IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\n
Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\n
After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\n
Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\n
\n\t
Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
\n\t
Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
\n\t
Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
\n\t
The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
\n
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\n
Note: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"162",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Microsensors",title:"Microsensors",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is planned to publish with an objective to provide a state-of-art reference book in the area of microsensors for engineers, scientists, applied physicists and post-graduate students. Also the aim of the book is the continuous and timely dissemination of new and innovative research and developments in microsensors.\n\nThis reference book is a collection of 13 chapters characterized in 4 parts: magnetic sensors, chemical, optical microsensors and applications. \n\nThis book provides an overview of resonant magnetic field microsensors based on MEMS, optical microsensors, the main design and fabrication problems of miniature sensors of physical, chemical and biochemical microsensors, chemical microsensors with ordered nanostructures, surface-enhanced Raman scattering microsensors based on hybrid nanoparticles, etc. \n\nSeveral interesting applications area are also discusses in the book like MEMS gyroscopes for consumer and industrial applications, microsensors for non invasive imaging in experimental biology, a heat flux microsensor for direct measurements in plasma surface interactions and so on.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-170-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6010-6",doi:"10.5772/688",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"microsensors",numberOfPages:308,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3d48614c970df4eb00d2d1a4e1bb5cda",bookSignature:"Igor Minin",publishedDate:"June 9th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/162.jpg",numberOfDownloads:48973,numberOfWosCitations:55,numberOfCrossrefCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:52,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:135,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 7th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 4th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 9th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 10th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 9th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"3712",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Minin",slug:"oleg-minin",fullName:"Oleg Minin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3712/images/1774_n.jpg",biography:"Oleg V. Minin received a B.A. in Physics from the Novosibirsk State University, a PhD in Physics from Tomsk State University in 1987 and a Doctor of science from NSTU in 2002. Currently he is a full Professor in the Department of Information Protection at Novosibirsk State Technical University (NSTU), Russia. From 1982 to 2001 he was Chief Research Scientist at the Institute of Applied Physics, Novosibirsk, Russia. Dr. Minin’s research interests are in the areas of diffractive optics and antenna experiment (including explosive plasma antenna), millimeter wave and THz photonics and nanophotonics, information security, detection of hidden weapons as well as development of antiterrorism devices, experiment technologies, explosive physics. He is a member of SPIE, COST-284 and COST-ic0603 and he is the author of several books and book chapters in technical publications. 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1. Introduction
Scleractinian corals are complex key habitat-forming organisms that create biogenic reef structures from shallow to deep waters [1], and they are fundamental to the supporting of the biodiversity of the world’s oceans. They have evolved to thrive in conditions of optimal nutrient availability [2], seawater temperature, and oxygenation [3], and are in competition for space with other benthic taxa [4]. Mostly distributed along the tropics, corals can be found also in high-latitude subtropical areas and deep seas [5, 6, 7, 8], where they show adaptive capability to live in fluctuating environmental conditions [9]. Corals can develop several biological structures depending on their capacity to grow via vertical or horizontal extension (Figure 1). These biogenic habitats formed by coral reefs represent one of the worldwide hotspots of biodiversity in the ocean [11], hosting a great variety of organisms, such as fish, macroalgae, and microorganisms [12].
Figure 1.
Major scleractinian coral morphologies and different colony growth modes, based on branch, vertical, and horizontal extension. Modified from Pratchett et al. [10].
Coral reefs can provide ecosystem goods and services, such as the provision of food, touristic activities, and protection of coastline from flooding and tidal movements [12, 13]. However, in the era of Anthropocene, coral reefs are among the habitats on Earth that are suffering the most and are dramatically degrading, since a multitude of factors are plaguing these marine ecosystems. Abiotic factors such as abnormally elevated or reduced temperatures, ocean acidification, high ultraviolet radiations, and fluctuation in salinity are increasing the occurrence of coral bleaching events [14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Additionally, industrial pollution, coastal development, and excessive nutrient input, as well as biotic stressors such as predation outbreaks, epizootic diseases, and bioerosion are leading to further coral reef degradation around the world [19, 20, 21, 22]. For all these reasons, corals are sensitive to changes in environmental conditions and therefore are considered good bioindicators of the health status of the marine environment [23, 24].
Corals are considered meta-organisms because of the complex biological interactions between the animal host and endosymbionts. Indeed, the concept of corals as holobiont encompasses the symbiotic relationship between dinoflagellate endosymbionts (Symbiodiniaceae [25]) and the animal host tissue (coral polyps), as well as the associated microorganisms found in coral tissue, gastric cavity, and coral skeleton. All components contribute to coral growth through the combined uptake of inorganic nutrients and food particles, photosynthesis, and deposition of calcium carbonate. In particular, the symbiotic relationship of corals is a mutual relationship between the coral polyps and the dinoflagellate endosymbionts. To gain metabolic energy, scleractinian corals are able to shift from heterotrophy (catching particulate food) [26, 27] to autotrophy (through photosynthesis by endosymbionts) [28]. Depending on the species-specific trophic strategy [29, 30], corals exhibit the ability to collect food particles (e.g. zooplankton) as a heterotrophic source of energy. On the other hand, they can rely on the autotrophic system of endosymbionts as an alternative source of oxygen and carbohydrates for aerobic respiration [31]. Oxygen availability determines the balance between the aerobic and anaerobic metabolic pathways, and therefore has significant implications for the energy budgets of corals [32]. These processes, however, are not perfectly balanced. Some species rely more on heterotrophy as an external source of energy, but some more on the photosynthetic system, while others are mixotrophic, meaning that they can increase the ability to modulate energy availability depending on the environmental conditions [30]. In all cases, the energy produced during the metabolic processes, which is stored as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is used for maintaining the cellular physiology and supporting the intracellular uptake of dissolved inorganic carbon to form calcium carbonate, which is necessary for building the skeleton and sustaining the growth of corals [33]. Energy reserves include proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates [27, 34] can be used when there is a high energy demand, e.g. under thermal stress [35].
