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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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In the next twenty to thirty years, aerospace will face a tremendous challenge - the development of flying objects that do not depend on fossil fuels. The twenty-three chapters in this book capture some of the new technologies and methods that are currently being developed to enable sustainable air transport and space flight. 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BiSAR configuration can bring many benefits in comparison with monostatic systems, such as the exploitation of additional information contained in the bistatic reflectivity of targets (Eigel et al., 2000, Burkholder et al., 2003), improved flexibility (Loffeld et al., 2004), reduced vulnerability (Wang & Cai, 2007), forward looking SAR imaging (Ceraldi et al., 2005). These advantages could be worthwhile, e.g., for topographic features, surficial deposits, and drainage, to show the relationships that occur between forest, vegetation, and soils. Even for objects that show a low radar cross section (RCS) in monostatic SAR images, one can find distinct bistatic angle to increase their RCS to make these objects visible in BiSAR images. Furthermore, a BiSAR configuration allows a passive receiver, operating at a close range, to receive the data reflected from potentially hostile areas. This passive receiver may be teamed with a transmitter at a safe place, or make use of opportunistic illuminators such as television and radio transmitters or even unmanned vehicles [Wang, 2007a].
\n\t\t\tHowever, BiSAR is subject to the problems and special requirements that are neither not encountered or encountered in less serious form for monostatic SAR (Willis, 1991). The biggest technological challenge lies in synchronization of the two independent radars: time synchronization, the receiver must precisely know when the transmitter fires (in the order of nanoseconds); spatial synchronization, the receiving and transmitting antennas must simultaneously illuminate the same spot on the ground; phase synchronization, the receiver and transmitter must be coherent over extremely long periods of time. The most difficult synchronization problem is the phase synchronization. To obtain focused BiSAR image, phase information of the transmitted pulse has to be preserved. In a monostatic SAR, the co-located transmitter and receiver use the same stable local oscillator (STALO), the phase can only decorrelate over very short periods of time (about \n\t\t\t\t\t
Although multiple BiSAR image formation algorithms have been developed (Wang et al., 2006). BiSAR synchronization aspects have seen much less development, at least in open literature. The requirement of phase stability in BiSAR was first discussed in (Auterman, 1984), and further investigated in (Krieger et al., 2006, Krieger & Younis, 2006), which conclude that uncompensated phase noise may cause a time variant shift, spurious sidelobes and a deterioration of the impulse response, as well as a low-frequency phase modulation of the focused SAR signal. The impact of frequency synchronization error in spaceborne parasitic interferometry SAR is analyzed in (Zhang et al., 2006) and an estimation of oscillator’s phase offset in bistatic interferometry SAR is invstigated in (Ubolkosold et al., 2006). In an alike manner, linear and random time synchronization errors are discussed in (Zhang et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\tAs a consequence of these difficulties, there is a lack of practical synchronization technique for BiSAR. But its application is of great scientific and technological interest, several authors have proposed some potential synchronization techniques or algorithms, such as ultra-high-quality oscillators (Gierull, 2006), a direct exchange of radar pulses (Moreira et al., 2004), a ping-pong interferometric mode in case of full-active systems (Evans, 2002) and an appropriate bidirectional link (Younis et al., 2006a, Younis et al., 2006b, Eineder, 2003). The practical work is to develop a practicable synchronization technique without too much alteration to existing radars.
\n\t\t\tThis chapter concentrates on general BiSAR synchronization, aims at the development of a practical solution for time and phase synchronization aspects without too much alteration to existing radars. The remaining sections are organized as follows. In Section 2, the impact of synchronization errors on BiSAR systems are analysed by using an analytical models. A conclusion is made that some synchronization compensation techniques must be applied to focus BiSAR raw data. Then, possible time synchronization and phase synchronization approaches are investigated in Section 3 and Section 4, respectively. Finally, Section 5 concludes the chapter with some possible future work.
