Main physical-chemical properties influencing the leaching of pesticides.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1402",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Climate Change - Research and Technology for Adaptation and Mitigation",title:"Climate Change",subtitle:"Research and Technology for Adaptation and Mitigation",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides an interdisciplinary view of how to prepare the ecological and socio-economic systems to the reality of climate change. Scientifically sound tools are needed to predict its effects on regional, rather than global, scales, as it is the level at which socio-economic plans are designed and natural ecosystem reacts. The first section of this book describes a series of methods and models to downscale the global predictions of climate change, estimate its effects on biophysical systems and monitor the changes as they occur. To reduce the magnitude of these changes, new ways of economic activity must be implemented. The second section of this book explores different options to reduce greenhouse emissions from activities such as forestry, industry and urban development. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that climate change can be minimized, but not avoided, and therefore the socio-economic systems around the world will have to adapt to the new conditions to reduce the adverse impacts to the minimum. The last section of this book explores some options for adaptation.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-621-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4444-1",doi:"10.5772/1862",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"climate-change-research-and-technology-for-adaptation-and-mitigation",numberOfPages:504,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"e90423b1dd2e255705177b4413f1d7de",bookSignature:"Juan Blanco and Houshang Kheradmand",publishedDate:"September 6th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1402.jpg",numberOfDownloads:66123,numberOfWosCitations:81,numberOfCrossrefCitations:32,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:100,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:213,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 23rd 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 27th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 27th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 26th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"51995",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:"A.",surname:"Blanco",slug:"juan-blanco",fullName:"Juan Blanco",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51995/images/1076_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Blanco is an Assistant Professor at the Public University of Navarre. His work is focused on the development and evaluation of ecological models to simulate the influences of management, climate and other ecological factors on tree growth. He is currently collaborating with research teams from Canada, Taiwan, USA, Spain, Cuba, and China in using ecological models to explore the effects of climate change, atmospheric pollution and alternative forest practices in natural and planted forest in boreal, temperate and tropical forests. His research has been applied in mining to optimize reclamation plans, in forestry to assess the potential for carbon sequestration and by government agencies to define local guidelines for long-term sustainable forest management. Among other topics related to forest ecology, Dr. Blanco has studied the influence of climate variations on tree growth and estimated the possible ecological consequences of climate change in forest ecosystems. He has also co-authored the first book dedicated exclusively to the use of hybrid ecological models in forest management, entitled 'Forecasting Forest Futures” (Earthscan, London), edited three books on Climate Change effects, mitigation and adaptation (InTech, Rijeka), and three more on Forest Ecosystems, Biodiversity and Tropical Forests (InTech, Rijeka).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Universidad Publica De Navarra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"58657",title:"Dr",name:"Houshang",middleName:null,surname:"Kheradmand",slug:"houshang-kheradmand",fullName:"Houshang Kheradmand",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58657/images/1767_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kheradmand was born on March 1953 and received his masters in chemistry in 1980 and a doctorate in petro-chemistry in 1983 from ULP “Louis Pasteur University -Strasbourg”, followed by a 2nd doctorate in polymer sciences in 1987 from Strasbourg Polymer Research Center. Since 1987 Dr. Kheradmand has worked in the European chemical industry with different responsibilities, such as Quality lab manager, R&D group leader, European product stewardship manager, European sustainable development manager, European Technology Awareness and Innovation Manager. He is Life Cycle thinking, Life Cycle Assessment and Sustainable Development expert. He has an active participation in different European organizations such as CEFIC, CEPE, EPDLA - EPDLA Chairman, ERMA - Member of Executive Committee and Chairman of Technical Committee, French Ecolabel - Member of Paint Ecolabel technical committee, FFC (Fédération Française pour les sciences de la Chimie) - Member of FFC steering Committee and Member of ChDD ‘’Chimie pour un Développement Durable®’ working groupe committee , IUPAC - Member of IYC 2011 launch ceremony organization team. 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\r\n\tSince the issue related to an overload of heavy metals in the environment is one of the crucial aspects of sustainable development, the aim of this book will be to describe state of the art techniques used for efficient removal of heavy metals from the environment. Special attention will be paid to methods of waters treatment (industrial and natural) and soil remediation to improve its state.
\r\n\tThe description of possible chemical or physical techniques available nowadays will be enriched by biological methods. Methods with a high potential for commercialization are of particular importance, that is why some of the material presented in this book will relate to this aspect.
Agriculture plays an important socioeconomic role in the European Union (EU). The total agricultural area of the EU-28 was 184.6 million hectares in 2015, which supposes 43.5% of its total land area with France and Spain being the countries with greater cultivated land [1]. Therefore, to protect agricultural production and quality, the use of pesticides is widespread.
Pesticides have important benefits in crop protection, food and material preservation, and disease control although unfortunately can pose undesirable effects on human health and environmental ecosystems. The use of pesticides in agriculture is necessary to combat a variety of pests and diseases that could destroy crops and to improve the quality of the food produced. The main estimated losses in crop yields are due to insect pests (14%), plant pathogens (13% loss), and weeds (13%) [1]. Therefore, pesticides are necessary for agricultural production. Among the different classes of pesticides, the highest percentages of an application are corresponding to herbicides (49%), followed by fungicides and bactericides (27%), and insecticides (19%) [2].
A pesticide also called plant protection product (PPP) is any “substance intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest in crops either before or after harvest to prevent deterioration during storage or transport.” A more detailed definition can be found in the document by FAO [3]. The term includes compounds such as antimicrobials, defoliants, disinfectants, fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, insect growth regulators, molluscicides, and other minority groups. Pesticide products include both active ingredients and inert ingredients. Active ingredients are used to control pests, diseases, and weeds, while inert ingredients (stabilizers, dyes, etc.) are important for product performance and usability.
Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009 [4] is the legislation concerning the placing of PPPs on the market in the European Union. EFSA’s Pesticides Unit is responsible for the EU of risk assessments of active substances used in PPPs, in close cooperation with all EU Member States. The risk assessment of active substances evaluates whether, when used correctly, these substances are likely to have any direct or indirect harmful effects on human or animal health, groundwater quality, and nontarget organisms.
Since the 1940s, synthetic pesticides have been widely applied worldwide to protect agricultural crops from pests and diseases, and their use was increased progressively as increased human population and crop production especially from the
Evolution of pesticide consumption from 1990 to 2016 (Data obtained from FAOSTAT [
As can be observed, the consumption was ascending (increasing use) in the worldwide and least developed countries and descending (reduced use) in the most developed areas like EU and USA.
However, many of the pesticides used are chemical compounds that persist in the environment being able to be bioaccumulated through the food web and transported to long distances [5] adversely affecting human health and environment around the world, especially organochlorine pesticides [6]. Toxicity of the compound, amount applied and formulation type, method and time of application and, especially, its mobility and persistence are the main factors involved on the risk when a pesticide is incorporated in the environment. In addition, many of them have been identified as endocrine disruptors (EDs), compounds that alter function(s) of the endocrine system and consequently cause adverse health effects in an intact organism, or its progeny, or subpopulations [7, 8, 9, 10]. Humans and wildlife depend on the ability to reproduce and develop normally, which is not possible without a healthy endocrine system. Since the beginning of this century, numerous laboratory studies have added to our understanding of the impact of EDs on human and wildlife health [11, 12] and confirmed the scientific complexity of this issue.