Corals also harbor a large variety of microorganisms on their surface, which contribute to biogeochemical cycles and the provision of micronutrients. For instance, bacteria, archaea, and viruses play fundamental roles in the remineralization of organic matter into micronutrients [36]. The nutrition of corals is linked to the uptake of macro- and micronutrients that support the metabolic processes and growth [26]. The roles of micronutrients, such as nitrogen and iron, in enhancing the capacity of symbiosis have also been highlighted, in particular for the endosymbionts to resist abnormal conditions of surrounding waters [34]. The microorganisms living on the coral surface and in the tissue are also related to the probiotic diversity necessary for the general health of corals [37]. In case of disruption of the symbiotic equilibrium during extreme events (e.g. heatwaves or nutrient discharge) and prolonged disturbances (e.g. climate change or pollution), the microbial community can change from the symbiotic to commensal mode, a change that could reduce the capacity of the coral host to maintain the metabolic equilibrium [38].
In this context, the coral holobiont is capable of gaining metabolic energy from multiple sources and therefore has the capacity to modulate its physiology depending on nutrient availability and environmental conditions. The continuous pressures from anthropogenic activities are leading to substantial changes in the capability of corals to develop resistance mechanisms, which in turn define the characterization of coral species living in their specific environments. For instance, ocean warming and acidification are causing drastic changes that affect the sustainability of coral reef ecosystems, including food availability and services provided for humans [15, 39].
In this chapter, the nutrition in corals including recent advancements in the definition of coral health, energy budget, and performance under current environmental challenges of climate changes is explained, and the implications on the survival of corals are highlighted with the aim to define future reef habitats as refugia.
2. Coral nutrition
Corals are unique organisms capable of taking in nutrients and gaining energy for their metabolic processes, acting like nearly every trophic level in the marine ecosystem. For instance, it has been demonstrated that corals can behave simultaneously as: i) primary producer, by fixing carbon and producing biomass through photosynthesis; ii) primary consumer, by utilizing the products of photosynthesis; and iii) secondary and tertiary consumers, by degrading the substrate or taking in dissolved organic matter through the ingestion of zooplankton and bacteria [40]. Therefore, corals can optimize the feeding modes to contribute to the total daily energy budget according to the surrounding conditions. However, these processes depend mostly on light and food availability, and this determines the trophic niches and the metabolic plasticity to environmental changes [27].
2.1 Trophic niches
The diet of corals, however, goes beyond a fixed trophic strategy based on the morphology of polyps and corallites [41]. There is a need to consider trophic plasticity as a critical factor of resistance to environmental stress [42]. The position of corals within the reef food web could be considered as the “movement or storage of energy or materials” [43] to identify the ecological functions of corals within such ecosystems. For example, energy allocation can shift from growth and reproduction under optimal environmental conditions to prioritizing long-term survival by depleting energy reserves under stress and shifting to anaerobic respiration of the coral hosts [44]. This concept has been applied to aquatic invertebrates, including corals, and the investigation of energy reserves based on the trophic strategy of corals is important to understand their metabolic responses to climate change, with significant implications on future coral refugia. Recently, scientific techniques have been advanced to define the trophic position of corals, and their plasticity within the reef niches. In this sense, the analysis of stable isotopes of carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) in coral samples allows the identification of either heterotrophic, autotrophic, or mixotrophic corals based on nutritional fluxes between coral hosts and endosymbionts [30, 45]. In this way, it is possible to recognize changes in trophic strategy (i.e. trophic plasticity) among different coral species living under the same environmental conditions [41]. This is particularly important in the ecological success of corals living in subtropical areas (Figure 2) [23] due to their capacity of using different nutrient sources to gain metabolic energy. Although the heterotrophic strategy has been suggested as a trophic key to enhancing bleaching resistance [45], the identification of the Symbiodiniaceae endosymbiont species and their role in acquiring essential nutrients needs to be considered as a thermotolerance feature of future corals [34].
Figure 2.
Trophic niches of the coral hosts (purple) and photosynthetic endosymbionts (green) analyzed with the stable isotope Bayesian analysis (SIBER). The overlapping of δ13C and δ15N indicates different trophic strategies between autotrophy, mixotrophy, and heterotrophy. From Conti-Jerpe et al. [30]. Reprinted with permission from AAAS.
