Abstract
Several plants in the genus Pistacia are used in the treatment of various pathogenic and non-pathogenic disorders. Especially important are the major species belonging to this genus such as Pistacia lentiscus, Pistacia atlantica, Pistacia vera, Pistacia terebinthus, and Pistacia khinjuk, among others; these have been reported for their potential benefits both in medical and commercial purposes. In addition, members of this genus exhibit numerous ethnomedicinal uses, such as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, antihypertension, antihyperlipidemic, antiviral, and antiasthma. In light of these potential uses, the present chapter aimed to collect and summarize the literature about all of this medicinal information. Accordingly, this chapter focuses on the pharmacological uses and benefits of the genus Pistacia, especially those related to health issues.
Keywords
- Pistacia; Pistacia lentiscus
- Pistacia atlantica
- Pistacia vera
- Pistacia terebinthus
- Pistacia khinjuk
- pharmacological activities
1. Introduction
Antioxidants are the strongest protective agents against free radicals. In this respect, members of genus
2. Biological activity
2.1 Antioxidant effect
Free radicals are responsible for ample of disorder in human medicines. Blockage, neutralization or complexation of these noxious radicals can prevent or mitigate numerous health issues. In this respect, synthetic antioxidants might be responsible for several side effects; therefore, natural antioxidants are preferred. Antioxidants are the best preventive agents against free radicals responsible for various diseases. Within this context, different members of the genus
2.2 Anti-microbial effect
The list of antibiotics is supplementing day by day due to antimicrobial resistance issues. These antibiotics are helpful and have extended spectrum but are responsible for various adverse effects. These adverse effects minimize the patient compliance, and, therefore, the search for new, effective and affordable antibiotic is a big challenge to phytochemical researchers. In this respect, natural antibiotics could have multiple uses in addition to the antibiotic effect; therefore, the use of natural antibiotic can minimize the polypharmacy. Within this context, research findings indicated that the crude leaf extract of
Similarly, the hydro extract of
2.3 Antiviral effect
The antiviral effect of natural products cannot be ignored. The non-polar extract of
2.4 Antiemetic effect
Emesis is one of the common side effects of numerous drugs. Emesis is also a common problem of other associated diseases. Natural products used for this purpose are well developed traditionally. The copper sulfate and ipecac-induced emesis has been blocked by the
2.5 Anticancer effect
The crude extract of
2.6 Cytotoxic effect
The crude extract and fractions of
2.7 Antiparasitic effect
The essential oil (EO) from the leaves and fruits of
2.8 Antidiarrheal effect
The crude methanolic extract of
2.9 Antispasmodic effect
The crude methanolic extract of
2.10 Bronchodilator effect
The induced contraction of tracheal section was completely relaxed with the application of methanolic extract of
2.11 Analgesic effect
2.12 Anti-osteoarthritis effect
Osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the chronic health problems around the globe. The patient of OA commonly uses NSAID as self-medication, especially in developing countries. To develop or discover new effective and safe medication for OA, plants’ screening is essential. The oleoresin from
3. Anti-inflammatory activity
The faction of the leaves of
3.1 Anti-gout effect
The leaves of
3.2 Anti- epileptic effect
Epilepsy is one of the most common, serious neurological conditions, affecting more than 50 million people worldwide. The hydroalcoholic extract of
4. Sedative and hypnotic activity
Insomnia is a worldwide health issue with different etiology. This condition is treated as self-medication through benzodiazepines, which have a potential side effect of addiction. Once the patient gets addicted, then these medicines are used for life. The natural plant’s based tranquilizers might be free of such addiction due to the accumulation of agonist and antagonistic chemical constituents. The hydroalcoholic extract of
4.1 Muscle relaxation
The hydroalcoholic extract of
4.2 Effect on memory
The essential oil of
4.3 Anti-fatigue effect
The hydro-alcoholic extract of
4.4 Anxiolytic effect
A significant population of the world is affected by anxiety and depression. The chronic use of anxiolytics is responsible for the physical dependence and withdrawal syndrome. To minimize or avoid such harmful effects, the natural plants based treatment might be helpful. The fruits extract of
5. Wound healing