The pollution of soil and water bodies by pesticides used in agriculture can pose an important threat to aquatic ecosystems and drinking water resources. Pesticides can enter in water bodies via point sources or diffuse. Surface waters generally contain a much greater diversity of compounds compared to groundwater although this may be simply a function of the limited amount of groundwater monitoring rather than a surface occurrence. However, according to Directive 2006/118/EC [13], groundwater is the largest body of fresh water in the EU. Concretely, Europe confronts serious episodes of groundwater pollution with agriculture being the biggest polluter. About 60% of European citizens rely on groundwater for drinking water purposes, and its use is threatened by the leaching of pesticides and nitrates due to agricultural practices. In addition, groundwater is used for drinking water by more than 50% of the people in the USA, including almost everyone who lives in rural areas.
Infiltration through riverbeds and riverbanks and leaching through the soil and unsaturated zone are the main diffuse pesticide input paths into groundwater [14, 15]. Therefore, groundwater resources are vulnerable to pollution [16]. Although no universally accepted definition has been contributed for groundwater vulnerability, the National Research Council of USA [17] defines it as “the likelihood for contaminants to reach a specified position in the groundwater system after introduction at some location above the uppermost aquifer.” In this context, pesticide residues have been detected in groundwater bodies in the EU [18] and USA [19] at higher levels in some cases than the drinking water limit established by the EU (0.1 mg L−1 for individual pesticide and 0.5 mg L−1 for ∑ pesticides). In this way, the Directive 2009/128/EC [20] was named to protect human health and the environment from possible risks associated with the use of pesticides. The aim of this directive is to achieve a sustainable use of pesticides in the EU by reducing the risks and impacts of pesticide use on human health and the environment and promoting the use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and alternatives, such as nonchemical techniques. When pesticides are used, appropriate risk management measures should be established and low-risk pesticides, as well as biological control measures, should be considered in the first place. According to FAO, integrated pest management (IPM) is “an ecosystem approach to crop production and protection that combines different management strategies and practices to grow healthy crops and minimize the use of pesticides” [21]. Other definitions of IPM according to the US EPA [22] involve “an effective and environmentally sensitive approach to pest management that relies on a combination of common-sense practices.” IPM, therefore, utilizes the best mix of control tactics for a given pest problem such as host resistance, chemical, biological, cultural, mechanical, sanitary, and mechanical controls using each technique a different set of mechanisms for suppressing populations [23].
Defining soil is always a hard task due to its high heterogeneity, the complex processes involved, and quite often its own use. The soil taxonomy defines the soil as
A soil profile is a vertical section of a soil, showing horizons (layers running parallel to the surface) and parent material. Figure 2 shows a drawing of a vertical section of soil.
Schematic drawing of the soil profile.
Soil horizons differ in different easily seen soil properties (color, texture, structure, and thickness) and other less visible (chemical and mineral content, consistency, and reaction). The
Although an infinite variety of substances may be found in soil, four basic components constitute it: minerals (45%), organic matter (5%), air (25%), and water (25%). The voids in the soil are known as pore space, and there are two kinds of pores: matrix and nonmatrix pores. Matrix pores are typically smaller than nonmatrix pores in fine- and medium-textured soils.
Air and water are in the pores contained between the solid particles of the soil. The pore sizes vary from very fine (<1 mm) to very coarse (≥10 mm). The ratio of air-/water-filled pore space vary seasonally, weekly, and even daily, depending on water additions through precipitation, flow, groundwater discharge, and flooding. According to suction and gravimetric water contents as defined by suction, three water state classes can be defined: dry (>1500 kPa), moist (≤1500 to >1.0 kPa), and wet (≤1.0 kPa). Natural drainage class refers to the frequency and duration of wet periods. Different drainage classes include excessively drained, somewhat excessively drained, well-drained, moderately well-drained, somewhat poorly drained, poorly drained, very poorly drained, and subaqueous [24].
The mineral portion of soil is divided into a fine fraction (<2 mm in diameter) and larger soil particles (>2 mm in diameter) known as rock fragments. Three particle-size classes integrate the fine fraction: sand (2–0.05 mm), silt (0.05–0.002 mm), and clay (<0.002 mm). These particles differ in their effects on soil drainage and their relative capacity to available hold water for uptake by plants. Texture can be defined as the relative combination of sand, silt, and clay in a soil. Thereby, 12 soil textural classes are represented on the USDA soil texture triangle as can be seen in Figure 3 [24].
Possible textural classes of the soil.
On the other hand, soil organic matter (SOM) is a complex mixture of different substances containing fresh deposits of plants and organisms and humus, a fraction of stable organic compounds mainly humic and fulvic acids that are resistant to further rapid decomposition. An important physical property of SOM is its ability to absorb large quantities of water. The mass and volume of water that can be absorbed by SOM often exceed the mass and volume of the SOM itself. In addition, SOM has a much higher CEC than clays and can also form complexes with metals and organic materials like pesticides, sometimes rendering them immobile [25, 26].
In addition to accidental or intentional discharges, the presences of pesticides in agricultural soils mainly have two origins: (i) treatments applied to the aerial part of crops to combat pests, when approximately 50% of the product (insecticides and fungicides, and some herbicides) may reach the soil and (ii) the soil itself is directly treated (insecticides, nematicides, disinfectants, and mainly herbicides), which will obviously lead to a higher concentration in the same [27]. To understand the behavior of a pesticide, it is essential to have the appropriate analytical tools capable of determining residual concentrations in different media (plant, soil, and water) and the main metabolites that can appear. Analytical procedures typically involve a number of equally relevant steps for
The fate of pesticides in the soil depends on many processes responsible for their mobility and persistence [30, 31]. Persistence may be defined as
Once a pesticide is applied to soil, it will most likely follow one of three pathways: (i) adhering to soil particles (mainly organic matter and clays), (ii) degrading by organisms and/or free enzymes, and (iii) moving through the soil with water. From the physical-chemical data of adsorption, mobility, and degradation obtained in the laboratory, it is possible to predict with a high degree of reliability the behavior of pesticides in the soil. For this, different guidelines have been proposed by OECD to study adsorption [33], degradation [34], and leaching [35]. Figure 4 shows the schematic behavior of pesticides in the soil.
Behavior and fate of pesticides in the soil.
Adsorption that may be chemical (electrostatic interactions) or physical (van der Waals forces) is the result of the electrical attraction between charged particles, pesticide molecules (sorbate), and soil particles (adsorbent). Pesticide molecules that are positively charged are attracted to negatively charged particles on clays and organic matter. Chemical reactions between unaltered pesticides or their metabolites often lead to the formation of strong bonds (chemisorption) resulting in an increase in the persistence of the residues in the soil, while causing it to lose its chemical identity.