\n\t\tThe instantaneous output voltage of a signal generator or oscillator
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
It is well known that \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
where the coefficients \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
In engineering, for the condition that the phase fluctuations occurring at a rate of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
One cannot foresee to simulate the phase noise if one does not have a model for the phase noise. In (Hanzo et al., 2000), a white phase noise model is discussed, but it cannot describe the statistical process of phase noise. In (Foschini & Vannucci, 1988), a Wiener phase noise model is discussed, but it cannot describe the low-frequency phase noise, since this part of phase noise is an unstationary process. As different phase noise will bring different effects on BiSAR (see Fig. 1), the practical problem is that how to develop an useful and comprehensive model of frequency instability that can be understood and applied in BiSAR processing. Unfortunately, Eq. (3) is a frequency-domain expression and not convenient in analyzing its impact on BiSAR. As such, we have proposed an analytical model of phase noise, as shown in Fig. 2. This model uses Gaussian noise as the input of a hypothetical low-pass filter and its output is then considered as phase noise, that is this model may represent the output of a hypothetical filter with impulse response \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Impacts of various oscillator frequency offsets: (a) constant offset, (b) linear offset, (c) Sinewave offset, (d) random offset.
Analytical model of phase noise.
It is well known that the power spectral density (PSD) of the output signal is given by the product\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
where a sharp up cutoff frequency \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Since only STALO phase noise is of interest, the modulation waveform used for range resolution can be ignored and the radar can be simplified into an azimuth only system (Auterman, 1984). Suppose the transmitted signal is sinusoid whose phase argument is
\n\t\t\t\tThe first term is the carrier frequency and the second term is the phase, and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hence we have
\n\t\t\t\tThe first term is a frequency offset arising from non-identical STLO frequencies, which will result focused image with a drift. Because this drift can easily be corrected using ground calibrator, it can be ignored here. The second term forms the usual Doppler term as round-trip time to the target varies, it should be preserved. The last term represents the effect of STALO frequency instability which is of interest. As a typical example, assuming a X-band airborne SAR with a swath of 6km. Generally, a typical STALO used in current SAR has a frequency accuracy (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
which has negligible effects on the synchronization phase. Hence, we have an approximative expression
\n\t\t\t\tThat is to say, the phase noise of oscillator in fast-time is negligible, we can consider only the phase noise in slow-time.
\n\t\t\t\tAccordingly, the phase error in BiSAR can be modelled as
\n\t\t\t\tIt is assumed that \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Where the factor \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Take one \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Furthermore, it is known that high-frequency phase noise will cause spurious sidelobes in the impulse function. This deterioration can be characterized by the integrated sidelobe ratio (ISLR) which measures the transfer of signal energy from the mainlobe to the sidelobes. For an azimuth integration time, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Frequency, Hz | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1k | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-145 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-145 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-160 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Phase noise parameters of one typical STALO.
Simulation results of oscillator phase instabilities with ten realisations: (a) predicted phase noise in
Impacts of phase noise on BiSAR systems: (a) impact of predicted phase noise in azimuth. (b) impact of integrated sidelobe ratio in X-band.
A typical requirement for the maximum tolerable ISLR is\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Generally, for\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Note that \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hence, the deterioration of ISLR may be approximated as
\n\t\t\t\tIt was concluded in (Willis, 1991) that the error in this approximation is less than \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Timing jitter is the term most widely used to describe an undesired perturbation or uncertainty in the timing of events, which is a measurement of the variations in the time domain, and essentially describes how far the signal period has wandered from its ideal value. For BiSAR applications, timing jitter becomes more important and can significantly degrade the performance of image quality. Thus a special attenuation should be given to study the effects of timing jitter in order to predict possible degradation on the behavior of BiSAR systems. Generally speaking, we can model jitter in a signal by starting with a noise-free signal and displacing time with a stochastic process. Figure 5 shows a square wave with jitter compared to an ideal signal. The instabilities can eventually cause slips or missed signals that result in loss of radar echoes.
\n\t\t\t\tBecause bistatic SAR is a coherent system, to complete the coherent accumulation in azimuth, the signals of same range but different azimuths should have the same phase after between the echo window and the PRF (pulse repetition frequency) of the receiver system would be a fixed value to preserve a stable phase relationship. But once there is clock timing jitter, the start time of the echo sampling window changes with certain time difference between the echo sampling window (or PRI, pulse repetition interval) and the real echo signal, as shown in Fig. 5. Consequently, the phase relation of the sampled data would be destroyed.
