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This chapter has been written with the purpose of increasing knowledge regarding the characteristics of soils dedicated to dairy and beef cattle farming in Antioquia, Colombia. Statistical analysis included several generalised additive models, with additive, smoothing, and tensor effects, such as geographic position and chemical parameters. Findings showed most farms belonged to small producers, 86.5% of cattle farms being family owned. Rotational grazing is the predominant system in 93% of farms; 58% of dairy farms and 94% of beef cattle farms do not fertilise their pastures. Results show high variability of soil chemical parameters. There are high levels of iron and low levels of sodium. Macronutrients, such as phosphorus and potassium show high levels in some dairy subregions and medium to low levels in others. Calcium (Ca) and magnesium levels are low for all subregions, excluding “Urabá” and “Occidente.” Most subregions have organic matter (OM) levels below 13%. The distribution of some chemical parameters is related to geographical location, such as pH and Ca, which change according to latitude and longitude. Different correlations were found amongst OM, total nitrogen, Ca, and exchangeable aluminium. Due to the high variability of soil fertility parameters, management programmes should be implemented for each distinctive production system.
GAMMA Research Group, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Antioquia University, Medellin, Antioquia, Colombia
Mario Cerón-Muñoz
GAMMA Research Group, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Antioquia University, Medellin, Antioquia, Colombia
Luis Galeano-Vasco
GAMMA Research Group, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Antioquia University, Medellin, Antioquia, Colombia
*Address all correspondence to: marisol.medina@udea.edu.co
1. Introduction
Soils are the basis for sustainable production and the supply of nutrients to plants. The general aspects of soils and sustainability are as follows—soils are part of a fragile natural environment, so it is important to understand how they are formed and sustained, as well as how they relate to agriculture, forestry, ecology, conservation, and other areas of knowledge [1]. The variability of soil nutrients is affected to different degrees by soil formation factors. These factors, declared by Jenny are parent material, relief, climate, time, and potential biota [2]. Soil is considered an open and non-equilibrium system [2, 3]. The effect of humans on soil systems must be studied in the future to find new solutions to conserve the planet [2]. Furthermore, macronutrient stocks of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) show significant spatial and temporal variability in soil [4].
Sustainability in pasture soils—environmental sustainability tends to reduce the inputs required for animal production by making more efficient use of internal resources. In this case, the correct management of pasture productivity may contribute [5] because the rational application of fertilisers and amendments helps in reducing nutrient leaching, and also, it could limit greenhouse gas emissions of CO2, nitrogen, and others. In general terms, grassland soils can contribute to maintain the existence of carbon at least in the first cm of soil from the surface.
To contribute to sustainability, it is important to maintain grassland carrying capacities, use organic sources, and implement conservation practices—like to sow different kinds of trees or even to maintain the diversity of species, looking to contribute to conserve the soil is a key to any kind of system of production in agriculture. Sustainable soil management is key to achieving several SDGs (sustainable development goals) due to the dependence on plant production or different soil processes. Furthermore, agricultural research programmes should contribute to healthier soils [1].
Nutrient cycling in pastures: CH4 and N2O emissions need to be reduced from the livestock systems, and soil organic carbon (SOC) must be conserved [6]. Rational fertiliser programmes contribute to optimising grassland management systems to minimise environmental impacts and maximise pasture productivity.
Availability of nutrients in soils and fertilisation program—chemical elements for plant nutrition have high spatial variability, especially in agricultural soils [7]. It is essential to know the chemical properties of soils to be able to identify areas that require management practices.
Impact of cattle farming on soil fertility—international reports on the impact of cattle farming on soil nutrient conservation have shown that dairy farming extracts at least 2.5 times more nutrients, such as N, P, K, Ca, and S than beef farming [8]. Although cattle systems can provide some nutrients and contribute to maintaining soil fertility, which can reduce the use of amendments and fertilisers [9].
General description of soils in Antioquia—according to the general soil survey, soils in Antioquia are very variable in terms of their parent materials, relief and climate. There are soil orders with different degrees of paedogenetic evolution—soils with a deficiency in paedogenetic evolution such as Entisols, soils with a low degree of evolution specifically Inceptisols and several have mixed evolution including Andisols and Mollisols. The main factors limiting the use and management of soils in Antioquia are the slopes which range from slightly steep to very steep, erosion, extreme values of moisture content, acid reaction, high aluminium saturation, and low to very low fertility. Some alluvial valleys and piedmont landscape soils have moderate to high fertility [10].