2.2 Coral feeding
A substantial amount of energy in scleractinian corals is acquired through heterotrophy, which has become a key process to determine the resistance of corals to adverse conditions. Through heterotrophy, more energy for metabolic needs is available and therefore enhances the capability to resist stress events, which promotes bleaching resilience, raises protein levels, and in turn, supports the endosymbionts’ physiological status [46]. Trophic differences are recognizable in the feeding rates of different species of corals. Pocillopora spp., for instance, have a higher capability to capture Artemia nauplii than Acropora spp. with different morphology, polyp extension, and feeding capacity. This, in turn, increases the growth rates and photosynthetic efficiency of endosymbionts, enhances the resistance to bleaching, and improves the general health status of corals [46, 47]. The key role of feeding is therefore not only related to increasing energy of the hosts but also supporting the processes involved in the endosymbionts, including photosynthesis and remineralization of organic matter. The transfer of nutrients between the hosts and endosymbionts has been recognized as inclusive of the mutualistic symbiosis of corals [48, 49]. The active intake of external organic matter, indeed, drives the acquisition of nitrogen fundamental for supporting the symbiont diversity and chlorophyll concentrations, conditions that are favorable to boost tissue growth, productivity, and calcification rates [50, 51]. Heterotrophy, however, is dependent on light, turbidity, and temperature, and can contribute to up to 35% of the metabolic energy in healthy corals [49] through assimilation of essential organic compounds of energy reserves such as lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates that cannot be acquired by photosynthesis only [46]. These are important biomarkers of coral physiology under climatic stress.
2.3 Energy reserves
Lipids are a fundamental component for the metabolic needs of corals and account for at least 30% of the energy reserves in corals [52]. These molecules indeed constitute much of the coral body composition, cells, and subcellular organelles [53]. The composition of fatty acids is mostly species-specific, and they are used as a chemotaxonomic indicator of the metabolic status of corals, and to trace the nutritional input of corals [54]. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are one of the major lipids, and they are widely used as an indicator of dietary sources in heterotrophic corals for coping with metabolic stress [55]. It has been reported that when corals are exposed to high irradiance or heat stress, the intracellular PUFA content could decrease by up to 75% [56]. PUFAs are transported into coral compartments through feeding of zooplankton [57], and they reach the tissue after 1–2 weeks of incorporation [47]. The photosynthetic product supplied by endosymbionts is a second source of PUFAs [46]. Moreover, the PUFA content can vary depending on the depth, season, and niche distribution of zooplankton in reef ecosystems [58] and in temperate waters [59].
Proteins are another key component of the coral cellular physiology, since they are involved in enzymatic catalysis, cellular transportation, immunity, and growth. Heterotrophic corals are able to have higher growth rates with higher tissue protein and lipid contents, which in turn facilitate calcification, tissue synthesis, and the formation of more polyps. Interestingly, recent studies have shown that scleractinian corals are not uniform in their morphology, and different parts of corals (core, branches, etc.) in different regions are functionally specialized to meet the specific energetic demands from coral surfaces to branches [60]. The field of proteomics, i.e. identification and quantification of cellular proteins, has been recently advancing with the aim to identify key physiological processes for uncovering cellular responses under environmental changes [61]. The expression of cellular stress molecular biomarkers represents a useful diagnostic tool to analyze changes in the cellular structural integrity and in the functional cellular pathways [62]. For instance, changes in the expression of heat-shock proteins (Hsps) are emerging as ubiquitous and putative markers of stress in corals [63, 64, 65, 66, 67]. Hsps are molecular chaperones that have vital cellular homeostatic and cytoprotective functions and represent one of the most important defense mechanisms of all organisms [68]. Hsps are present in different cellular compartments where they participate in various housekeeping tasks, such as proper protein folding, translocation of proteins between cellular compartments, and assembly of protein complexes [69, 70]. Hsps are classified by molecular weight in major chaperone families (Hsp40, Hsp60, Hsp70, Hsp90, Hsp100, and the small Hsps), which include several members with specific intracellular localization and functions [71].
Carbohydrates form an important component of the coral energy reserves because they are involved in the production of energetic metabolites such as ATP [72]. The production of ATP is crucial in all functions of the coral physiology, including cellular productivity, functioning, growth, and reproduction [44]. Carbohydrates in corals are acquired by both active capturing of food through heterotrophy and by translocation from the photosynthetic process. Excess carbohydrates can be released externally as a mucoid matrix [73, 74] or stored in tissue as lipids [75]. The coral mucus, a mucoid polysaccharide external layer, plays multiple roles. It serves as an attracting layer to capture food, a food source for bacteria by trapping organic particles [76, 77], and it also creates a probiotic pool to protect the holobiont from external pathogens and viruses [37, 78, 79].
For these reasons, carbohydrates are also considered an indicator of the coral health status. Indeed, the levels of intracellular carbohydrates indicate the capacity of corals to modulate thermal stress, and therefore indicate the thermotolerance of corals [35]. These findings suggest that elevated levels of carbohydrates are related to higher adaptation to future climatic conditions and reduced bleaching susceptibility to extreme events [80, 81].
3. Responses of corals to environmental changes
The coral holobiont is capable of modulating its metabolic processes to dissipate or gain energy from different sources depending on nutrient availability. However, corals need to adopt special measures to face climatic change which is modifying the physicochemical and nutrient environment.