\n\t\t\t\tTo find an analytical expression for the impact of time synchronization error on BiSAR images, we suppose the transmitted radar is
\n\t\t\t\twhere \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
where the first term is the range sampling window centered at\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Impacts of time synchronization error on BiSAR data.
Impact of time synchronization errors: (a) predicted time synchronization errors in
Considering only time synchronization error, that is to say, phase synchronization is ignored here, we can obtain the demodulated signal as
\n\t\t\t\tSuppose the range reference signal is
\n\t\t\t\tThe signal, after range compression, can be expressed as
\n\t\t\t\twhere \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
From Eq. (24) we can notice that if the two clocks deviate a lot, the radar echoes will be lost due to the drift of echo sampling window. Fortunately, such case hardly occurs for current radars. Hence we considered only the case that each echo can be successfully received but be drifted because of clock timing jitter. In other words, the collected data with the same range but different azimuths are not on the same range any more. As an example, Fig. 6(a) illustrates one typical prediction of time synchronization error. From Fig. 6(b) we can conclude that, time synchronization errors will result unfocused images, drift of radar echoes and displacement of targets. To focus BiSAR raw data, some time synchronization compensation techniques must be applied.
\n\t\t\t\tNotice that the requirement of frequency stability may vary with applications. Image generation with BiSAR requires a frequency coherence for at least the coherent integration time. For interferometric SAR (InSAR) (Muellerschoen et al., 2006), however this coherence has to be expanded over the whole processing time (\n\t\t\t\t\t\tEineder, 2003\n\t\t\t\t\t).
\n\t\t\tA time and phase synchronization approach via direct-path signal was proposed in (Wang et al., 2008). In this approach, the direct-path signal of transmitter is received with one appropriative antenna and divided into two channels, one is passed though an envelope detector and used to synchronize the sampling clock, and the other is downconverted and used to compensate the phase synchronization error. Finally, the residual time synchronization error is compensated with range alignment, and the residual phase synchronization error is compensated with GPS (global positioning systems)/INS (intertial navigation system)/IMU (intertial measurement units) information, then the focusing of BiSAR image may be achieved.
\n\t\t\tAs concluded previously, if time synchronizes strictly, intervals between the echo window and the PRF (pulse repetition frequency) of the receiver would be a fixed value to preserve a stable phase relationship. But once there is time synchronization error, the start time of the echo sampling window changes with certain time difference between the echo sampling window (or PRI, pulse repetition interval) and the real echo signal. As a consequence, the phase relation of the sampled data would be destroyed.
\n\t\t\t\tIt is well known that, for monostatic SAR, the azimuth processing operates upon the echoes which come from target points at equal range. Because time synchronization errors (without considering phase synchronization which are compensated separately in subsequent phase synchronization processing) have no effect on the initial phase of each echo, time synchronization errors can be compensated separately with range alignment. Here the spatial domain realignment (Chen & Andrews, 1980) is used. That is, let \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
From Schwartz inequality we have that \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
After time synchronization compensation, the primary causes of phase errors include uncompensated target or sensor motion and residual phase synchronization errors. Practically, the receiver of direct-path can be regarded as a strong scatterer in the process of phase compensation. To the degree that motion sensor is able to measure the relative motion between the targets and SAR sensor, the image formation processor can eliminate undesired motion effects from the collected signal history with GPS/INS/IMU and autofocus algorithms. This procedure is motion compensation that is ignored here since it is beyond the scope of this paper. Thereafter, the focusing of BiSAR image can be achieved with autofocus image formation algorithms, e.g., (Wahl et al., 1994).