The Department of Antioquia is located in the following coordinates—top right (8°52'25,748” N; 73°52'51,958” O), lower right (5°25'6,798” N; 73°52'51,958” O), top left (8°52'25,748” N; 77°7'40,239” O), lower left (5°25'6,798” N; 77°7'40,239” O).
Representative soil cartographic units were selected in areas dedicated to the cattle production system. The farms were sampled according to the access roads, and the consent of the producers to sample their farms, amongst other criteria. A total of 440 soil samples were collected from farms dedicated to milk and meat production in different subregions of the Department of Antioquia. Each sample was taken at a depth of 20 cm, making a zigzag path and avoiding taking subsamples at non-representative sites. A square-shaped hole was made and the subsample was taken from the central part of the walls where the soil on the edges was eliminated. About 10–15 subsamples were obtained and placed in a clean container, which was then mixed and homogenised and approximately a one-kilogram sample was taken. Subsequently, they were packed in boxes to prevent the entry of light and taken to the laboratory to perform chemical analysis. The analyses were carried out by wet chemistry using methods certified by the Colombian Corporation for Agricultural Research (AGROSAVIA) in Bogotá, Colombia.
2.2 Statistical model
Several generalised additive models were built. The models included various effects, such as longitude (from −76.82 to −74.62 W), latitude (from 5.71 to 8.76 N), altitude (from 0 to 2900 m above sea mean level), geoform (wavy, flat, and slope geoform) and also the combinations of the parameters soil chemicals. The analyses were performed with the MGCV library [11] of the statistical software R-project [12]. The Bayesian Information Criterion was used to select the best models.
3.1 Overview of dairy and beef cattle farms in Antioquia
Cattle farms are located in mountain landscapes and are mostly small producers (Figure 1). Approximately 70% of farms visited have an area of less than 30 hectares, indicating that most belong to small producers. They are distributed throughout the department. Many of the producers use some amendments and fertilisers in the pasture fertilisation programmes (Table 1).
Figure 1.
Typical dairy and beef farms in Antioquia. (a) Author: Manuela Ortega Monsalve. (b) Author: María Mercedes Murgueitio.
The size of the farms visited was between 2 and 20 ha for most of the dairy farms and between 2 and 100 ha for the beef cattle farms (Figure 2). In Antioquia, the predominant area of rural farms is less than 100 ha [13]. In Colombia, 83% of the Agricultural Production Units dedicated to beef cattle have an area of less than 20 ha, which indicates that the predominant area of beef cattle farms in Antioquia is larger than the average for the country [14].
Figure 2.
Size of dairy and beef cattle farms in the subregions evaluated.
According to the United Nations, the dairy sector can contribute to a selection of sustainable development goals, such as “No poverty in rural areas,” as most dairy farms are small and located in developing countries [15]. Added to this, other authors [16] indicate that milk is mainly produced in mixed crop-livestock systems by small farmers in low-income countries. The authors also consider that dairy farms increase pressure on natural resources as most production systems tend to increase the size of their livestock to meet the growing demand for dairy food.
Most of the cattle farms in the study area were owned by farmers (Figure 3). This is encouraging as it contributes to the permanence of farming families in the Colombian countryside. Official data reported eight years ago indicated that 72% of dairy farms were owned by producers in the Department of Antioquia [14]. Studies in other countries, such as Turkey, highlight the importance of the role of small families in dairy production; with farms averaging just 7.2 hectares and the contributions of all family members in activities related to animal production [17]. Women are involved in production, harvesting, processing, transport, and other important activities in agricultural production systems [18]. The participation of women in dairy farming systems assists towards their economic independence, which should be a blueprint for all women worldwide. It is worth noting that according to the SDGs 5 “Gender Equality,” there have been achievements, but many challenges remain [19].
Figure 3.
Type of ownership of dairy and beef farms.