Anthropogenic activities are increasing levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, leading to global warming and more frequent heatwaves, which are apparently associated with reduced rates of growth, calcification, and other functional traits, such as skeletal density, volume, and size[82, 83, 84]. These changes may in turn induce coral bleaching and mass mortality, and in the longer term, decline in coral biodiversity [81]. About a quarter of the atmospheric CO2 dissolves in the ocean and reduces the seawater pH and carbonate saturation state, a process which is commonly known as ocean acidification. Ocean surface pH is expected to decrease by 0.3 units by 2100 under the RCP8.5 scenario [85, 86]. This, accompanied by cellular oxidative stress, can reduce the capacity of scleractinian corals and other calcifying organisms to build their calcium carbonate skeletons [87]. Besides global changes, human activities are responsible for multiple local pressures on marine ecosystems, specifically on corals. Coastal water quality declines in overpopulated areas, where high levels of dissolved inorganic nutrients cause eutrophication, sedimentation, and turbidity events [88, 89, 90]. The alteration of water conditions in the surface layer results in changes in the nutrient equilibrium (e.g. in the Redfield stoichiometry of C:N:P elements), which have brought about imbalanced physiological status of corals and their symbionts, and consequently increased frequency and severity of mass coral bleaching events [91, 92].
3.1 Responses to thermal stress
Among the plethora of stress factors, the rising of sea surface temperature due to global warming is certainly recognized as the prominent cause of coral bleaching inducing mass coral mortality [93, 94]. However, variable spatial and temporal patterns of mass bleaching have been extensively observed and can be generated by several factors that, by operating in combination, can determine different sensitivities of coral taxa to stressors [93, 95, 96]. For example, the extent of bleaching can depend on the duration and frequency of thermal anomalies and on-site-specific environmental conditions [97, 98, 99, 100]. Nevertheless, several studies have pointed out that intrinsic factors of corals, including their morphological and physiological characteristics, play a fundamental role in determining the different levels of physiological resistance to environmental stress. In this context, the identity and clade of the Symbiodiniaceae partner may affect the coral susceptibility to unfavorable conditions [101, 102].
Attempts to understand the differences in the response of corals to stress have also focused on coral physical properties, such as the coral morphology and tissue thickness, which influence growth, metabolic rates, and metabolite exchange across boundary layers and host CO2 supply strategies [103, 104]. Therefore, faster growing branching taxa with thinner tissues appear more susceptible to elevated temperature than slower growing massive taxa with thicker tissues due to the latter’s lower photoprotective capacity and ability to remove oxygen radicals generated during metabolic stress [103, 105].
3.2 Cellular stress responses
The cellular stress responses of corals are involved in driving spatial and temporal patterns of coral bleaching at both intra- and inter-specific levels. As sessile organisms, corals cannot easily migrate to new environmental optima. Therefore, in order to cope with perturbations, they rely mainly on the efficiency of their molecular and cellular mechanisms, which represent the first line of defense in reducing the harmful effects of unfavorable conditions [106, 107, 108]. The capacity of acquiring metabolic energy from autotrophy rather than heterotrophy, and vice versa, is the key to a successful symbiotic relationship in corals. However, decreased capacity to take in nutrient has been observed during thermal stress along with reduced levels of dissolved inorganic nutrients [109], impairing the assimilation of carbon and nitrogen from the hosts’ heterotrophy, and inducing starvation and parasitism [38]. Recent studies have identified positive correlation between the trophic status of host and endosymbionts in Stylophora proving that increased photosynthetic performance is related to the amount of inorganic nutrients assimilated and translocated between hosts and symbionts, and indicating that functional heterotrophy requires essential nutrients acquired through photosynthesis [42]. On the other hand, when facing an elevated nutrient concentration, corals might exhibit thermotolerance by maintaining symbionts as an autotrophic nutrient supply for the entire holobiont [42, 109] which suggests that nitrogen enrichment might enhance the resilience of corals to thermal stress [108]. In contrast, excessive nutrients in seawater have been linked to anthropogenic activities along the coastline, such as sewage plants, dredging, and agricultural activities. These conditions are typical of rapid urbanization and industrialization and are becoming critical for biogenic habitats near urban areas [7, 23, 110, 111]. Therefore, it is critical to identify and understand the trophic plasticity of corals in relation to nutrient availability and environmental stressors.
At the cellular level, Hsps are expressed under normal physiological conditions for maintenance of normal protein folding, signal transduction, and/or normal development [112]. Moreover, their expression is upregulated as a consequence of exposure to conditions that perturb cellular protein structures [69]. The expression of Hsps, and in particular that of Hsp70 and Hsp60, has been extensively analyzed in corals subjected to extreme temperatures and bleaching conditions [113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118]. However, Hsp modulation has also been observed in corals exposed to elevated light intensity [119, 120], salinity change [121, 122], and xenobiotics/nutrient enrichments [62, 118, 123]. Recently, it has been observed that Hsps may also play a role in the immune system of corals in response to pathogen invasion [65, 124]. In most of these studies, higher Hsp levels in corals generally infer higher protection toward environmental stressors and bleaching. For instance, corals with different susceptibilities to bleaching differ in their Hsp expression levels, with the bleaching-tolerant corals exhibiting higher expression levels than the bleaching-susceptible ones [96, 119]. A recent field study showed that healthy coral colonies of Goniopora lobata Milne Edwards [125] and Porites lobata Dana [126] of the central Red Sea had higher Hsp70 and Hsp60 levels than their respective naturally bleached counterparts [66].