Degradation generally happens gradually through the formation of one or more metabolites and takes place through photochemical, chemical, and/or microbiological processes. Photodegradation refers to the decomposition induced by radiant energy (ultraviolet/visible light range) on pollutants and is only relevant at the soil surface. The solar light may be absorbed by the pollutant, resulting in the formation of by-products, or does not have a direct effect on the pollutant but acts on other substances (photosensitizers) that will promote the degradation of pesticides [36]. Chemical (hydrolysis, oxidation, aromatic hydroxylation, etc.) and biological processes are closely linked and it is difficult to distinguish between them. For this, the process is commonly called biochemical degradation.
The transformations that pesticides may suffer in the soil are many and varied. Besides the characteristics of the pesticide, other factors such as the colloidal composition, texture and moisture content of the soil, the number of microorganisms present (including bacteria and fungi), etc., play a key role.
By a total degradation of a pesticide (mineralization), CO2, salts, and water are formed, and parts of the chemical are built into new molecular structures in the soil humus or in biomass (bound residues). The terms
Knowledge of the kinetics of biochemical degradation is essential to the evaluation of the persistence of pesticides. Pesticide degradation was described using simple first-order (SFO) kinetics for much time, and it is still the most common mathematical description of pesticide degradation in the scientific literature. However, in some cases, this model is not appropriate. The FOCUS (FOrum for the Coordination of pesticide fate models and their USe) degradation kinetic expert group, supported by the European Commission, came up with two alternative equations for pesticide degradation in soil. Both are based on first-order kinetics although composed of several processes [41]. The alternative equations are the First Order Multi-Compartment (FOMC) equation and the Double First Order in Parallel (DFOP) equation.
where
Finally, pesticide transfer refers to the movement of pesticides from their site of application. Five processes that can move pesticides are diffusion, volatilization, leaching, erosion and runoff, assimilation by microorganisms, and absorption by plants. Diffusion can be verified in the gaseous and liquid phases, or in the air of the inter-solid phase. The pesticide is transferred through the soil from one zone where it is more concentrated to another where it is less. The volatilization of pesticides from the soil and their subsequent dispersion in the atmosphere is a common occurrence and is perhaps the most important route by which pesticides dissipate. Once volatilized, a pesticide can move in air currents away from the treated surface, a phenomenon known as vapor drift. The soil can be act as a conveyor of the pesticide when its particle is moved from one place to another through the effects of wind or runoff, leading in certain cases to the contamination of surface waters (rivers, seas, and lakes). Runoff determines the movement of water over a sloping surface that occurs when water is applied faster than it enters the soil. Pesticides carried by surface runoff from agricultural areas are a significant portion of the pesticide pollutant loading rates to surface water bodies. Absorption of pesticides by a target and nontarget organisms (bioaccumulation) is quite variable and it is influenced by species characteristics, environmental conditions, and by the chemical-physical properties of both the pesticide and the soil. Pesticide uptake by plants depends on the environmental conditions and the physical-chemical properties of the soil and pesticides and it is influenced by plant species, growth stage, and intended use. Leaching is the vertical downward displacement of pesticides through the soil profile and the unsaturated zone, and finally to groundwater. Pesticide leaching is highest for weakly sorbing and/or persistent compounds, climates with high precipitation and low temperatures (which leads to high groundwater recharge) and sandy-soils with low organic matter.
Figure 5 summarizes major factors (pesticide and soil properties, site conditions, and management practices) affecting the fate of pesticides in the soil [32].
Factors affecting the fate of pesticides in the soil.
Nowadays, the study of pesticide leaching represents an important field of research concerning environmental pollution. A large number of papers published from the beginning of this century to the current moment confirm this interest. A review to the literature extracted from The Web of Science™ (www.isiknowledge.com) managed by Thomson Reuters (Philadelphia, USA) using the keywords p
Leaching constitutes an environmental risk because they can reach the water table and contaminate shallow groundwater and deeper aquifers. However, for pesticides with a low persistence that disappear quickly, the risk of groundwater pollution considerably decreases.
Two different types of flow are associated with pesticide leaching: (i) preferential flow, related to water that flows rapidly through large voids, root channels, and cracks and (ii) matrix flow, due to the slow movement of pesticide/water through the small pores of the soil having in this case more time to contact soil particles [42].
Pesticides are frequently leached through the soil by the effect of rain or irrigation water but for this to happen, the product must be sufficiently soluble in water. The pesticide may be displaced, dissolved, suspended, or simply emulsified in water. Water movement concerns rates of flow into and within the soil and the related amount of water that runs off and does not enter the soil. Infiltration is the process of downward water entry into the soil. Three infiltration stages may be differentiated: (i) steady ponded, (ii) preponded, and (iii) transient ponded. Water that is moving at a high velocity can better carry pesticides of high molecular weight and has the potential to move them farther.
The factors (chemical, physical, and biological) influencing the leaching rate of the pesticides are varied including among others, physical-chemical properties of the pesticide, permeability of the soil, texture and organic matter content of the soil, volatilization, crop-root uptake, and method/dose of pesticide application. Also important is climate change. Pesticide leaching can be affected directly by climate change due to variations in temperature and precipitation patterns or indirectly by any change in the agroecosystem caused by changes in land use, modified application timings, or the use of different pesticides against new invasive pests, diseases, or weeds [43]. Regarding direct effects, increased temperatures should in principle increase pesticide degradation rates, which will, in turn, reduce the risk of leaching although also increase desorption (endothermic process) favoring the liberation of pesticides from soil colloids. On the other hand, an increase in rainfall leads to an increased risk of pesticide leaching.
Different soil adsorption models have been developed for different pesticide classes in order to identify the properties governing retention class-specific quantitative structure-property relationship [44]. Table 1 summarizes the main physical-chemical properties of a pesticide that can affect its leaching rates and the suggested thresholds according to PPDB [45].
Parameter | Thresholds |
---|---|
WS (mg L−1) | <50 = low; 50–500 = moderate; >500 = high |
Log KOW | <2.7 = low bioaccumulation; 2.7–3 = moderate; >3.0 = high |
DT50SD (days) | <30 = nonpersistent; 30–100 = moderately persistent; 100–365 = persistent; >365 = very persistent |
DT50AP (days) | <1 = fast; 1–14 = moderately fast; 14–30 = slow; >30 = stable |
DT50AH (days) | <30 = nonpersistent; 30–100 = moderately persistent; 100–365 = persistent; >365 = very persistent |
GUS index | >2.8 = high leachability; 2.8–1.8 = transition state; <1.8 = low leachability |
VP (mPa) | <5 = low volatility; 5–10 = moderately volatile; >10 = highly volatile |
>100 = volatile; 0.1–100 = moderately volatile; <0.1 = nonvolatile | |
Log KOC | <1.2 = very mobile; 1.2–1.9 = mobile; 1.9–2.7 = moderately mobile; 2.7–3.6 = slightly mobile; >3.6 = nonmobile |
pKa | pH < pKa neutral state; pH > pKa negative charge |
Main physical-chemical properties influencing the leaching of pesticides.