\n\t\t\t\tSuppose the \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hence, the received signal in baseband is
\n\t\t\t\tSuppose the range reference function is
\n\t\t\t\tRange compression yields
\n\t\t\t\tWe can notice that the maxima will be at\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hence, the residual phase term in Eq. (33) is
\n\t\t\t\tIn a like manner, we have
\n\t\t\t\twhere \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Accordingly, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Generally, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
From Eq. (41) we can get\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
In summary, the time and phase synchronization compensation process may include the following steps:
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
For the direct-path signal-based synchronization approach, the receiver must fly with a sufficient altitude and position to maintain a line-of-sight contact with the transmitter. To get around this disadvantage, a GPS signal disciplined synchronization approach is investigated in (Wang, 2009).
\n\t\t\tBecause of their excellent long-term frequency accuracy, GPS-disciplined rubidium oscillators are widely used as standards of time and frequency. Here, selection of a crystal oscillator instead of rubidium is based on the superior short-term accuracy of the crystal. As such, high quality space-qualified 10MHz quartz crystal oscillators are chosen here, which have a typical short-term stability of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
As shown in Fig. 7, the transmitter/receiver contains the high-performance quartz crystal oscillator, direct digital synthesizer (DDS), and GPS receiver. The antenna collects the GPS L1 (1575.42MHz) signals and, if dual frequency capable, L2 (1227.60MHz) signals. The radio frequency (RF) signals are filtered though a preamplifier, then down-converted to
\n\t\t\t\tFunctional block diagram of time and phase synchronization for BiSAR using GPS disciplined USOs.
intermediate frequency (IF). The IF section provides additional filtering and amplification of the signal to levels more amenable to signal processing. The GPS signal processing component features most of the core functions of the receiver, including signal acquisition, code and carrier tracking, demodulation, and extraction of the pseudo-range and carrier phase measurements. The details can be found in many textbooks on GPS (Parkinson & Spilker, 1996).
\n\t\t\t\tThe USO is disciplined by the output pulse-per-second (PPS), and frequency trimmed by varactor-diode tuning, which allows a small amount of frequency control on either side of the nominal value. Next, a narrow-band high-resolution DDS is applied, which allows the generation of various frequencies with extremely small step size and high spectral purity. This technique combines the advantages of the good short-term stability of high quality USO with the advantages of GPS signals over the long term. When GPS signals are lost, because of deliberate interference or malfunctioning GPS equipment, the oscillator is held at the best control value and free-runs until the return of GPS allows new corrections to be calculated.
\n\t\t\tSince DDS is far from being an ideal source, its noise floor and spurs will be transferred to the output and amplified by 2 ( denotes the frequency multiplication factor) in power. To overcome this limit, we mixed it with the USO output instead of using the DDS as a reference directly. Figure 8 shows the architecture of a DDS-driven PLL synthesizer. The frequency of the sinewave output of the USO is 10MHz plus a drift\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Functional block diagram of GPS disciplined oscillator.
The DDS output frequency is determined by its clock frequency \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Clearly, for the smallest frequency step we need to use a low clock frequency, but the lower the clock frequency, the harder it becomes to filter the clock components in the DDS output. As a good compromise, we use a clock at about 1MHz, obtained by dividing the nominal 10MHz USO output by 10. Then, the approximate resolution of the frequency output of the DDS is\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
However, we face the technical challenge of measuring the time error between the GPS and USO pulse per second signals. To overcome this difficulty, we apply a high-precision time interval measurement method. This technique is illustrated in Fig. 9, where the two PPS signals are used to trigger an ADC (analog-to-digital convertor) to sample the sinusoid that is directly generated by the USO. Denoting the frequency of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Measuring time errors between two 1PPS with interpolated sampling technique.
Similarly, for\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hence, we can get
\n\t\t\t\tWhere \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
To find a general mathematical model, suppose the collected sinewave signal with original phase \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Parting \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Thereby we have
\n\t\t\t\tThus, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Since the parameters\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Finally, time and phase synchronization can be achieved by generating all needed frequencies by dividing, multiplying or phase-locking to the GPS-disciplined USO at the transmitter and receiver.