In addition, high Hsp levels also contribute to corals adaptation to extreme conditions, such as those characterizing the shallow lagoons of the Maldivian reefs. There, despite the remarkable daily fluctuations in temperature and light and the regular exposure to higher temperature/light regimes than surrounding waters, which can exceed their tolerance threshold and would ordinarily induce stress and bleaching, Hsp modulation seems to play a protective role to prevent the rupture of symbiosis of corals [120]. Likewise, the Hsp levels have been found to be significantly higher in bleaching-tolerant corals originating from highly variable environments compared to corals that live in more stable environments. On Ofu Island (American Samoa), colonies of Acropora hyacinthus Dana [126] from adjacent tidal pools with high daily thermal fluctuations were found to be more thermotolerant and had constitutively higher levels of Hsp70 gene compared to bleaching-sensitive colonies from less thermally variable pools [127]. Similarly, corals from inshore reefs of Florida bay Porites astreoides, Lamarck [128] were subjected to temperature fluctuations and appeared to have higher levels of Hsp genes than the offshore corals [107]. During the bleaching event of 2016, the near-shore colonies in Mauritius did not bleach and had significantly higher relative levels of both Hsp70 and 60 genes and protein compared to bleached reef colonies, indicating that the modulation of these Hsps was involved in local acclimatization of corals to their environments [96]. However, it is important to consider that prior exposure to sublethal environment stress (preconditioning) that resulted in later tolerance to bleaching temperatures [129] and changes in the expression of specific genes, such as those of Hsps, have been associated with this thermal tolerance plasticity [130, 131]. For example, the preconditioning of Acropora millepora (Ehrenberg, 1834) colonies to heat stress accounted for increased gene expression and tolerance to bleaching compared to nonpreconditioned colonies [63]. Overall, the expression pattern of Hsps and the amplitude of their modulation may show species-specific characteristics, which may reflect different mechanisms and abilities of stress response.
3.3 Thermal performance
Metabolic performance, in particular the thermal performance curve (TPC) which defines the nonlinear relationship of organismal metabolism versus a given source of stress, is another parameter to consider when coral health is concerned. When the metabolic response of corals to low/high temperature is considered, the TPC can be applied to quantify the response of a coral species to thermal stress [132]. Moreover, through the TPC, it is possible to measure the maximum level of such performance, the optimal conditions of temperature, and the capacity of resistance to temperature variation (e.g. thermal breadth). The shape of such curve and its relative breadth will determine the metabolic plasticity of organisms (corals) to temperature variations. This can be used to define the physiological performance of corals and compare their specific responses in the subtropical area to indicate physiological adaptation of corals to living conditions and the challenges that subtropical corals face when optimizing their productivity in subtropical environments [133]. The heritability of coral traits must also be considered in the framework of coral adaptation to future conditions of climate change to better predict the evolution of corals in suboptimal conditions [134].
4. Future coral refugia
Coral reefs are often described as biogenic structures which provide nutriments and services to the marine ecosystems formed in oligotrophic areas (i.e. low dissolved nutrients and clear water) with stable environmental conditions. These features are usually optimal for bioconstruction, such as corals, to capture carbonates from seawater and sustain the metabolic energy needed for growth and reproduction [93, 135]. The capacity of corals to modulate their metabolism according to surrounding conditions is the key for their success. Scleractinian corals are thriving also in the so-called marginal reefs, where thermal and salinity anomalies, eutrophication, and elevated sedimentation rates are the causes of metabolic expenditures and, eventually, stress [136, 137, 138, 139].
Marginal reefs are located at high latitudes of subtropical areas and near megalopolis. Corals living in these areas receive multiple pressures from local stressors together with global changes, although the processes involved in these ecosystems operate at different spatial (i.e. geographical) and temporal (i.e. frequency of stress events) scales compared to tropical reefs. In this context, it is important to consider how natural evolution, affected by human pressures, has shaped the coral species living in these areas, and how the marginal reefs can act as refuge area for future conditions. Refugia are considered as those areas with the ability to provide protection from multiple stressors [140], and in this case coral refugia are identified as areas where long-term stressors are low that less likely to influence coral survival. For examples, considering the evolutionary timescales, the current marginal reefs are already serving as refugia due to their environmental conditions [9], although with reduced speciation, growth, and reproduction rates [141]. Moreover, most of the research works have focused on the short-term relief to environmental stressors, and there is a need to understand how the marginal reefs can act as refugia under the climatic scenarios of more frequent heatwave events and continuous development of coastal areas [142]. The understanding of the responses of corals in the adaptation and evolution in these areas is therefore a priority for devising conservation and restoration measures for the future coral reefs [3]. Recent studies have identified areas as future refugia from thermal stress. Corals living in environments with naturally high temperature fluctuation may have developed higher thermal tolerance to heat stress, and therefore these areas can be considered as refugia for future conditions. To represent refugia areas with a high potential to maintain the future coral biodiversity and ecosystem functions, the frequency of thermal stress events (e.g. 12-week sum of 1°C higher than the maximum monthly mean) should be less than one every 10 years [143]. Future warming conditions and more heatwaves might result in too frequent thermal stress events and leave no room for those corals and other marine organisms that live in thermal refugia to adapt. The biological responses to the chronic development of ocean warming will be critical to determine the effectiveness of high-latitude reefs as the thermal refugia [143].
