractions, bark and core, respectively, which has numerous industrial applications viz. paper and pulp, fabrics, textiles, biocomposites, insulation mats, absorption materials, animal bedding [56]. Kenaf plants possess a wider range of adaptation to environments, climates, soils, and are rich sources of cellulose compared with any of other fibre plant in profitable manufacture industry [54]. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, kenaf was introduced into southern Asia and was first cultivated and commercially utilized in India. The knowledge of how kenaf was introduced in India is limited but it is known that it came from Africa. The cultural interaction between ancient Egypt and the Indus may have played an important role for kenaf’s dissemination from Africa to India, from where kenaf cultivation was expanded to other Asian countries. In the beginning of 1900, kenaf was disseminated into mainland China from Taiwan. Currently, many countries pay more attention to kenaf research and cultivation because of its high biological efficiency and wide ecological adaptability. Kenaf is more commonly called ‘the future crop’. Nowadays, kenaf is commercially cultivated in more than 20 countries, particularly in China, India, Thailand, and Vietnam [57]. Kenaf leaves extract (KLE) can be used as functional ingredient in cosmetic formulations. It introduces new possible application for kenaf leaves as high value-added ingredients with skincare properties for the cosmetic industry, namely antioxidant, anti-aging, and anti-melanogenic activities. Kenaf can be used for food-fodder-forage. Kenaf seed is a valuable component of kenaf plant. For several years, it has been primarily used as cordage crop and secondarily as a livestock feed. Consumers are becoming more interested in naturally healthy plant-based food products. Kenaf seed, the future crop with a rich source of essential nutrients [58, 59] (Table 5) and an excellent source of phyto-compounds, might serve suitable roles in the production of value-added plant-based foods. Kenaf seeds have many nutritional functions and could be used as a valuable natural source of ingredient for the production of functional foods. Kenaf seeds are an important source of dietary fibres, oil, and proteins. The oil has been suggested to be used as a new source of functional edible oil with high antioxidant activity [60] and anticancer properties [61].
Figure 14.
H. cannabinus varieties: Young leaves, twigs of HC-95, and flower, fruits, and leaves of HC-2.
Figure 15.
Seeds and fibres Kenaf (HC-95).
Essential amino acids
Whole kenaf seed (mg/100 g)
Defatted kenaf seed (g/100 g)
Protein concentrate (g/100 g)
Histidine
8.92–15.70
5.24–12.50
22.20–80.90
Isoleucine
13.02–16.02
0.26–2.44
0.97–3.15
Leucine
11.38–17.74
1.72–2.57
1.91–2.73
Lysine
2.34–3.86
3.83–4.58
4.59–5.27
Methionine
2.58–4.28
0.11–0.43
0.37–4.79
Phenylalanine
31.79–38.20
0.53–1.45
1.08–3.04
Threonine
20.08–28.00
1.21–3.68
0.95–4.50
Valine
38.13–50.03
0.80–1.36
1.10–1.63
Table 5.
Essential amino acid content of whole, defatted, and protein concentrate of different kenaf seed cultivars [27, 59].
Several researchers have reported the value of kenaf seed-derived products like kenaf seed flour (KSF), defatted kenaf seed meal (DKSM), and kenaf seed protein concentrates (KSPC); they have health-supporting activities [62]. The potential of kenaf seed as a source of functional edible oil seems to be excellent [60, 63] as it contains alpha-linolenic acid, an essential omega-3 fatty acid with anti-inflammatory and antithrombotic activities, and also chemopreventive activity [64]. The relatively high oil composition like that of cottonseed oil, and appreciable quantities of phospholipids and phytosterols suggest that kenaf oil can be used for culinary purposes and the seeds could serve feed and food purposes [58, 65]. Researchers have shown interest in isolating the bioactive components (phytosterol) of kenaf seed oil for the production of healthy and nutritious foods. The phenolic and flavonoid compounds present in kenaf seed have been reported as potential inhibitors of angiotensin I-converting enzyme and in the peroxidation of lipids [66]. The kenaf seeds contain 19.84% oil and 13.5% protein content [30]. Kenaf seed oil contains alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), the essential omega 3 fatty acid that is metabolized to Eicosapentaenoic acid, a precursor of eicosanoids with anti-inflammatory and antithrombotic activities. Mohamed et al. [67] evaluated the oil, fatty acid, phospholipid, and sterol content of nine American kenaf genotypes. They reported the biochemical compositions of kenaf seeds (Table 6).
