Taxonomical classification for the genus Tagetes from the Integrated System of Information (SIIT, 2012).
Abstract
Mexico is considered one of the twelve megadiverse countries, and they together harbor 60–70% of the biodiversity from the planet. Mexico with Brazil, Colombia, and Indonesia occupied the principal positions. In Mexico, there are almost 50,000 plant species recognized now. Several of these plants are used since the pre-Hispanic age in religious ceremonies and medicinal treatments, but their potential in agroecology has not been exploited. There is not much information related to these alternative crops and their possible uses in agriculture. In this chapter, we will describe the main characteristics of the plant and its possible uses in agroecology.
Keywords
- ancient plants
- biocides
- conservation
- Heliopsis
- Tagetes
1. Introduction
Biodiversity determines the interaction between organisms, their environment, and the evolution through the time [1]. It has been estimated that the number of species in the world is between 5 and 30 million [2], although it is difficult to establish these numbers with precision.
Because its large territory and microclimates, Mexico harbors a high number of plant species and genera, becoming one of the countries with the highest diversity in plants, reptiles, and mammals [3]. Mexico is one of the megadiverse countries and is estimated to harbor 10% of the planet flora [3]. It was calculated that Mexico has approximately 24,000 plant species, 535 mammal species, 804 reptile species, 361 amphibians, and 1107 birds, in accordance with Mexico’s information at the Biological Diversity Agreement.
Several species are Mexicans exclusively; 50 to 60% of the known plant species are in the Mexican territory: 21 pine species, 146 agaves, and 175 cacti. In this chapter, we present some indigenous Mexican plant species and their agroecological uses that could represent interest for people.
2. Methodology
Several sources were consulted in order to obtain the information for this document that included databases, bibliographical sources, interviews with specialists and countrymen, and available information in the official catalogs of the plants.
3. Results
3.1 Tagetes genera
3.1.1 Botanical description
Asteraceae family is distributed mainly at the American continent, and 10% of the plant species is located in Mexico [4, 5]. The genus
Kingdom | |
Subkingdom | |
Infrakingdom | |
Division | |
Subdivision | |
Infradivision | |
Class | |
Superorder | |
Order | |
Family | |
Tribe | |
Genus |
The
3.1.2 Uses of the genus Tagetes
The
There are several reports related to the biocide effect of some species of
The biological and chemical knowledge of
The main characteristic of
3.1.3 Historical context and importance of the genus Tagetes
The plants of the genus
The indigenous people also used
The carotenoids of Cempoalxóchitl and other species of
Because the use of pesticides in the crops culture, there are some problems in those and their products: high cost, plague resistance, and pollution. Now some strategies to avoid these problems are being looked for.
3.1.4 Tagetes production in Mexico
In Mexico there are 859 ha cultivated with
The production system is through transplant. The plantlets are developed in seedlings, and they are transplanted to the field when they are 10 cm high (20 to 45 days). In the field, the plantlets continue their development until flowering until the end of the cycle (110 days). The flower yields are variable in the culture; they are from 12 to 30 tons of flower/ha, in a maximal of seven cuts [6].
3.1.5 Taxonomical classification and geographical distribution of the Tagetes
The genus
Since 2003, in Mexico, a project was initiated for the compilation and analysis of the available information of the species of the genus
3.2 Cactaceae family
3.2.1 Geographical distribution
The most notable plants in the Mexican arid landscapes, including the
The distribution in Mexico includes several environments, such as Zapotitlán de las Salinas in Tehuacan, at Puebla; the Tomellin Canyon, the Sierra Mixteca in Oaxaca; the ravines in Metztitlan, Hidalgo; the Rio Balsas Basin; the Infiernillo ravines in Querétaro; the Potosino-Zacatecano plateau; and the Baja California Peninsula [15].