5. Conclusion
Coral reefs have very high biodiversity values and provide important ecosystem services, with the capacity to resist anthropogenic stress by modulating their energetic budgets as described in this chapter. Current major threats to them are caused by increasing seawater temperature (ocean warming) and reduced pH level (ocean acidification), which cause reduction in survival, calcification, growth, and photosynthesis in several marine taxa [138, 144] with the levels of impacts depending on morphology and the feeding capacity of corals [45]. There are global consequences of this reduced capacity of reef ecosystems to provide crucial services, such as reduced fishing capacity and unsustainable management of marine reserves [145, 146]. A deep understanding of the multiple interactions between stressors and mitigators will be crucial to define the trophic plasticity and reef responses under the future environmental changes.
Acknowledgements
This study was partially funded by the Research Institute for Future Food, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"energy, metabolism, adaptation, resistance, climate change",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82404.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82404.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82404",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82404",totalDownloads:2,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 23rd 2022",dateReviewed:"March 22nd 2022",datePrePublished:"June 26th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 26th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Scleractinian corals obtain metabolic energy from their endosymbiotic autotrophic microalgae, and from remineralization of organic matter by bacteria and viruses, along with the heterotrophic food sources. The mutualistic symbiosis is generally stable but can be disrupted when environmental conditions surrounding the corals, such as increasing seawater temperature, become unfavorable to sustain each component of the holobiont. In this connection, the effects of global stressors such as climate change, and local stressors such as pollution, and their combination, are posing serious threats to the metabolic resistance of corals. However, some more resilient coral species have developed specific mechanisms to cope with fluctuating environmental conditions according to the trophic strategy (autotrophy, heterotrophy, or mixotrophy), and by modulating their energy expenditure. In this chapter, the role of nutrition in the coral symbiosis as the energetic budget for metabolic performance will be discussed, with a focus on the role of acquisition of nutrients through feeding, regulation of energy reserves (lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates), and adaptation capability in the natural environment, including the expression of heat-shock proteins (Hsps). Future environmental conditions under a combination of global changes and local impacts will also be discussed, with the aim of identifying the trophic niches of corals and geographical areas as possible refugia.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82404",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82404",signatures:"Walter Dellisanti, Davide Seveso and James Kar-Hei Fang",book:{id:"11342",type:"book",title:"Corals - Habitat Formers From the Shallow to the Deep",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Corals - Habitat Formers From the Shallow to the Deep",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Giovanni Chimienti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11342.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-808-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-807-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-809-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"308269",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Giovanni",middleName:null,surname:"Chimienti",slug:"giovanni-chimienti",fullName:"Giovanni Chimienti"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Coral nutrition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Trophic niches",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Coral feeding",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Energy reserves",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Responses of corals to environmental changes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Responses to thermal stress",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Cellular stress responses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 Thermal performance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Future coral refugia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgements",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Buhl-Mortensen L, Vanreusel A, Gooday AJ, et al. Biological structures as a source of habitat heterogeneity and biodiversity on the deep ocean margins. Marine Ecology. 2010;31(1):21-50. 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American Zoologist. 1999;39(1):146-159. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/39/1/146/124572 [Accessed: 06-07-2020]'},{id:"B137",body:'Perry CT, Larcombe P. Marginal and non-reef-building coral environments. Coral Reefs. 2003;22:427-432. DOI: 10.1007/s00338-003-0330-5'},{id:"B138",body:'Dellisanti W, Tsang RHLRHL, Ang P, Wu J, Wells MLML, Chan LLLL. Metabolic performance and thermal and salinity tolerance of the coral Platygyra carnosa in Hong Kong waters. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2020;153:111005. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X20301235?dgcid=author [Accessed: 02-03-2020]'},{id:"B139",body:'Fisher R, Bessell-Browne P, Jones R. Synergistic and antagonistic impacts of suspended sediments and thermal stress on corals. Nature Communications. 2019;10(1):1-9. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-10288-9'},{id:"B140",body:'Kavousi J, Keppel G. Clarifying the concept of climate change refugia for coral reefs. ICES Journal of Marine Science. 2018;75(1):43-49. DOI: 10.1093/ICESJMS/FSX124'},{id:"B141",body:'Duprey NN, McIlroy SE, Ng TPT, et al. Facing a wicked problem with optimism: Issues and priorities for coral conservation in Hong Kong. Biodiversity and Conservation. 