WS: water solubility; KOW: octanol-water partition coefficient; DT: disappearance time; SD: soil degradation; AP: aqueous photolysis; AH: aqueous hydrolysis; GUS: groundwater ubiquity score index; VP: vapor pressure; H: Henry’s law constant; KOC: organic carbon normalized sorption coefficient; Ka: acid dissociation constant.
The relation between the concentrations of the compound in the solid and liquid phases is known as the distribution coefficient and is directly proportional to the solubility of the pesticide in water and inversely proportional to the organic matter (OM) and clay content of the soil.
where Kd = coefficient of partition between soil and water (V/M); Ca = amount of pesticide adsorbed per unit of adsorbent mass (M/M); and Cd = concentration of pesticide dissolved (M/V).
Karickhoff et al. [46] demonstrated the existence of a linear correlation between the coefficient of partition and the soil’s organic carbon content:
where Koc = soil organic partition coefficient and OC is the organic carbon content (%).
For polar molecules and soils with low OM content and high clay content, Hermosín and Cornejo [47] found a similar correlation:
where Kcc = clay content partition coefficient and CC = clay content (%).
Both Koc and Kcc are linearly correlated with the coefficient of partition between octanol and water (Kow), which indicates the affinity degree of the pesticide for water (low value) or for soil (high value).
Sorption and degradation processes, both influenced by chemical-physical properties of the soils and compounds involved, and weather conditions, mainly affect the movement of water and dissolved pesticides through the soil. According to some authors, adsorption and desorption are the processes that regulate the magnitude and speed of leaching, and a pesticide should not be affected by other processes while it is adsorbed to the humic-argillic complex [48]. The use of clay barriers modified with cationic surfactants has been demonstrated as an effective method to increase the retention of pesticides in soil [49, 50]. The content of organic carbon (OC) is considered as the single largest factor having maximum influence on pesticide degradation, adsorption, and mobility in soil [51]. Therefore, the soil organic adsorption coefficient (KOC) is generally used as a measure of the relative potential mobility of pesticides in soils to describe the partitioning of them in the water/soil/air compartments.
Thus, a possible mitigation measure to reduce pesticide leaching through the soil could be the increase of the OM content of the soil by agronomic practices like the incorporation of crop residues or animal manures to increase sorption of nonionic pesticides [52]. Another option to reduce leaching by matrix flow would be the use of compounds with high/fast sorption. Addition of OC in the form of crop residues, manure, or sludge is a common soil management practice followed in some areas of the Mediterranean Basin. In this zone, high temperature and evapotranspiration, adverse climatic conditions, and soil degradation are responsible for the decrease in plant growth and consequent lack of organic compounds that would improve the soil nutrient status since its addition contributes to enhancement of active humified components (humic and fulvic acids) [53]. Soils of low OC content have a low capacity to avoid pesticide mobility because humic substances are the primary adsorbent materials for pesticides. Nowadays, the addition of organic amendment (OA) to soils is being intensely studied to know its effect on pesticide sorption and its movement through the soil profile in order to minimize the risk of water pollution associated with rapid runoff and leaching. Soil amended with sludge, urban waste compost, composted straw, fly ash, olive oil mill wastes, spent mushroom substrates, or wood residues has been shown to increase pesticide [54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64]. In addition, recent studies have demonstrated the ability of biochar to decrease pesticide leaching to groundwater. The concept to use biochar as a soil amendment is recent but it really comes from the study of very ancient soils in the Basin of Amazon. Biochar can be defined as a carbon-rich solid material produced by heating biomass in an oxygen-limited environment [65]. Biochar is distinguished from charcoal by its use as a soil amendment. Many and varied properties are attributed to biochar such as C sequestration, reduction of N2O emissions from soil, bioenergy generation, stimulation of soil microorganisms, sorption of pesticides and nutrients, improvement of soil structure and retention of water, and control of soil-borne pathogens [66, 67, 68].
The main benefit concerning the sorption of pesticides to OM is that it generally decreases leaching, where it is due to the presence of additional OM in the amended soil but also to the structural changes in the porosity induced by the presence of new OC content [69]. As a part of the OA added, dissolved organic matter (DOM) is incorporated to the soil, which affects movement and sorption of pesticides [70, 71]. Pesticide leaching may be enhanced by pesticide-DOM interactions and competition for sorption sites between pesticides/DOM molecules [72]. Polarity and molecular weight of the pesticides are key factors on the extent and nature of this behavior [73]. Moreover, the microbiological activity is increased by addition of OA to soil, which enhances the biodegradation of pesticides in polluted soils. Therefore, pesticide behavior in amended soil has reported different results because diverse effects have been pointed [74].
In addition to thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and reverse-phase LC, other methods are commonly used to assess the potential leaching of pesticides through the soil. These methods include soil columns, outdoor lysimeters, and field studies [75].
The use of the packed column is a valuable tool to analyze pesticide displacement through the soil. OECD [35] and USEPA [76] have standardized methods to study the leaching process. These studies are generally carried out using disturbed soil columns filled with sieved soil (<2 mm). The use of disturbed soil columns has the advantage of obtaining more reproducible results than other methods. Pesticides are applied on the top of the column followed by percolation with a pesticide-free solution after 24–48 h with distilled or deionized water, and preferably with electrolytes as 0.01 M CaCl2 to minimize colloidal dispersion [77].
Outdoor lysimeters were developed to avoid or at least decrease the differences obtained between laboratory and field conditions [78]. In addition, lysimeters having a large surface area can be used to plant crops to assess pesticide behavior under simulated natural conditions and being the water easily collected from the bottom of them. An additional advantage of the lysimeters over laboratory columns is that the seasonal effect of an application on leaching can be evaluated. For contrast, outdoor lysimeter studies may require many replicates to obtain accurate results on pesticide transport due to the variability of profiles. At field scale, groundwater monitoring and terrestrial field dissipation studies can be considered methods that are more realistic to assess the potential risk of the leaching process.