The treatment of wounds is directly related to the use of antibiotics. The systemic use of antibiotics is associated with various side effects in addition to resistance. The topical use is far better than systematic use to avoid side effects. The natural products based topical application have more positive aspects as compared to the available synthetic chemical molecules. The beauty of plant-based topical wound healing dosage form is that these remedies accumulated various synergetic chemicals in addition to phytosterols. The development of the natural product-based topical dosage might provide analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antibiotic effects. The wound-healing effect of these valuable plants is also outstanding. The fruits oil of
5.1 Diabetic wound healing effect
Healing of the diabetic wound is a big problem around the globe. There is no specific treatment for a diabetic foot or wound. Therefore, medicinal plants are the best option to screen for the said action. The
5.2 Anti-second degree burn
The curing of second-degree burns is also not so much easier by standard antibiotic treatment. Therefore, the search for a new, effective and safe anti-burn therapeutic agent is essential. The topical application of
5.3 Anti-colitis effect
The oil of
5.4 Anti-peptic ulcer effect
5.5 Neuroprotective effect
The
5.6 Hypoglycemic effect
The antidiabetic effect of
5.7 Effect on GLUT
This effect is also directly linked with the anti-diabetic effect. The body has different types of glucose transporters (GLUT). These GLUT are responsible for the influx of glucose molecules and keeping glucose concentration in the blood flow. Among these transporters, the GLUT-II is bi-directional, and the rest are unidirectional. The extract of
5.8 Lipid lowering effect
The genus looks quite interesting with a particular aspect of diabetic treatment. Because the lipid-lowering activity is highly adjuvant to diabetic patients, only two genus-species have been tested on the lipid-lowering effect, and it is highly recommended to test the rest of the spp. For this effect,
5.9 Anti-obesity effect
The bioactive compounds mainly protocatechuic acid (452 μg/g dw) and quinic acid (960 μg/g dry weight dw) derived from
5.10 Antihypertensive effect
The genus is very limitedly explored for the antihypertensive (HTN) effect. The leaf extract of
5.11 Acetyl cholinesterase
5.12 Nephroprotective effect
Nephrotoxicity is related to chronic consumption of NSAID, DM, and even with HTN. The plants are analgesic, anti-inflammatory and nephroprotective. This is the beauty of natural products that they have multiple indications at a time. Ehsani et al. [96] established the protective effects of
5.13 Hepatoprotective effect
A significant hepatoprotective effect was observed in carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatitis by the hydroalcoholic extract of
5.14 Anti-melanogenic effect
The methanol extract derived from seeds of
5.15 Anti-nipple fissure effect
Painful nipple fissure is a severe concern for breastfeeding mothers. In breastfeeding mothers, nipple fissures are typically induced by improper positioning when breastfeeding or complications with latching or suction. They may also be triggered by breast engorgement. In athletes, nipple fissures are started by nipple chaffing to assess the effectiveness of saqez (
5.16 Anti-oral mucositis effect
Oral mucositis refers to the ulcerative and lesions of the oral mucosa found in people having cancer when treated with chemotherapy and radiation therapy of areas, including the oral cavity. Oral mucositis lesions also are extremely painful and impair diet and oral health and raise the severity of the local and systemic infection. An experimental analysis conducted by Tanideh et al. [100] verified that the essential oil of
5.17 Anthelmintic effect
Different extract and essential oil of
5.18 Toxicological effect
In an acute toxicity study, the methanolic extract of
6. Conclusions and future perspectives
Medicinal plants are potential source of various chemical constitutes which are responsible for the cure of different diseases. Scientific work of these plants is based on the ethnopharmacological use, largely based on trial and error, which may cause harm to humans. In addition, there is a false public perception that natural remedies are free of side or toxic effects. Although this claim is correct to some extent due to the presence of agonist and antagonist molecules in the same plant or extract, however, use of such chemical constitutes without scientific knowledge could lead to serious health problems. For this reason, researchers have tested these alternative medicines for various disorders. Within this context, the genus
The genus
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