Hibiscus sabdariffa commonly named as ‘Red Sorrel’ or ‘Roselle’ is a member of Malvaceae family used for fibre production. There is a big argument about the origin of Roselle among different scholars. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (Roselle) is an annual plant (Figure 16) that has traditionally been used in human and animal diet as food, drinks, and medicine (Figure 18). Roselle is a native plant of West Africa and from there, it was carried to other parts of the world such as Asia and America, whereas in others opinion, Roselle was originated from India and Saudi Arabia [68]. H. sabdariffa can be used as medicine for the treatment of high blood pressure, liver diseases, and fevers [69, 70]. In large amounts, hibiscus tea acts as a mild laxative. In Iran, it is a traditional treatment for high blood pressure, which is the focus of several studies, as is cholesterol reduction. Roselle is rich in organic acids including citric, malic, tartaric, and allo-hydroxycitric acids. The plant is also known for its β-carotene, vitamin C, protein, and total sugar. Roselle, having various medically important compounds called photochemical, is well known for its nutritional and medicinal properties. Many parts of Roselle including leaves and tender shoots, stems, calyces, fruits, seeds, and roots are used in various foods as well as in herbal medicine as a potential non-pharmacological treatment. They are sources of anthocyanin, flavonoids, polyphenols, organic acids, and fibre, which are single-stand products, and beverages and medicinal products are obtained from them. The plant also acts as an antioxidant and used in obesity management. Its extracts showed antibacterial, antioxidant, nephro- and hepatoprotective, renal/diuretic effect, effects on lipid metabolism (anticholesterol), and antidiabetic and antihypertensive effects among others. It is an important cash crop grown in almost all warm countries such as Bangladesh, India, south of China, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, West Africa, Vietnam, Sudan, Egypt, and Mexico [71]. Mesta seeds (Figure 16) can be used for feed meals and oil purposes. Its fibres (Figure 17) are very strong but coarse type is used for making sacks, ropes, and other goods. Some products of Roselle include sauces, vegetable salads, fruit salads, creams, perfumes, marmalade, seasoning products, fibres, spices, sauces, and vegetable oils. The red-coloured calyces of Roselle can be used as vegetable, to make jam, jelly, pickles and colouring raw materials of ice cream; dried calyces are used to prepare drinks (Figure 18). The brilliant red colour and unique flavour make it a valuable food product. It is also rich in bioactive compounds such as anthocyanins and other flavonoids, organic acids, and polysaccharides that are responsible for its antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and anticholesterol activities. Different extracts from Roselle play a crucial role in treating different medical problems including many cardiovascular disorders, helmenthic disease, and cancer. The calyces of Roselle are rich in anthocyanin, ascorbic acid, and other phenolic compounds. Roselle plant is an important source of energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals (Table 7) [31]. It is water soluble with brilliant and attractive red colour and with sour and agreeable acidic taste, which aid digestion. Roselle has been used by people for preparing soft drinks and in traditional medicine. It has been observed that its components, such as vitamins (C and E), polyphenols acids, and flavonoids, mainly anthocyanin, have functional properties (Table 8) [72]. They contribute benefit to health as a good source of antioxidants as well as a natural food colourant. The other health benefits of this plant include diuretic and choloratic properties, intestinal antiseptic, and mild laxative actions. It also used in treating heart and nerve disorder, high blood pressure, and calcified arteries. Due to perceived safety and physiological advantage of the natural colourants over synthetic ones, interest is being geared into the search of new natural colourants and the verification of the safety of existing ones.