\n\t\t\tBecause GPS-disciplined USOs are adjusted to agree with GPS signals, they are self-calibrating standards. Even so, differences in the PPS fluctuations will be observed because of uncertainties in the satellite signals and the measurement process in the receiver (Cheng et al., 2005). With modern commercial GPS units, which use the L1-signal at 1575.42MHz, a standard deviation of 15ns may be observed. Using differential GPS (DGPS) or GPS common-view, one can expect a standard deviation of less than 10ns. When GPS signals are lost, the control parameters will stay fixed, and the USO enters a so-called free-running mode, which further degrades synchronization performance. Thus, the residual synchronization errors must be further compensated for BiSAR image formation.
\n\t\t\t\tDifferences in the PPS fluctuations will result in linear phase synchronization errors, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Motion compensation is ignored here because it can be addressed with motion sensors. Thus, after time synchronization compensation, the next step is residual phase error compensation, i.e., autofocus processing.
\n\t\t\t\tWe use the Mapdrift autofocus algorithm described in (Mancill & Swiger, 1981). Here, the Mapdrift technique divides the i-th second data into two nonoverlapping subapertures with a duration of 0.5 seconds. This concept uses the fact that a quadratic phase error across one second (in one synchronization period) has a different functional form across two half-length subapertures, as shown in Fig. 10 (Carrara et al., 1995). The phase error across each subapertures consists of a quadratic component, a linear component, and an inconsequential constant component of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Similarly, for the second subaperture we have
\n\t\t\t\tAfter applying a Fourier transform, we get
\n\t\t\t\twhere \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Visualization of quadratic phase error.
Next, various methods are available to estimate this shift. The most common method is to measure the peak location of the cross-correlation of the two subapterture images.
\n\t\t\t\tAfter compensating for the quadratic phase errors \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Applying again the Mapdrift described above to the i-th and (i+1)-th second data, the coefficients in (58) can be derived. Define a mean value operator \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hence, we can get
\n\t\t\t\twhere\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Estimator of residual phase synchronization errors
Notice that a typical implementation applies the algorithm to only a small subset of available range bins, based on peak energy. An average of the individual estimates of the error coefficient from each of these range bins provides a final estimate. This procedure naturally reduces the computational burden of this algorithm. The range bins with the most energy are likely to contain strong, dominant scatterers with high signal energy relative to clutter energy. The signatures from such scatterers typically show high correlation between the two subaperture images, while the clutter is poorly correlated between the two images.
\n\t\t\t\tIt is common practice to apply this algorithm iteratively. On each iteration, the algorithm forms an estimate and applies this estimate to the input signal data. Typically, two to six iterations are sufficient to yield an accurate error estimate that does not change significantly on subsequent iterations. Iteration of the procedure greatly improves the accuracy of the final error estimate for two reasons First, iteration enhances the algorithm’s ability to identify and discard those range bins that, for one reason or another, provide anomalous estimates for the current iteration. Second, the improved focus of the image data after each iteration results in a narrower cross-correlation peak, which leads to a more accurate determination of its location. Notice that the Mapdrift algorithm can be extended to estimate high-order phase error by dividing the azimuthal signal history in one second into more than two subapertures. Generally speaking, N subapertures are adequate to estimate the coefficients of an
Although the feasibility of airborne BiSAR has been demonstrated by experimental investigations using rather steep incidence angles, resulting in relatively short synthetic aperture times of only a few seconds, the time and phase synchronization of the transmitter and receiver remain technical challenges. In this chapter, with an analytical model of phase noise, impacts of time and phase synchronization errors on BiSAR imaging are derived. Two synchronization approaches, direct-path signal-based and GPS signal disciplined, are investigated, along with the corresponding residual synchronization errors.
\n\t\t\tOne remaining factor needed for the realization and implementation of BiSAR is spatial synchronization. Digital beamforming by the receiver is a promising solution. Combining the recorded subaperture signals in many different ways introduces high flexibility in the BiSAR configuration, and makes effective use of the total signal energy in the large illuminated footprint.