2017;26(11):2521-2545. DOI: 10.1007/s10531-017-1383-z'},{id:"B142",body:'de Soares MO. Marginal reef paradox: A possible refuge from environmental changes? Ocean and Coastal Management. 2020;185:105063. DOI: 10.1016/J.OCECOAMAN.2019.105063'},{id:"B143",body:'Dixon AM, Forster PM, Heron SF, Stoner AMK, Beger M. Future loss of local-scale thermal refugia in coral reef ecosystems. PLOS Climate. 2022;1(2):e0000004. DOI: 10.1371/JOURNAL.PCLM.0000004'},{id:"B144",body:'Kroeker KJ, Kordas RL, Crim RN, Singh GG. Meta-analysis reveals negative yet variable effects of ocean acidification on marine organisms. Ecology Letters. 2010;13(11):1419-1434. DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01518.x'},{id:"B145",body:'Darling ES, D’agata S. Coral reefs: Fishing for sustainability. Current Biology. 2017;27(2):R65-R68. DOI: 10.1016/J.CUB.2016.12.005'},{id:"B146",body:'McClanahan TR. Marine reserve more sustainable than gear restriction in maintaining long-term coral reef fisheries yields. Marine Policy. 2021;128:104478. DOI: 10.1016/J.MARPOL.2021.104478'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Walter Dellisanti",address:null,affiliation:'
Research Institute for Future Food, and Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China
Research Institute for Future Food, and Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China
State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, China
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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This introductory chapter explains how a new tool can be added to this toolkit: robots. The use of robotic assets in search and rescue operations is explained and an overview is given of the worldwide efforts to incorporate robotic tools in search and rescue operations. Furthermore, the European Union ICARUS project on this subject is introduced. The ICARUS project proposes to equip first responders with a comprehensive and integrated set of unmanned search and rescue tools, to increase the situational awareness of human crisis managers, such that more work can be done in a shorter amount of time. The ICARUS tools consist of assistive unmanned air, ground, and sea vehicles, equipped with victim-detection sensors. The unmanned vehicles collaborate as a coordinated team, communicating via ad hoc cognitive radio networking. To ensure optimal human-robot collaboration, these tools are seamlessly integrated into the command and control equipment of the human crisis managers and a set of training and support tools is provided to them to learn to use the ICARUS system.",book:{id:"6181",slug:"search-and-rescue-robotics-from-theory-to-practice",title:"Search and Rescue Robotics",fullTitle:"Search and Rescue Robotics - From Theory to Practice"},signatures:"Geert De Cubber, Daniela Doroftei, Konrad Rudin, Karsten Berns,\nAnibal Matos, Daniel Serrano, Jose Sanchez, Shashank Govindaraj,\nJanusz Bedkowski, Rui Roda, Eduardo Silva and Stephane Ourevitch",authors:[{id:"206420",title:"Dr.",name:"Geert",middleName:null,surname:"De Cubber",slug:"geert-de-cubber",fullName:"Geert De Cubber"}]},{id:"5974",doi:"10.5772/6475",title:"Autonomous Formation Flight: Design and Experiments",slug:"autonomous_formation_flight__design_and_experiments",totalDownloads:4490,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:null,book:{id:"3696",slug:"aerial_vehicles",title:"Aerial Vehicles",fullTitle:"Aerial Vehicles"},signatures:"Yu Gu, Giampiero Campa, Brad Seanor, Srikanth Gururajan and Marcello R. Napolitano",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56737",title:"UAV for Landmine Detection Using SDR-Based GPR Technology",slug:"uav-for-landmine-detection-using-sdr-based-gpr-technology",totalDownloads:3388,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"This chapter presents an approach for explosive-landmine detection on-board an autonomous aerial drone. The chapter describes the design, implementation and integration of a ground penetrating radar (GPR) using a software defined radio (SDR) platform into the aerial drone. The chapter?s goal is first to tackle in detail the development of a custom-designed lightweight GPR by approaching interplay between hardware and software radio on an SDR platform. The SDR-based GPR system results on a much lighter sensing device compared against the conventional GPR systems found in the literature and with the capability of re-configuration in real-time for different landmines and terrains, with the capability of detecting landmines under terrains with different dielectric characteristics. Secondly, the chapter introduce the integration of the SDR-based GPR into an autonomous drone by describing the mechanical integration, communication system, the graphical user interface (GUI) together with the landmine detection and geo-mapping. This chapter approach completely the hardware and software implementation topics of the on-board GPR system given first a comprehensive background of the software-defined radar technology and second presenting the main features of the Tx and Rx modules. Additional details are presented related with the mechanical and functional integration of the GPR into the UAV system.",book:{id:"5905",slug:"robots-operating-in-hazardous-environments",title:"Robots Operating in Hazardous Environments",fullTitle:"Robots Operating in Hazardous Environments"},signatures:"Manuel Ricardo Pérez Cerquera, Julian David Colorado Montaño\nand Iván Mondragón",authors:[{id:"177422",title:"Dr.",name:"Julian",middleName:null,surname:"Colorado",slug:"julian-colorado",fullName:"Julian Colorado"},{id:"197884",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Mondragon",slug:"ivan-mondragon",fullName:"Ivan Mondragon"},{id:"199958",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perez",slug:"manuel-perez",fullName:"Manuel Perez"}]},{id:"67705",title:"Advanced UAVs Nonlinear Control Systems and Applications",slug:"advanced-uavs-nonlinear-control-systems-and-applications",totalDownloads:1943,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Recent development of different control systems for UAVs has caught the attention of academic and industry, due to the wide range of their applications such as in surveillance, delivery, work assistant, and photography. In addition, arms, grippers, or tethers could be installed to