Figure 16.
Leaves (c), twigs, fruits with calyces (a, b) of H. sabdariffa (VM-1: Red chukur and VM-2: Green chukur).
Figure 17.
Seeds and fibres of Mesta (VM-1).
Figure 18.
Preparation of different food items from the Roselle or Mesta calyces (VM-1: Red chukur): (1) fruits with calyces, (2) fresh calyces, (3) dried calyces, (4) Roselle drink (tea), (5) drying & crushing of calyces, (6) prepared jelly, (7) ice creams, (8) cold drinks, (9–10) fresh calyces and boiling, (11) prepared Roselle jam, and (12) pickle.
The Roselle or Chukur’s drink can be prepared through the following steps:
Fleshy fruits of red (Figure 18) or green coloured calyces of Roselle should be collected and washed well in clean water followed by air drying or oven drying for 3 days at 70°C temperature;
Calyces should be peel off and stored in airtight container.
Simply, 2.0 g of dried calyx should be crushed into small pieces using a wooden roller to make the Roselle drink (Figure 18);
Then those should be put into a tea bag or net; the bag should be steeped into boiled water in a cup; sugar could be added along with the inclusion of lemon juice to make flavour if desired;
The Roselle drink is ready to enjoy. The dried calyx could be refrigerated and used to make Roselle iced drink as and when necessary (Figure 18).
13. Medicinal/nutritional as well as pharmacological properties of jute and allied fibre crops
The medicinal properties of jute have been mentioned in the medical textbook ‘Charak Sanghita’ that it is effective in destroying leprosy, relieving urinary tract infections and relieving arthritis pain. In Ayurvedic medical science, the juice of tita (bitter) jute or white jute leaves is an infallible medicine for diarrhoea, fever, and acidity. It increases appetite and digestion and it is very useful as a constipation cleanser. Again, a mixture of sweet or tossa jute leaf juice and turmeric powder cures complicated bloody diarrhoea. Drinking water by soaking the leaves of tossa jute increases urination, eliminates inflammation of the bladder, and increases the strength of the body. Compared with other vegetables, jute leaves are rich in energy, calcium, iron, carotene (vitamin A), and vitamin C. Therefore, the importance of using jute leaves as a vegetable and as a blood cleanser for various problems of the body as medicine is immense. Jute juice or soup can be used to treat fever, chronic cysts, colds, and tumours. Tossa jute (Corchorus olitorius L.) is one of the Tunisian plants, traditionally which have great potential on the medicinal purpose. Tossa jute leaves are used in domestic preparation for their nutritive values. They are also employed as a medicine thanks to their diuretic, antipyretic, analgesic, and antimicrobial activities, and their interesting content in antitumor [73] and phenolic antioxidative compounds (Table 9; Figure 19). Tossa jute is known as Egyptian spinach (Senaung betina) and its leaves are rich in potassium, calcium, phosphorus, iron, ascorbic acid, and carotene. There is good source of protein, folate, magnesium, vitamins, and dietary fibre. Jute plant acts as natural antioxidants that prevent and treat age-related diseases. It helps to treat diabetes, obesity, inflammation, pain, fever, ulcer, and heart disease. Leaves of this plant are an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids (>49 %) than any other vegetable. The leaves help to reduce arsenic and lead toxicity and cholesterol levels as well as infection. The seeds of the two species can be differentiated morphologically; thus, C. capsularis are relatively larger in size, irregular in shape, and coppery red when mature, whereas the seeds of C. olitorius are somewhat triangular and greyish-green or bluish-black in colour. There are bitter Constituents of the Seeds of Corchorus olitorius L., ‘Corchorgenin’-A New Cardiac-active Aglycone [75].
Sl. No.