The Cactaceae plants are distributed all around the country, and they are mainly concentrated at the arid and semiarid lands of San Luis Potosí, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, Querétaro, Hidalgo, and Chihuahua [17]. The Querétaro and San Luis Potosí are the center of distribution of a high number of species, because their geographical and climate isolation from the rest of the country have originated several members of this plant family. The phytogeographical and biological importance of this area is due to the species that grow, not present in any other regions of the planet [18].
3.2.2 Botanical description
The Cactaceae are perennial plants, succulents, terrestrial, geophytes, thorny, arborescent, or epiphytes. Their epidermis is glabra or pubescent; they develop fibers and tuberculous roots. The stems are globose, cylindrical, columnar, or flattened, with tubers or moms (mamilas) in a spiral disposition, with a constant number in each species; there are some other structures such as wings, ribs, or flatted and green phylloclades. The leaves are laminar in the primitive genera and absent in other genera. The areoles harboring reproductive and vegetative meristems, such as axillar buds with spines and glands, can produce flowers or leaves [18].
The flowers are zoophilous, mainly sessile, isolated, and rarely grouped as inflorescence, such as panicles or cimosas (
The fruit could be flesh, dried or semidried, indehiscent or dehiscent, and sometimes glabro or with areoles harboring spines. The succulence is due to the funicles that accumulate sugar during fruit ripening.
The seeds differentiate in a perisperm as a food storage system for the embryo; the testa could be thin or thick with or without a ring (strophiole) originated at the funicle. The cotyledons are foliaceous at the primitive genera and reduced or primitive in mainly all the species [6].
3.2.3 Endangered species
In Mexico, the Cactaceae are endemic plants that play an important role in a biological, social, and economic point of view. However, the plantlets and the adult plants have been stolen from their habitat for commercial proposes in the USA, Japan, and several European countries [15, 16]. In the last years, there is an increase in the demand for the cactus plants, mainly in the species considered as rare or unique; these plants are commercialized by national or international collectors. These plants are collected in situ, increasing the pressure over the wild populations and affecting the rate of natural reproduction taken some species to the category of endangered species [15, 16]. Now 255 taxons of Cactaceae are considered endangered species as described by Norma Oficial Mexicana-059-ECOL-2001.
3.2.4 Botanical uses of the Cactaceae family
It is important as ornamental and appreciated by the collectors because of its flowers and stems; this plant helps in the soil restoration and erosion control and is a very good rain harvester.
It is important as ornamental, its fruits are a good source for food to the local fauna, and this plant helps to control the soil structure and erosion and harvest polluted gases.
It is important as ornamental and in the control of soil erosion; this plant is used as source of phytochemicals (alkaloids) for medicinal and ludic purposes.
It is used as ornamental and helps in the control of soil erosion. This plant helps to harvest the water from the rain and in the entrapment of environmental pollutants.
These plants produce secondary metabolites (alkaloids) and are used in religious ceremonies and in the traditional medicine.
It is used as ornamental use and helps in the control of soil erosion.
3.3 Chilcuague (Heliopsis longipes )
3.3.1 Origin and common uses
San Luis Potosí, Guanajuato, and Querétaro meet. Pre-Hispanic Mexicans employed the extracts from the root system of this plant to heal diverse pains such as toothache, earache, and headache [20]; it was recognized for its pungent taste and for causing numbing and salivation. Three centuries later, in 1948, Elbert L. Little Jr. published a small description of
Despite its importance the use of chilcuague roots was marginal and restricted to the communities of the localities where the plant grows; one of the main reasons for this phenomenon is the fact that the massive propagation of the plant has experienced problems, mainly in transplanting after seedling stage.