\n\t\tThis work was supported in part by the Specialized Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education for New Teachers under contract number
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Lakka and Chandrasekar Kuppan",authors:[{id:"304950",title:"Prof.",name:"Chandrasekar",middleName:null,surname:"Kuppan",slug:"chandrasekar-kuppan",fullName:"Chandrasekar Kuppan"},{id:"309984",title:"Mr.",name:"Narasimha S",middleName:null,surname:"Lakka",slug:"narasimha-s-lakka",fullName:"Narasimha S Lakka"}]},{id:"33046",title:"Affinity Chromatography: Principles and Applications",slug:"affinity-chromatography-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:48609,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"1490",slug:"affinity-chromatography",title:"Affinity Chromatography",fullTitle:"Affinity Chromatography"},signatures:"Sameh Magdeldin and Annette Moser",authors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"},{id:"136483",title:"Dr.",name:"Annette",middleName:"C.",surname:"Moser",slug:"annette-moser",fullName:"Annette Moser"}]},{id:"50574",title:"Bioinformatics for RNA‐Seq Data Analysis",slug:"bioinformatics-for-rna-seq-data-analysis",totalDownloads:5930,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"While RNA sequencing (RNA‐seq) has become increasingly popular for transcriptome profiling, the analysis of the massive amount of data generated by large‐scale RNA‐seq still remains a challenge. RNA‐seq data analyses typically consist of (1) accurate mapping of millions of short sequencing reads to a reference genome, including the identification of splicing events; (2) quantifying expression levels of genes, transcripts, and exons; (3) differential analysis of gene expression among different biological conditions; and (4) biological interpretation of differentially expressed genes. Despite the fact that multiple algorithms pertinent to basic analyses have been developed, there are still a variety of unresolved questions. In this chapter, we review the main tools and algorithms currently available for RNA‐seq data analyses, and our goal is to help RNA‐seq data analysts to make an informed choice of tools in practical RNA‐seq data analysis. In the meantime, RNA‐seq is evolving rapidly, and newer sequencing technologies are briefly introduced, including stranded RNA‐seq, targeted RNA‐seq, and single‐cell RNA‐seq.",book:{id:"5160",slug:"bioinformatics-updated-features-and-applications",title:"Bioinformatics",fullTitle:"Bioinformatics - Updated Features and Applications"},signatures:"Shanrong Zhao, Baohong Zhang, Ying Zhang, William Gordon,\nSarah Du, Theresa Paradis, Michael Vincent and David von Schack",authors:[{id:"176364",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanrong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"shanrong-zhao",fullName:"Shanrong Zhao"}]},{id:"49873",title:"An Introduction to Actinobacteria",slug:"an-introduction-to-actinobacteria",totalDownloads:8089,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:101,abstract:"Actinobacteria, which share the characteristics of both bacteria and fungi, are widely distributed in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, mainly in soil, where they play an essential role in recycling refractory biomaterials by decomposing complex mixtures of polymers in dead plants and animals and fungal materials. They are considered as the biotechnologically valuable bacteria that are exploited for its secondary metabolite production. Approximately, 10,000 bioactive metabolites are produced by Actinobacteria, which is 45% of all bioactive microbial metabolites discovered. Especially Streptomyces species produce industrially important microorganisms as they are a rich source of several useful bioactive natural products with potential applications. Though it has various applications, some Actinobacteria have its own negative effect against plants, animals, and humans. On this context, this chapter summarizes the general characteristics of Actinobacteria, its habitat, systematic classification, various biotechnological applications, and negative impact on plants and animals.",book:{id:"5056",slug:"actinobacteria-basics-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Actinobacteria",fullTitle:"Actinobacteria - Basics and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Ranjani Anandan, Dhanasekaran Dharumadurai and Gopinath\nPonnusamy Manogaran",authors:[{id:"48914",title:"Dr.",name:"Dharumadurai",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanasekaran",slug:"dharumadurai-dhanasekaran",fullName:"Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran"}]},{id:"72074",title:"The Chemistry Behind Plant DNA Isolation Protocols",slug:"the-chemistry-behind-plant-dna-isolation-protocols",totalDownloads:3691,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Various plant species are biochemically heterogeneous in nature, a single deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) isolation protocol may not be suitable. There have been continuous modification and standardization in DNA isolation protocols. Most of the plant DNA isolation protocols used today are modified versions of hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) extraction