Many authors have proposed various indices to predict the mobility of pesticides in the soil. The
Index/reference | Parameters/equation/interpretation criteria |
---|---|
Hamaker’s RF [79] | |
McCall’s [80] | |
Briggs’s RF [81] | |
LEACH [82] | |
Cohen’s [83] | Soil DT50 > 2–3 weeks; hydrolysis DT50 > 25 weeks; aqueous photolysis DT50 > 1 week; soil |
Hornsby index [84] | |
AF [85] | |
GUS [86] | |
LPI [87] | |
SNV [88] | 1. Water solubility greater than 3 ppm; 2. Organic carbon normalized soil sorption coefficient (KOC) < 1900 mL g−1; 3. Hydrolysis DT50 > 14 days; 4. Aerobic soil metabolism DT50 > 610 days; 5. Anaerobic soil metabolism DT50 > 9 days. |
PLP index [89] | |
GWCP [90] | |
AFT & AFR [91] | |
LIX [92] | |
LIN [93] | |
M. LEACH [94] | |
GLI [94] | GLI > 1: high; GLI |
DTK [95] | |
VI [16] |
Main indices published during the last four decades about the risk potential of pesticide leaching for groundwater pollution.
t1/2: half-life (days); Ɵ: volumetric soil water content; Z or d: depth to groundwater (m); q: net groundwater recharge rate (m/day); ρb: soil bulk density (kg/m3); OM: organic matter; Sw: water solubility (mg/L); VP: vapor pressure (mm Hg); ƟFC: volumetric water content at field capacity; F: fraction of pesticide reaching the soil during application; KH: Henry constant; Kow: octanol/water partition coefficient; Koc: organic carbon normalized soil sorption coefficient (mL/g organic carbon); Ɵg: gas content; RF: retardation factor; V: volatility (bar); foc: organic carbon fraction; R: rate of pesticide application (kg/ha).
Thus, a pesticide screening can be estimated with relatively few input data need, and therefore, these index-based methods are easy to apply, unlike other models that require very intensive field-based data that are very difficult to obtain in many cases as summarized in the next section.
Groundwater can be defined as the
Schematic drawing of the properties and factors affecting groundwater vulnerability.
In 1996, the EPA developed SCI-GROW (Screening Concentration in Groundwater) as a screening-level tool to estimate drinking water exposure concentrations in groundwater resulting from pesticide use [97]. As a screening tool, SCI-GROW provides conservative estimates of pesticides in groundwater, but it does not have the capability to consider variability in leaching potential of different soils, weather (including rainfall), cumulative yearly applications, or depth to aquifer. In 2004, concurrently, the EPA Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP) and Canada’s Pesticide Management Regulatory Authority (PMRA) initiated a project to develop a harmonized approach to modeling pesticide concentrations in groundwater called the Pesticide Root Zone Model (PRZM). After this project was completed, the two agencies recommended PRZM-GW as the harmonized tool for assessing pesticide concentrations in groundwater, which was implemented as an exposure model in 2012 [98].
In addition to these models, there are three traditional methods for assessing groundwater vulnerability to pollution with pesticides and other pollutants: (i) process-based, involving numerical modeling, (ii) statistical, involving correlating water quality data to spatial variables, and (iii) overlay and index, involving obtaining and combining maps of the parameters that affect the transport of contaminants from the surface to groundwater.
Different groundwater models such as MODFLOW (1984), DRASTIC (1987), GOD (1987), AVI (1993), SINTACS (1994), SEEPAGE (1996), EPIK (1999), HAZARD-PATHWAY-TARGET (2002), INDICATOR KRIGING (2002), GLA & PI (2005), ISIS (2007) GSFLOW (2008), GWM-2005 (2009), or VULPES (2015) among others have been used to evaluate groundwater vulnerability, although these models require significant input data to run, and for most users, it is not easy to use them [99, 100, 101, 102, 103]. The most commonly used model is DRASTIC in the framework of GIS environment (GIS-based DRASTIC model), an overlay and index method developed by US EPA [104]. GIS is a system of hardware and software used for storage, retrieval, mapping, and analysis of geographic data showing one of the leading tools in the field of hydrogeological science that helps in assessing, monitoring, and conserving groundwater resources, while DRASTIC provides a basis for evaluating the vulnerability to pollution of groundwater resources based on hydrogeological parameters. The DRASTIC model uses seven environmental parameters (
where
Ratings | Weights | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Topography (% slope) | Impact of the vadose zone media | ||||
Range | Rating | Media type | Rating | Parameter | Weight |
0–2 | 10 | Confining layer | 1 | Depth to water | 5 |
2–6 | 9 | Silt/clay | 3 | Net recharge | 4 |
6–12 | 5 | Shale | 3 | Aquifer media | 3 |
12–18 3 | 3 | Limestone | 6 | Soil media | 2 |
>18 | 1 | Sandstone | 6 | Topography | 1 |
Bedded limestone/sandstone/shale | 6 | Impact of the vadose zone media | 5 | ||
Sand and gravel with clay/silt | 6 | Hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer | 3 | ||
Metamorphic/igneous | 4 | Net recharge | 4 | ||
Sand and gravel | 8 | ||||
Basalt | 9 | ||||
Karst limestone | 10 |
Ratings and weights of each parameter in DRASTIC index.
Thus, according to them, the governing equation becomes:
Depending on this model, five categories for groundwater vulnerability are established: very low, low, moderate, high, and very high. Two DRASTIC models (Pesticide DRASTIC GIS-based models) have been developed to predict generic groundwater vulnerability and pesticide groundwater vulnerability. They differ in weights, which are used as key factors to determine the DRASTIC vulnerability index. In the last decade, several authors have used this model to study the effect of different pesticides to groundwater vulnerability [105, 106, 107]. In other cases, a Bayesian methodology has been used to calculate the vulnerability of groundwater to pesticide contamination directly from monitoring data [108]. In this regard, passive samplers like polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) have shown to be suitable for the monitoring of pesticides with a wide range of physical-chemical properties in groundwater [109]. Many monitoring studies carried out worldwide in different countries of all continents have demonstrated the occurrence of pesticide residues in groundwater since the beginning of the actual century [18, 19, 110, 111, 112]. Among others, herbicides such as triazines (atrazine, simazine, terbuthylazine, propazine, cyanazine, terbutryn, prometryn), phenylureas (diuron, linuron, isoproturon, chlortoluron) and anilides (alachlor, acetochlor, metolachlor) and insecticides such as organophosphorus (malathion, chlorfenvinphos, dimethoate, parathion-methyl, azinphos-ethyl, chlorpyrifos, fenitrothion) and organochlorine (lindane and DDTs) and some of its transformation products (metabolites) are the most common pesticides found in groundwater.
Pesticides have important benefits in crop protection because they combat a variety of pests and diseases that could destroy crops increasing the quality of the harvested products. However, due to the heavy use of phytosanitary products (the worldwide consumption of pesticides reached 4.1 millions of tons of active ingredients in 2016), the occurrence of pesticide residues in the groundwater resources (water located beneath the soil’s surface) constitutes a global problem worldwide, especially in the least developed countries where the use of plant protection products is very high. Herbicides, mainly triazine and urea compounds, have been the most detected pesticides since the beginning of this century. The pollution of soil and water bodies by pesticides used in agriculture can pose an important threat to aquatic ecosystems and drinking water resources because groundwater is the largest body of fresh water in many areas of the world. Diffuse pesticide input paths into groundwater are caused by leaching through the soil and unsaturated zone and infiltration through riverbanks and riverbeds. Therefore, the groundwater resources are vulnerable to pollution, which indicates the sensitivity of groundwater to an alteration in its quality caused by human activities. Adsorption, degradation, and movement processes are key processes to know the persistence of a pesticide and its ability to contaminate groundwater bodies. The main factors affecting the fate of pesticides are their physicochemical properties (water solubility, vapor pressure, adsorption coefficient, etc.), soil characteristics (texture, organic matter content, etc.), site (hydrogeological conditions), and management practices (method of application and dosage).