UAVs so that they can assist in constructing, transporting, and carrying payloads. In this book chapter, the control laws of the attitude and position of a quadcopter UAV have been derived basically utilizing three methods including backstepping, sliding mode control, and feedback linearization incorporated with LQI optimal controller. The main contribution of this book chapter would be concluded in the strategy of deriving the control laws of the translational positions of a quadcopter UAV. The control laws for trajectory tracking using the proposed strategies have been validated by simulation using MATLAB®/Simulink and experimental results obtained from a quadcopter test bench. Simulation results show a comparison between the performances of each of the proposed techniques depending on the nonlinear model of the quadcopter system under investigation; the trajectory tracking has been achieved properly for different types of trajectories, i.e., spiral trajectory, in the presence of unknown disturbances. Moreover, the practical results coincided with the results of the simulation results.",book:{id:"7792",slug:"unmanned-robotic-systems-and-applications",title:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications",fullTitle:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications"},signatures:"Abdulkader Joukhadar, Mohammad Alchehabi and Adnan Jejeh",authors:null},{id:"60953",title:"Small to Medium UAVs for Civilian Applications in Indonesia",slug:"small-to-medium-uavs-for-civilian-applications-in-indonesia",totalDownloads:1328,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Indonesian government needs a well-built, easy to operate unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) to perform various civilian missions as UAS are a well-known platform for dirty, dull, and dangerous missions. Hence, the Indonesian government has an organization that performs research and development of UAS, named as Aeronautic Technology Center. This organization is placed underneath Indonesian National Institute of Aeronautics and Space. The UAS developments in this institute are primarily driven by civilian uses; therefore, the UAS size, sensor types, and mission payload are optimized for civilian missions. In order to produce the decent to the best quality of the aerial image, which is the essential product for various civilian missions, the UAS regularly flies under the cloud. For this reason, the Aeronautic Technology Center is only developing the LASE (low altitude, short-endurance) and the LALE (low altitude, long endurance) UAS type as of now. The UAS development was begun with LSU-01, followed by LSU-02, LSU-03, and LSU-05. The LSU-01, LSU-02, and LSU-03 are in the operational phase, while the LSU-05 is in the experimental Phase. In this chapter, the specification of the platforms and the sensor capabilities that are relevant with the demands of users in the civilian sector are described.",book:{id:"6465",slug:"drones-applications",title:"Drones",fullTitle:"Drones - Applications"},signatures:"Fuad Surastyo Pranoto, Ari Sugeng Budiyanta and Gunawan Setyo\nPrabowo",authors:[{id:"223333",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Fuad",middleName:"Surastyo",surname:"Pranoto",slug:"fuad-pranoto",fullName:"Fuad Pranoto"},{id:"223356",title:"MSc.",name:"Ari Sugeng",middleName:null,surname:"Budiyanta",slug:"ari-sugeng-budiyanta",fullName:"Ari Sugeng Budiyanta"},{id:"223357",title:"MSc.",name:"Gunawan Setyo",middleName:null,surname:"Prabowo",slug:"gunawan-setyo-prabowo",fullName:"Gunawan Setyo Prabowo"}]},{id:"67003",title:"Vision-Based Autonomous Control Schemes for Quadrotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle",slug:"vision-based-autonomous-control-schemes-for-quadrotor-unmanned-aerial-vehicle",totalDownloads:960,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter deals with the development of vision-based sliding mode control strategies for a quadrotor system that would enable it to perform autonomous tasks such as take-off, landing and visual inspection of structures. The aim of this work is to provide a basic understanding of the quadrotor dynamical model, key concepts in image processing and a detailed description of the sliding mode control, a widely used robust non-linear control scheme. Extensive MATLAB simulations are presented to enhance the understanding of the controller on the quadrotor system subjected to bounded disturbances and uncertainties. The vision algorithms developed in this chapter would provide the necessary reference trajectory to the controller enabling it to exercise control over the system. This work also describes, in brief, the implementation of the developed control and vision algorithms on the DJI Matrice 100 to present real-time experimental data to the readers of this chapter.",book:{id:"7792",slug:"unmanned-robotic-systems-and-applications",title:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications",fullTitle:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications"},signatures:"Archit Krishna Kamath, Vibhu Kumar Tripathi and Laxmidhar Behera",authors:null},{id:"59130",title:"The Use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles by Urban Search and Rescue Groups",slug:"the-use-of-unmanned-aerial-vehicles-by-urban-search-and-rescue-groups",totalDownloads:1270,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"In the case of natural or man-made disaster, the top priority of urban search and rescue (USAR) groups is to localise the victim as quickly as possible. Even minutes might play a crucial role in the victim’s survival. A number of standard operating procedures may be applied to achieve best performance. Rescue dogs are trained to search for alive victims; special inspection cameras are used, before heavy equipment is being implemented. To improve the effectiveness of USAR group operations, innovative technologies might be implemented. The most recent solution is currently designed in MOBNET project, founded by EU under the Horizon 2020 programme. The scope of the project is to combine both cellular technology and early Galileo services to localise the smartphones of potential victims. Integration tests give some promising outcomes. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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