procedure. Modification is usually performed in the concentration of chemicals used during the extraction procedure according to the plant species and plant part used. Thus, understanding the role of each chemical (viz. CTAB, NaCl, PVP, ethanol, and isopropanol) used during the DNA extraction procedure will benefit to set or modify protocols for more precisions. A review of the chemicals used in the CTAB method of DNA extraction and their probable functions on the highly evolved yet complex to students and researchers has been summarized.",book:{id:"8912",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies"},signatures:"Jina Heikrujam, Rajkumar Kishor and Pranab Behari Mazumder",authors:[{id:"74521",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajkumar",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor",slug:"rajkumar-kishor",fullName:"Rajkumar Kishor"},{id:"309357",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranab Behari",middleName:null,surname:"Mazumder",slug:"pranab-behari-mazumder",fullName:"Pranab Behari Mazumder"},{id:"318351",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jina",middleName:null,surname:"Heikrujam",slug:"jina-heikrujam",fullName:"Jina Heikrujam"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"6",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",abstract:"Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is the largest and one of the most complex cellular structures, indicating its widespread importance and variety of functions, including synthesis of membrane and secreted proteins, protein folding, calcium storage, and membrane lipid biogenesis. Moreover, the ER is implicated in cholesterol, plasmalogen, phospholipid, and sphingomyelin biosynthesis. Furthermore, the ER is in contact with most cellular organelles, such as mitochondria, peroxisomes, Golgi apparatus, lipid droplets, plasma membrane, etc. Peroxisomes are synthesized from a specific ER section, and they are related to very-long-chain fatty acid metabolism. Similarly, lipid droplets are vital structures in lipid homeostasis that are formed from the ER membrane. Additionally, there is a specific region between the ER-mitochondria interface called Mitochondria-Associated Membranes (MAMs). This small cytosolic gap plays a key role in several crucial mechanisms from autophagosome synthesis to phospholipid transfer. Due to the importance of the ER in a variety of biological processes, alterations in its functionality have relevant implications for multiple diseases. Nowadays, a plethora of pathologies like non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cancer, and neurological alterations have been associated with ER malfunctions.",book:{id:"11674",title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg"},signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez"},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",abstract:"SARS-CoV-2 virus infection causes the Covid-19 disease pandemic. Purinergic signaling is a form of extracellular signaling. Purinergic signaling plays significant role in the pathology of Covid-19. Purinergic system includes extracellular nucleotides, nucleosides, ectonucleotidases, and purinergic receptors. ATP, ADP, and adenosine are the main nucleotides, nucleosides. CD39 and CD73 are the main ectonucleotidases. There are two classes of purinergic receptors, P1 and P2. Each of them can be further divided, P1 into A1, A2A, A2B, and A3, P2 into P2X, and P2Y. In Covid-19, the purinergic system is disordered. SARS-CoV-2 viruses invading leads to extracellular ATP and ADP accumulation, purinergic receptor abnormally activation, tissue homeostasis balance is broken, which lead to inflammation even hyperinflammation with cytokine storm and thrombosis et al. symptoms. Currently, Covid-19 therapeutic medicine is still in shortage. Target purinergic system components is a promising way to treat Covid-19, which will help inhibit inflammation and prevent thrombosis. Currently, many relevant preclinical and clinical trials are ongoing. Some are very promising.",book:{id:"10801",title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg"},signatures:"Hailian Shen"},{id:"81708",title:"High Throughput Methods to Transfer DNA in Cells and Perspectives",slug:"high-throughput-methods-to-transfer-dna-in-cells-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104542",abstract:"Genome sequencing led to thousands of genes to study and their molecular cloning to provide ORF collection plasmids. The main approach to study their function involves analysis of the biological consequences of their expression or knockdown, in a cellular context. Given that, the starting point of such experiments is the delivery of the exogenous material, including plasmid DNA in cells. During the last decades, efforts were made to develop efficient methods and protocols to achieve this goal. The present chapter will first give a rapid overview of the main DNA transfer methods described so far: physical, chemical, and biological. Secondly, it will focus on the different methods having reached high-throughput nowadays. Finally, it will discuss the perspectives of this field in terms of future enhancements.