Rotational grazing is the predominant system with 93% of the cattle farms visited (Figure 4). In this grazing system, animals start from an initial paddock and then go through other paddocks until they return to the first when it is ready to be grazed again [20, 21]. In a study of beef cattle systems in Antioquia, using Criollo cattle breeds, it was found that 96% of producers use rotational grazing systems, and 4% use silvopastoral systems [22]. Silvopastoral systems include trees, shrubs, pastures, animals, and other crops, provide a good forage supply for animals, contribute to biodiversity conservation, contribute to nutrient recycling and soil fertility conservation, and provide shade, amongst other benefits [23, 24]. This indicates that amendments and fertilisers are required in most cattle production systems. However, there has been an increase in the establishment of silvopastoral systems in the country in recent years; these systems could positively contribute to the reduction of agrochemical application, and thus to environmental sustainability.
Figure 4.
Grazing systems used in the dairy and beef farms visited.
The type, amount, and form of application of fertilisers can affect the sustainability of pasture production. Of the 488 dairy farms in this study, 58% of farms do not have fertilised pastures, whilst the other 41.6% have fertilised pasture present. Approximately 33.4% of the farms use chemical fertilisers, 5.7% use organic fertilisers, 2.5% use a mixture of chemical and organic fertilisers and 0.4% of the dairy cattle farmers did not answer the survey question. In contrast, of the 428 beef cattle farms, it was found that 94.2% do not fertilise their pastures, while the remaining 4.7% do fertilise their pastures. 2.1% of the producers use organic fertilisers, 2.1% of the farms use chemical fertilisers, and 0.5% use a mixture of chemical and organic fertilisers. In addition, 1.2% of beef cattle producers did not answer the survey question (Figure 5). The above described demonstrates the low technological level of fertilisation management in beef cattle production systems compared to dairy cattle production systems.
Figure 5.
Types of fertilisers used on dairy and beef cattle farms.
According to the SDGs, implementing agricultural sustainability can help reduce poverty [25]. Although it was found that most farmers do not apply fertilisers, it is important to conserve the soil as the basis of agricultural production. For this reason, nutrient levels in soils must be determined in order to help implement rational management programmes according to the needs of the pastures. In this way, it contributes to the sustainability of livestock production in the conditions of the Colombian tropics.
3.2 Variability of the chemical parameters of the soils
There is a high variability of the chemical parameters of the soils in the Department of Antioquia. We show partial information on the descriptive statistics for some chemical parameters found for each subregion (Table 2). The maximum and minimum values found for most of the parameters presented very extreme values, which may indicate that in some farms the producers use high applications of fertilisers and amendments or it could also be that the taking of some soil samples for chemical analysis performed on recently fertilised paddocks. The general fertility parameters of the soils analysed are in accordance with that described by other authors [10]. Moreover, the levels found for soil nutrients are compared with the levels established for Colombia according to the ICA (Colombian Agricultural Institute) [26].
Some physicochemical parameters of the soils in the subregions of Antioquia.
Parameters: MAMSL = m above mean sea level, Al = exchangeable aluminium, EC = electrical conductivity, SOM = soil organic matter, P = available phosphorus, S = available sulphur, Ca = available calcium, Mg = available magnesium, K = available potassium, Na = available sodium, CEC = cation exchange capacity, B = available boron, Fe = available iron, Cu = available copper, Mn = available manganese, Zn = available zinc, OC = organic carbon, TSN = total soil nitrogen.
Values in parentheses correspond to the median value.
NA = not available.
In general terms, the only nutrient with high levels in the soils studied is iron, the one with low levels in all soils is sodium. The electrical conductivity values (0.17–1.12 dS/m) and sodium levels (0.15–0.45 cmol(+)/kg) of the soils analysed indicate that they do not present salinity problems. In Colombia, soil sodium levels (Na < 1 cmol(+)/kg) are considered ideal values. Macronutrients, such as phosphorus, potassium, and sulphur, had high levels in some dairy areas (North and Valle de Aburrá subregions). These values were higher than 30 mg/kg, 0.4 cmol(+)/kg and 10 mg/kg for P, K, and S, respectively. In the other subregions, these nutrients had medium to low levels.