Antioxidative compounds
Content (mg/100 g of fresh wt)
1
5-Caffeoylquinic acid
383.9 ± 20.4
2
3,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid
102.1 ± 8.3
3
Quercetin 3-galactoside
53.3 ± 5.0
4
Quercetin 3-glucoside
376.8 ± 2.8
5
Quercetin 3-(6-malonylglucoside)
126.2 ± 10.4
6
Quercetin 3-(6-malonylgalactoside)
16.7 ± 1.0
7
Ascorbic acid
257.8 ± 14.7
8
R-tocopherol
14.0 ± 0.7
Table 9.
Contents of antioxidative compounds in C. olitorius leaves [74].
Values are mean (SD of three replications).
Figure 19.
Chemical structures of phenolic antioxidants isolated from C. olitorius leaves [74].
Although kenaf is a fibre crop and used by the fibre industry, the whole immature kenaf plant, stalk (core and bark), and leaves could be considered as high-quality livestock feed. Crude protein in kenaf leaves, stalk crude, and whole plant ranged from 14 to 34%, 2 to 12%, and 6 to 23%, respectively. Kenaf leaves consist of higher quantity of nitrogen compared with stalk, during the growing season. Kenaf has reasonable digestibility with great percentage of digestible protein and hence can be ensilaged efficiently. Dried kenaf leaves are turned into different-sized pellets as high-protein feed source for chickens, rabbits, fish, and goats. Chopped kenaf meal is also used for sheep and Spanish goats as a supplement. Kenaf leaves are edible within 10 days of planting, are rich in protein, that is, about 34%, and are delicious. Kenaf leaf recipes are important edible items in Haiti and used extensively in salads, soups, boiled like spinach, or added to rice, and can also be used for baking. Kenaf seed oils displayed greater antioxidant activity compared with all traditional edible oils (P < 0.05) because of the considerable unique composition and oil content of kenaf seed oil. Thus, it becomes an unconventional, cost-effective, and tremendous source of solvent-free vegetable cooking oil with extraordinary antioxidant properties for human consumption [60].
14. Conclusion
Jute and allied fibre crops have a lot of significant uses along with the fibre production. These are natural plants having nutritional, cosmetic, pharmacological uses. The jute and allied fibre crops would be considered as good sources of essential amino acids, phytochemicals having antioxidants activity, antidiabetic activity, hepatoprotective activity, antimicrobial activity, antitumour/anticancer activity, cardioprotective activity, neuroprotective activity, analgestic activity, wound-healing activity, toxicity effects etc. The study of nutritional importance should be emphasized to discover their large-scale utilization. These plant extracts and vegetables would be useful for our health. This will enhance our immunity system against various diseases.
Acknowledgments
The author expressed his gratitude to all scientists and Head of the Breeding Division; researchers & staffs of various levels, and honourable Director General of Bangladesh Jute Research Institute who collaborated and supported him to prepare this chapter through providing the necessary documents and valuable information. He also thanked the Officers of the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) and the farmers of Bangladesh who are directly involved with the cultivation of jute and allied fibre crops intentionally for financial income, nutritional purposes as well as making the soil fertile and eco-friend environment. Mohammad Mia Mukul was very pleased to his wife (Tumpa Rahman, Kushtia Govt. College, Bangladesh) who inspired, supported, and technically helped him in writing this informative chapter on nutritional values of JAF crops. He also thanked his honourable parents, teachers, colleagues, friends who always inspired him in writing scientific papers, and chapters on new issues important for the nation.
Abbreviations
BJMC
Bangladesh Jute Mill Corporation
BJRI
Bangladesh Jute Research Institute
CRIJAF
Central Research Institute for jute and Allied Fibres
DAE
Department of Agricultural Extension
DASS
Days after seed sowing
ICDDR’B
International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh
ICJC
Indian Central Jute Committee
JARL
Jute Agricultural Research Laboratory
USDA
United States Department of Agriculture
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Written By
Mohammad Mia Mukul
Submitted: 14 December 2021Reviewed: 13 January 2022Published: 04 June 2022
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