CE | capillary electrophoresis |
CEC | cation exchange capacity |
DFOP | double first order in parallel equation |
DOM | dissolved organic matter |
DRASTIC | Depth to Water, Net Recharge, Aquifer Media, Soil Media, Topography, Impact of Vadose Zone, and Hydraulic Conductivity |
DTK | depth, half-life (t1/2), and organic carbon normalized sorption coefficient (KOC) |
EDs | endocrine disruptors |
EFSA | European Food Safety Agency |
EM | electrochemical method |
EPA | Environmental Protection Agency |
EPIK | development of the Epikarst, Effectiveness of the Protective Cover, Conditions of Infiltration, Development of the Karst Network |
EU | European Union |
FAO | Food Agriculture Organization |
FOCUS | FOrum for the Coordination of Pesticide Fate Models and their USe |
FOMC | First-Order Multi-Compartment |
GC | gas chromatography |
GIS | Geographic Information System |
GLA&PI | Geologische LAndesamter, Protection Cover, Infiltration Conditions |
GOD | Groundwater Occurrence, Overlying Lithology and Depth to the Aquifer |
GSFLOW | Coupled Ground-Water and Surface-Water FLOW Model |
GWM-2005 | GroundWater Management process for MODFLOW-2005 |
ICMs | immunochemical methods |
IMS | ion mobility spectrometry |
IPM | Integrated Pest Management |
LC | liquid chromatography |
MODFLOW | MODular three-dimensional finite-difference groundwater FLOW model |
MS | mass spectrometry |
OA | organic amendment |
OC | organic carbon |
OECE | Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development |
OPP | Office of Pesticide Programs |
OM | organic matter |
PMRA | Pesticide Management Regulatory Authority |
POCIS | Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Samplers |
PPDB | Pesticide Properties Database |
PPP | plant protection product |
PRZM-GW | pesticide root zone model-groundwater |
SCI-GROW | screening concentration in groundwater |
SEEPAGE | System for Early Evaluation of Pollution Potential of Agricultural Groundwater Environments |
SFO | simple first order |
SINTACS | depth to water (S), net infiltration (I), unsaturated zone (N), soil media (T), aquifer media (A), hydraulic conductivity (C), slope (S) |
SNV | specific numerical value |
SOM | soil organic matter |
US EPA | United States Environmental Protection Agency |
USA | United States of America |
USDA | United States Department of Agriculture |
VULPES | VULnerability to PESticides |
Trauma is one of the leading causes of death worldwide [1] with 5.8 million lives lost each year as a direct result of injury [2], and it is a major economic burden to society in both Europe and United States [1, 3]. Trauma management is demanding for clinicians, often a life-threatening and most of the time a painful condition. Early and effective pain control in trauma is essential not only for acute status control, but has also been associated with a lesser incidence of chronic pain, as well as a shorter period of recovery [1, 2]. Many factors influence the selection of analgesics, and we have available a generous options of pain killers, but in reality, an adequate pain control is often difficult to achieve. According to many reports, trauma patient analgesia is remaining an undermanaged condition [3, 4, 5]. Opioid analgesics are often appropriate first-line pain killers for acute pain but come with hemodynamic and respiratory depression, as well as concerns about the addiction risks. Ketamine is a dissociative and analgesic drug that can be used alone or in combination with other analgesic medication. The terms low-dose, analgesic, pain control and sub-dissociative dose can be used interchangeably.
Ketamine is an agent with attractive pharmacological and pharmacokinetic characteristics. Ketamine is a potent dissociative agent with an evolving role in the management of both pediatric and adult trauma patients due to its sedative, analgesic and anesthetic properties, beside its sympathomimetic effect. Ketamine is a derivate of phenylcyclidine with a hallucinogenic property, beside its primarily antagonist activity on N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors although it also acts on opioid (μ), and muscarinic receptors, and sodium channels. Its action is targeting the central nervous system
The sedative and analgesic effects of this drug begin to wear off in 10–15 min.
For many years, ketamine was considered to be a harmful drug to use for airway management or in multiple trauma conditions, especially where a traumatic brain injury component was involved, due to fears of increasing intracranial pressure (ICP) [6]. But recent studies show which can be a real helpful drug, in certain conditions like the combative trauma patient who needs airway management or other situations like improving pain control or anesthesia induction in a hemodynamically unstable trauma patient [6]. Recent experiences show that do not raise intracranial pressure as was once assumed and does raise blood pressure improving cardiovascular stability, unlike most sedating drugs [6]. Also, a drug should be considered extremely helpful for acute invasive procedures that need to be performed under sedation [7, 8], offering a great advantage of analgesia and respiratory stability at the same time. Ketamine is known an optimal drug in various emergency settings. Also, away from the emergency room, studies have been performed to assess the safety and efficacy of ketamine for trauma patients, showing that ICU patients with a sub-dissociative ketamine infusion needed fewer opioid analgesics and had a better hemodynamic stability [9]. In this chapter, we present the current literature surrounding the safety and efficacy of ketamine in the trauma condition to establish its utility for these patients.
Ketamine has minimal effects on the respiratory drive and protective reflexes of the protective airway reflexes are maintained, thus allowing to keep spontaneous ventilation. However, administering high doses that would be used for anesthetic effect there is a risk of respiratory depression [5, 9]. Ketamine is also responsible for bronchodilation, increased salivation, pulmonary vasodilation and increased cardiac output, through increasing mean arterial pressure and heart rate. Its profile on hemodynamics is favorable, making this agent a unique drug, a considerable option especially in approaching a shocked trauma patient. Also, its depressant effects on the gastrointestinal system are very minimal. Ketamine could have an antiplatelets action by inhibiting phosphoinositide breakdown and mobilization of Ca2+ in those platelets stimulated by collagen [10].
The physiological mechanisms lead to neuroprotection, vasodilation and increased cerebral blood flow.
In particular, new clinical data and case studies support a therapeutic effect of ketamine in suppression of spreading depolarization (SD) following traumatic brain injury (TBI). This is fundamental as SD has been suggested as an important mechanism for secondary brain injury and delayed cerebral ischemia [10].
Ketamine has been recently discovered to be a “glutamate modulator.” Its action is exerted at two levels: (a) presynaptic, inhibiting the release of glutamate and (b) post-synaptic, performing as a competitive blocker of NMDA receptors, also inhibiting calcium entrance into cells and the production of nitric oxide and oxygen-free radicals, modulating glucose metabolism and the generation of mitochondrial ATP, and also, inhibiting the apoptotic phenomenon. Furthermore, it inhibits the production and release of cytokines not only by the microglia but also by interleukin-8, tumor necrosis factor, Ca++, K+, oxygen-free radicals, adenosine triphosphate.
The cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen is increased, although in a heterogeneous action, more in insula and the frontal lobes, while decreasing in the temporal lobes, pons and cerebellum. Cerebral blood flow does not follow the same pattern. Probably, a dose-dependent uncoupling mechanism is implied. Intracranial pressure remains unaffected or even sometime decreased, being associated with increases in cerebral perfusion pressure.
Cerebral oxygenation remains unchanged. Moreover, ketamine does not compromise the autoregulatory mechanisms or the carbon dioxide (CO2) reactivity of the cerebral vasculature [10, 11].
It is important to promote recent findings that NMDA receptors have different protein subpopulations in their composition, capable of triggering various pathways that stimulate proliferation, synaptogenesis or neuronal regeneration, depending on which protein is activated [12].
Extensive studies have shown that after stroke or traumatic brain injury, NMDA receptors remain hypofunctional, which could be responsible for cognitive impairments. Activating and stimulating these receptors by alternative pathways (glycine/serine) is a promising strategy [12].
There are convincing evidences demonstrating the efficacy and safety of ketamine as an analgesic for trauma patients.
In a very recent meta-analysis published in 2020, where controlled human studies were included, Mahmoud Yousefifard performed extensive search conducted in electronic databases gathering data to the end of 2018. The efficacy and side effects of ketamine administration in prehospital pain management were compared with those of opioid analgesics. Data from seven articles were included in the present meta-analysis. Ketamine administration was not much more effective than administrating morphine or fentanyl in prehospital pain management of trauma patients. However, co-administration of ketamine + morphine was considerably more effective than ketamine alone, in alleviating pain in prehospital settings. Finally, it was concluded that ketamine alone had less side effects than morphine alone. However, co-administration of ketamine + morphine increases the risk of side effects compared with when morphine is prescribed alone [13].
In 2020, Gaël de Rocquigny published a systemic review in regarding the use of ketamine for prehospital pain control on the battlefield [14]. This included a database searching for studies on ketamine use in combating prehospital settings, at the point of injury or during evacuation. Eight studies were included with 2029 casualties receiving ketamine. Ketamine use increased from 3.9% during the period preceding its addition to the Tactical Combat Casualty Care guidelines in 2012 to 19.8% after this guidelines release. It was the analgesic of choice (up to 52% of casualties) in one of the studies. Ketamine has been preferred to be given during tactical medical evacuation when no analgesic was administered at the point of injury. Pain score decreased from moderate or severe to mild or none, often after only one dose. In one study, ketamine administration during tactical evacuation was associated with increased systolic blood pressure as opposed to those situations when morphine was given. Incoherent speech, hallucinations and extremity movements were the most seen adverse events reported. However, all studies tend to strengthen the belief in the efficacy and safety of ketamine when given at 50-mg to 100-mg intravenous for prehospital analgesia in combat casualties. So, from these army studies, we can easily extrapolate these findings and apply to the civil medicine.
In 2018, Mary K. Walters published a study on the ketamine as an analgesic adjuvant in a trauma patient with rib fractures. This was a retrospective study, based on case-control chart review assessing ICU adult patients with a diagnosis of ≥1 rib fracture and an Injury Severity Score > 15. Patients received standard-of-care analgesia with the physician’s choice medication with or without ketamine as a continuous, fixed, intravenous infusion at 0.1 mg/kg/h. The authors pointed out that low-dose ketamine appears to be a safe and effective adjuvant option to reduce pain and decrease opioid use in rib fracture [15].
In 2019, Thomas Carver published a prospective, randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trial on ketamine infusion for pain control in multiple rib fractures. This level II of evidence study included adult patients with three or more rib fractures admitted to a Level I Trauma Center. Other exclusion criteria were Glasgow Coma Scale score less than 13 and chronic opiate use. The experimental arm received low-dose ketamine (LDK) at 2.5 μg/kg/min, while the placebo cohort received an equivalent rate of 0.9% normal saline. The primary outcome was reduction in numeric pain score (NPS) during the first 24 h. From the secondary outcomes studied, oral morphine equivalent (OME) utilization was included. The average Injury Severity Score (ISS) was 14. Low-dose ketamine failed to decrease NPS or OME within the overall cohort, but a decrease in OME was observed among patients with an ISS greater than 15. This study authors also conclude that confirmatory studies are necessary to determine whether LDK is a useful adjunct among severely injured patients [16].
In 2017, Babak Mahshidfar conducted a randomized double-blinded clinical trial to compare low-dose ketamine (LDK) with morphine for pain relief in trauma patients. He enrolled 300 trauma patients from the emergency room of two university hospitals. The patients were randomly divided into two groups. The first group was administered i.v. 0.2 mg/kg of ketamine, while the second group received 0.1 mg/kg of i.v. morphine. The results of this study suggest that LDK, at a dose of 0.2 mg/kg, in the earlier minutes leads to significant reduction of pain when compared with that of intravenous morphine. It also created fewer complications than morphine [17].
In 2014, Joshua P Miller performed an institutional review board-approved, randomized, prospective, double-blinded trial at a tertiary, Level 1 Trauma Center. The study was focused on low-dose ketamine vs. morphine for acute pain control in the ED. They enrolled adult patients with acute abdominal, flank, low back or extremity pain. Subjects were consented and randomized to intravenous LDK (0.3 mg/kg) or intravenous MOR (0.1 mg/kg). The primary outcome was the maximum change in NRS scores. Low-dose ketamine compared with MOR for acute pain did not produce a greater reduction in NRS pain. But it is assumed that LDK induced a significant analgesic effect within 5 min and provided a moderate reduction in pain for 2 h. The time to achieve maximum reduction in NRS pain scores was at 5 min for LDK and 100 min for MOR. Vital signs, adverse events, clinician and nurse satisfaction scores were similar between groups [18].
In 2012, Paul A. Jennings proved that intravenous morphine plus ketamine provides analgesia superior to that of intravenous morphine alone. This is a prehospital study, randomized, prospective and controlled study. Patients with traumatic condition and a verbal pain score of greater than 5 after 5 mg of i.v. morphine were eligible for enrollment. Patients included in the ketamine group were administered a bolus of 10 or 20 mg, followed by 10 mg every 3 min. The second group patients received just morphine 5 mg i.v. every 5 min until pain free. Pain scores were regularly assessed until hospital arrival. The study conclusion was intravenous morphine plus ketamine for out-of-hospital adult trauma patients providing analgesia superior to that of intravenous morphine alone but was associated with an increase in the rate of minor adverse effects [19].
In 2017, Benov and colleagues published a review of data cases from 17 years of time frame from the military prehospital trauma registry of the Israeli Defense Forces. This included data from 141 solders patients, victims of explosion, who had received ketamine for analgesia. This review made a relatively conclusive statement: “Ketamine in subanesthetic doses is almost an ideal analgesic exhibited through its profound pain relief, its margin of safety, and its role in potentiation of opioids and prevention of opioid hyperalgesia” [20].