The Ca and Mg available bases are low for all subregions, except for the Urabá and “Occidente” subregions. However, the Ca:Mg ratio in these two subregions is low. This indicates that amendments containing calcium and magnesium need to be applied in all subregions, either to raise the levels of available bases or to improve the Ca:Mg ratio, which is recommended to be maintained at 3:1. The application of amendments would help to neutralise the exchangeable aluminium and as a consequence increase the pH, which tends to be acidic in most of the subregions of Antioquia.
Micronutrient levels are adequate for most of the soils analysed under the sampling conditions of this study. Cation exchange capacity (CEC < 10 cmol(+)/kg) is low in all subregions, except in the Urabá subregion (CEC = 15.83 cmol(+)/kg).
Although most areas have low to medium levels of organic matter (OM < 10%), the total soil nitrogen level is medium to high (TSN from 0.16 to 1%), which possibly indicates high mineralisation rates due to tropical conditions and in other cases could be due to excessive nitrogen application, mainly in dairy pastures. In the soils analysed, the loam textural class predominates, indicated by sand levels in the range of 36–52%, clay levels from 8 to 34%, and silt levels from 20 to 43%. The subregions of Urabá and Occidente present a clay loam textural class.
Previous reports on some dairy farms in the Oriente subregion were also characterised by acidic soils (low pH and exchangeable aluminium values of 1.2 cmol (+)/kg), similar Na values (0.02 cmol(+)/kg), and also low P levels (3 mg/kg). In contrast to this, there were low levels of available bases found for Ca, Mg, and K (0.09, 0.16 and 0.1 cmol(+)/kg respectively), while organic matter (OM > 22%) and boron (0.7 mg/kg) levels were high [27]. Another author [28] reported similar levels of P (9.4 mg/kg), K (0.29 cmol(+)/kg) and organic matter (OM = 5%) in pasture soils of the Occidente subregion. They also presented clay loam texture (34.7% sand, 34.5% clay, and 30.8% silt) similar to that found in this study. The other chemical parameters presented higher levels than those found on farms in the Occidente subregion, mainly pH 6.94 and available bases of 24.7 and 10.2 cmol(+)/kg for Ca and Mg, respectively [28]. In another study in the Norte subregion, similar levels of pH, Al, EC, and K and different values for organic matter and phosphorus were found [29].
Some models were selected based on the verification of the significance of each effect and the lowest Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC). For the variables, soil organic matter and total soil nitrogen a value of R2 > 0.85 was found, while the other variables showed a lower adjustment (Table 3).
Independent variable
Smooth variables model
R square adjust
Deviance explained (%)
Number of observations
Soil organic matter
Latitude by longitude, total soil nitrogen by calcium
0.86
87.5
236
Total soil nitrogen
Latitude by longitude, soil organic matter
0.88
88.8
438
pH
Latitude by longitude, latitude, calcium
0.76
77.0
326
Calcium
Latitude by longitude, soil organic matter by aluminium, magnesium, potassium
0.70
73.6
285
Phosphorus
Latitude by longitude, calcium, potassium
0.54
58.4
219
Potassium
Latitude by longitude, magnesium, soil organic matter
0.31
33.8
346
Sodium
Latitude by longitude, soil organic matter by aluminium
0.27
30.5
126
Table 3.
Parameters of the selected models for the analysis of some variables.
The distribution of some chemical parameters in the department is related to the geographical location. It was found that parameters, such as pH and calcium level, showed homogeneous variations according to latitude and longitude, while some parameters, such as organic matter and phosphorus level, were highly variable and did not show any distribution according to geographical location (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
The general behaviour of some chemical parameters of dairy and beef cattle soils in Antioquia, Colombia.
3.3 Relationships amongst some of the chemical parameters of the soil
The soil parameters organic matter, total nitrogen, and calcium were positively correlated. Calcium levels showed a negative correlation with exchangeable aluminium, which is common for acidic soils in the tropics (Figure 7). Similarly, organic matter and calcium parameters also showed positive relationships for dairy cattle soils in the Norte subregion of Antioquia [29].
Figure 7.
Relationship amongst the levels of organic matter, total nitrogen, calcium, and aluminium.