3.3.2 Agroecological potential
Alkamides are secondary metabolites comprising over 200 related compounds widely distributed in plants. They have been found in ten plant families: Aristolochiaceae, Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Convolvulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Menispermaceae, Piperaceae, Poaceae, Rutaceae, and Solanaceae. The Asteraceae, Piperaceae, and Rutaceae families comprise the diverse species that contain high levels of alkamides [22, 23, 24]. The general structure of alkamides originates from the condensation of an unsaturated fatty acid and an amine [25]. Although different chain length alkamides have been found in plants, most of them contain a 2
The effect of ethanolic extract from
Affinine and affinine-derived molecules display a negative activity against mycelial growth of diverse phytopathogenic fungi, such as
Ramírez-Chávez and co-workers also investigated the effects of affinine and its derivates,
4. Discussion
4.1 The importance of the indigenous plants
Several indigenous plants are in the country since at least 20,000 years ago, and several of them helped to the initial human settlement, as an important source of food for humans and animals and in some other uses, such as medical, ludic and ornamental, or spiritual. In several cases, they were considered in a sacred level and included in several rituals and ceremonies as documented in the antique codices. Some of them persist in the diet of the people from the country.
Now, these indigenous plants have been revaluated for the nutraceutical contribution in the diet, and they are included now in a possible treatment in some metabolic or degenerative diseases, making them very attractive to the pharmaceutical industry. Some of the indigenous plant uses are involved in the restoration and maintenance of the ecological systems, since the ancient times, and they are used in unique agroecological systems. Mexico is harboring one of the most extensive collections of plants around the world, and their uses are still not well understood.
4.2 Modern uses for indigenous plants
In order to identify the importance of the plants, several scientific efforts are in the course trying to determine the biological activity of the plants. Table 4 includes a compilation of characteristics of the plants described in the chapter. As seen several of the uses are focused on the agronomic characteristics as substitutes of the agrochemical compounds for the control of bacteria, fungi, insect, and nematodes making them very attractive for biological control in agriculture.
Plant | Ecology | Ecological niche | Possible uses | Possibilities of cultivation | Cultivation techniques |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Subtropical | Pollination Control of microbial, insects, and nematodes |
Fungicidal Bactericidal Nematicidal Food industry |
Yes | Seed production | |
Subtropical | Pollination Control of microbial, insects, and nematodes |
Fungicidal Bactericidal Nematicidal Food industry Essential oils production |
Yes | Seed production | |
Cactaceae family | Arid and semiarid | Erosion control and soil restauration | Ornamental Soil restoration Erosion control Food Industry Ludic |
Yes | Seed production Stems Vegetative propagation Tissue culture |
Tropical and subtropical | Unique, control of microbial, insects, and nematodes | Bactericidal Fungicidal Food industry Pharmacological Growth regulator |
Yes | Seed production Vegetative propagation Tissue culture |
The biological functions are based on the secondary metabolite content; they make the plants very attractive for food industry, coloring, and tasting and even give structure to the new food products.
In this new era, the medicinal and ludic uses are ligated to avoid the mental sickness in the new societies. The ancient plants were used since the past with these proposals, with very good results, and now there is a promising use in the treatment of mental disease difficult to control in other way.
4.3 Endangered species
One of the problems in the endogenous species is the extraction of plantlets and adult plants from their habitat and being stolen for commercial purposes. It makes the plants go to a critical stage of surveillance. In several cases, the discovery of new uses has carried out an exhausted exploiting of plants without a program for reproduction and conservation of the plant species. Another situation is related to the genomic content in these species, complex polyploids with huge sizes of genome, and although they are important as ancient plants, no sequencing problems are under way.
5. Conclusions
Mexico is the center of origin for several plants, because of its privileged geographical position that includes the orography and the microclimates. The indigenous plants have been used since centuries by the inhabitants. There are several antique codices that describe the origin and uses of almost all the plants, that include ludic, ceremonial, ornamental, medicinal, and agroecological. Several Mexican plants are factories of secondary metabolites with biocide activity, such as microbial (bactericidal, fungicidal, and nematicidal) and insecticidal, with an important use in agriculture. Some other plants could help in the preservation of the soil structure, collecting water and keeping the soil in the optimal conditions for agriculture. Although everyday there is more information regarding the native plants, more knowledge is still needed in order to preserve these valuable plants.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Universidad De la Salle Bajío Campus Campestre for financial support.
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