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Colin Béatrice and Couturier Cyril"},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",abstract:"Cutaneous melanoma is an aggressive and difficult-to-treat disease that has rapidly grown worldwide. The pharmacotherapy available in so many cases results in low response and undesirable side effects, which impair the life quality of those affected. Several studies have been shown that the purinergic system is involved in cancer context, such as in cutaneous melanoma. With technological advances, several bioactive compounds from nature are studied and presented as promising adjuvant therapies against cancer, as phenolic compounds and related action by purinergic system modulations. Thus, phenolic compounds such as rosmarinic acid, resveratrol, tannic acid, as well as vitamin D may be promising substances in a therapeutic perspective to treat cutaneous melanoma via purinergic system pathway. More research needs to be done to open up new horizons in the treatment of melanoma by the purinergic signaling.",book:{id:"10801",title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg"},signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini"},{id:"82338",title:"Advantages of Noncoding RNAs in Molecular Diagnosis",slug:"advantages-of-noncoding-rnas-in-molecular-diagnosis",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105525",abstract:"Noncoding RNAs contribute to physiological processes by regulating many intracellular molecules participating in the life-supporting mechanisms of development, differentiation, and regeneration as well as by disrupting various signaling mechanisms such as disease development and progression and tumor growth. Because microRNAs (miRNAs) target and regulate the functions of key proteins, it is very useful to identify specific miRNAs that contribute to cellular functions and to clarify the roles of their target molecules as diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for cancer prognosis and treatment. In this section, the roles of miRNAs in various cancers and the processes leading to the identification of their target molecules are described, and the latest diagnostic strategies using miRNAs are discussed with specific examples.",book:{id:"11353",title:"Recent Advances in Non-Coding RNAs",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11353.jpg"},signatures:"Tomomi Fujii, Tomoko Uchiyama and Maiko Takeda"},{id:"82298",title:"Predicting SNPs in Mature MicroRNAs Dysregulated in Breast Cancer",slug:"predicting-snps-in-mature-micrornas-dysregulated-in-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105514",abstract:"Breast cancer (BC) is the leading type of cancer among women. Findings have revolutionized current knowledge of microRNA (miRNA) in breast tumorigenesis. The seed region of miRNA regulates the process of gene expression negatively. The presence of SNPs in the seed regions of miRNA dramatically alters the mature miRNA function. Additionally, SNPs in the out-seed region of miRNAs have a significant impact on miRNA targeting. This study focuses on the in silico analysis procedure of mature miRNA SNPs and their impact on BC risk. The database annotated SNPs on mature miRNAs was used. Also, target gene alterations, miRNAs function in BC, and the interaction of miRNAs with targets were predicted. A list of 101 SNPs in 100 miRNAs with functional targets in BC was indicated. Under the SNPs allele variation, 10 miRNAs changed function, 6 miRNAs lost targets, 15 miRNAs gained targets, 48 onco-miRNAs remained unchanged, and 21 tumor suppressor miRNAs remained unchanged. At last, a list of 89 SNPs, which alter miRNA function and miRNA-mRNA interaction, were shown to be potentially associated with BC risk. This research theoretically generated a list of possible causative SNPs in the mature miRNA gene that might be used in future BC management studies.",book:{id:"11353",title:"Recent Advances in Non-Coding RNAs",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11353.jpg"},signatures:"Thanh Thi Ngoc Nguyen, Thu Huynh Ngoc Nguyen, Luan Huu Huynh, Hoang Ngo Phan and Hue Thi Nguyen"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:59},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218",scope:"\r\n\tThis book series will offer a comprehensive overview of recent research trends as well as clinical applications within different specialties of dentistry. Topics will include overviews of the health of the oral cavity, from prevention and care to different treatments for the rehabilitation of problems that may affect the organs and/or tissues present. The different areas of dentistry will be explored, with the aim of disseminating knowledge and providing readers with new tools for the comprehensive treatment of their patients with greater safety and with current techniques. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This series of books will focus on various aspects of the properties and results obtained by the various treatments available, whether preventive or curative.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11398,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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