The altitude of the farms influences the pH values of the soil. Soils with acidic pH have low levels of calcium readily available (Figure 8). The low amount of available calcium is normal in tropical soils with naturally acidic conditions due to high rates of mineralisation and leaching of soil bases. In addition, it was found that medium to low levels of calcium and potassium are positively related to phosphorus levels (Figure 8). However, this relationship does not occur when phosphorus levels are high, due to the high applications of phosphorus fertilisers in some cattle farming areas, which also occurs in several crops in other areas of the country [30].
Figure 8.
Relationships of pH and phosphorus with other parameters.
3.4 Integrated management of pasture fertilisation
Fertiliser applications to pastures without prior measurement of soil nutrient levels can affect soil health, the quality of food produced, and environmental sustainability. In the department of Antioquia, fertilisers are used in 50% of the Agricultural Production Units [31]. Of the 185,000 tonnes of fertilisers consumed annually in Antioquia, 43% are compound fertilisers, 31% are simple fertilisers, and 25% are fertiliser mixtures [32]. Cattle systems use less fertiliser than reported for agricultural crops.
This study highlights the need to consider the fertility of soils and fertility programmes when we are looking for options to improve the efficient use of resources on smallholder farms. According to the results found, pasture fertilisation programmes in the analysed dairy and beef cattle subregions should be based on the application of calcium and magnesium amendments, the application of some macronutrients, and, in some areas, the application of some micronutrients, such as boron, is recommended. The low cation exchange capacity (CEC) in most subregions, except for the Urabá subregions, also highlights the importance of improving the levels of available bases, such as calcium, magnesium, and in some cases potassium, key elements for pasture nutrition.
We recommend the specific amendment and fertiliser programmes for each zone according to the soil analysis. It is important to make recommendations according to the botanical composition of the pastures, their biomass production, the type of grazing system, and the agronomic management implemented in each production system. To contribute to environmental sustainability, do not over-apply fertilisers, this will, therefore, conserve soil biota, contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gases, avoid contamination of water sources, and limit the loss of nutrients through leaching, contribute to animal health, amongst other beneficial effects. The measured application of nutrients and the implementation of appropriate agronomic practices contribute to sustainability in cattle production systems.
Most of the farms visited belong to small producers, with 86% of the farms being owned by the producers and 70% of the farms being smaller than 30 ha. In 93% of the cattle farms, the continuous grazing system is most predominant, with fertilisation programmes implemented in 42% of the dairy farms and only in 5% of beef farms. The above indicates the low technological level of fertilisation management in beef cattle production systems compared to dairy cattle production systems in the subregions visited in the department of Antioquia.
The results of the soil analyses show high variability of chemical parameters in the studied subregions of the department. Micronutrient levels are adequate for most of the soils under the sampling conditions. Cation exchange capacity is low in all subregions except Urabá. Macronutrients, such as phosphorus and potassium, showed high levels in some dairy subregions and medium or low levels in the other areas. Other nutrients showed variable levels, possibly due to geographical location, soil and climatic conditions, grazing systems, botanical composition of pastures, and agronomic management; amongst other factors related to cattle production systems.
The distribution of some chemical parameters in the department is related to geographical location, such as pH and calcium, which had homogeneous variations according to latitude and longitude. Positive correlations were found amongst the parameters—organic matter, total nitrogen, and calcium; with negative correlations for calcium levels with exchangeable aluminium.
Pasture fertilisation programmes in the analysed dairy and beef subregions should be based on the application of calcium and magnesium amendments, some macronutrients, and some micronutrients, such as boron in some specific areas. Therefore, specific recommendations should be made for each farm based on the results of the soil analysis and the agronomic management in each distinctive production system. Thus, under the conditions evaluated, the impact of pasture management should be implemented to contribute to more sustainable dairy and beef farming.
The authors are grateful to the “Sistema General de Regalías” of the Colombian Government for the financial support for the project entitled “Desarrollo y Establecimiento del Centro de Desarrollo Agrobiotecnológico de Innovación e Integración Territorial, El Carmen de Viboral, Antioquia, Occidente (CEDAIT),” Expert System subcomponent, code BPIN 2016000100060.
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Written By
Marisol Medina-Sierra, Mario Cerón-Muñoz and Luis Galeano-Vasco
Submitted: 01 March 2022Reviewed: 23 March 2022Published: 18 May 2022
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