In 2007, Michel Galinski investigated the morphine consumption associated with ketamine for severe acute pain in emergency setting, where patients with a visual analog scale (VAS) score of minimum 60/100 were included. The K group patients received 0.2 mg/kg of i.v. ketamine over 10 min, while the P group patients received sodium chloride, as the control group. The patients from both groups were given an initial intravenous morphine dose of 0.1 mg/kg, plus as required doses were supplemented with 3 mg every 5 min. Efficient analgesia was defined as a VAS score not exceeding 30/100. The goals of this study were to assess morphine consumption and VAS at 30 min. They concluded that morphine consumption was much less in the K group vs. the P group. The VAS score at T30 did not differ significantly between the two groups [21]. We could assume the fact that the VAS score at T30 was similar for the two groups due to the fact that the time action for the ketamine dose is roughly around 10–15 min, and the K group received just an initial dose. So probably I would have been better also to have a VAS score at T15, for example, for more realistic and objective findings.
In 2019, Sheila C. Takieddine investigated whether ketamine administered
In 2017, Kaitlin A. Pruskowski conducted a study to investigate the efficiency of the initiation of a ketamine continuous infusion in critically ill trauma patients for sedation and analgesic purposes. The secondary goals were to find out the patient population in which ketamine was administered, assess the time patients reached their goal level of sedation and find out the dosing required as adjunctive sedative agents. This retrospective chart review was investigated for 19-month period. This study was focused on the critically ill mechanically ventilated trauma patients. The study concluded that the use of ketamine in critically ill mechanically ventilated adult trauma patients was associated with decreased opioid use but it was also associated with the increased use of dexmedetomidine and ziprasidone to achieve and maintain sedation [23].
In 2014, Kim Phung Tran published a prospective study aiming to compare the analgesic effects and side effects of ketamine and morphine in out-of-hospital environment. The conclusion of this research was that ketamine had a pain control effect similar to morphine, and also accompanied by a lower risk of airway patency issues. The side effects as agitation and hallucinations were higher in incidence in the ketamine group. These conclusions are to be well appreciated as utility and application, particularly in rough and low-resource environments [24].
Bredmose PP conducted in 2009 another prospective study in the field of prehospital care investigating ketamine for analgesia and procedural sedation. This study evaluated the role of ketamine for analgesia and sedation in 1030 trauma patients in a prehospital trauma service led by physicians. Ketamine administration was the first choice in awake non-trapped victims with blunt trauma for analgesia and procedural sedation. This study data interpretation did not point out concerns for loss of airway, oxygen desaturation or clinically significant emergence reactions associated with ketamine use. Ketamine could be considered relatively safe when administered by physicians in out-of-hospital trauma care [25].
Still remaining in the prehospital field, it is advocated that there are many features of ketamine that seem to make it an ideal drug for prehospital use, including disaster surgery where extra personnel and advanced monitoring are not available.
In light of these premises, James E. Svenson performed a retrospective study of all patients transported by a regional aeromedical program. Data were collected from 40 patients, where ketamine was used. The study included pediatric and adult patients with age between 2 months and 75 years old. The indications for administration varied, from trauma to medical conditions. Shock status with need for analgesia, combativeness or agitation, intact airway concerns, or pain unresponsive to opioid drugs were the most common indications for use. Ketamine was administered either intravenously or intramuscularly (when no intravenous access was available). Minimal or no adverse effects [26] were reported.
In 2019, Kugler, Nathan published a level I of evidence study, randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled prospective trial enrolling elderly patients (age, ≥65 years) with three or more rib fractures presented to a Level I trauma center. The exclusion criteria were Glasgow Coma Scale score less than 14 and/or chronic opiate medication. Patients were randomized in two groups, either low-dose ketamine (LDK) at 2 μg/kg/min or an equivalent rate of 0.9% natrium chloride. This study conclusion is that low-dose ketamine failed to affect NPS or OME within the overall cohort, but a decrease in OME was observed in those with an Injury Severity Score greater than 15. Also, in this view, it is recommended that additional studies are necessary to confirm whether LDK benefits severely injured elderly patients [27].
One of other benefits of using ketamine in trauma is that could be an option for rapid sequence intubation (RSI) induction and maintaining sedation. Ketamine has emerged as an alternative for RSI induction, because the conventional propofol makes hemodynamics vulnerable and induction doses of etomidate during rapid sequence intubation cause transient adrenal dysfunction, where clinical significance on trauma patients is uncertain.
Cameron P. Upchurch in 2017 published the four-year retrospective study comparing etomidate and ketamine for induction during rapid sequence intubation of adult trauma patients. In this analysis spanning an institutional protocol switch from etomidate to ketamine as the standard rapid sequence intubation induction agent for adult trauma patients, patient-centered outcomes were similar for patients who received etomidate and ketamine [28].
In 2019, Josefine Baekgaard investigated whether ketamine should be preferred over other induction agents for RSI in trauma patients. Library was systematically searched for studies reporting RSI of adult trauma patients with ketamine compared with another induction agent (etomidate, propofol, thiopental or midazolam). Extremely few studies have compared induction agents for RSI in trauma patients. Only four studies were included. The review conclusion was that no significant differences have been found in mortality, length of hospital stay or a number of blood transfusions after induction with ketamine compared with other induction agents, but a clinically relevant benefit or harm cannot be excluded [29].
In 2021, Lucy Stanke aiming to bring more evidences in the prehospital field of RSI drug comparison published a retrospective study to evaluated adult patients undergoing prehospital RSI over 13 months within a regional emergency transport medicine service. The purpose of this study was to evaluate hemodynamic changes after the administration of ketamine versus etomidate in prehospital RSI. The analysis emphasized that no cardiovascular differences were reported between patients who received ketamine versus etomidate for out-of-hospital RSI. None of these two drugs was associated with an increased requirement for additional hypnotics, and neither drug was associated with an increased first-attempt tracheal intubation success rate. This study also concluded that more studies, on larger cohorts and prospective designs, are needed to identify patients who may benefit from either ketamine or etomidate [30].
During emergency situations where RSI of anesthesia is required like in shocked or hypotensive patients (e.g., massive hemorrhage due to ruptured major vessels, pelvic fracture or other polytrauma conditions), prior resuscitation is often suboptimal and comorbidities (particularly cardiovascular) may be extensive, making challenges even worst. The induction drugs with the most favorable pharmacological properties offering a hemodynamic stability appear to be etomidate and ketamine. However, etomidate has been withdrawn from use in some countries and is known to impair steroidogenesis. Ketamine has been traditionally contra-indicated in the presence of head trauma, but we argue in this article that any adverse effects of the drug on intracranial pressure or cerebral blood flow are in fact attenuated or reversed by a better cardiovascular stability, sedation and controlled ventilation conferred by the drug. Ketamine represents a very rational option for RSI in hemodynamically compromised patients [31].
For many years, the use of ketamine was restricted in TBI patients based on evidence from the 70s that suggested its detrimental effect on intracranial pressure. New research in healthy volunteers or in patients without neurological comorbidities scheduled for general surgery demonstrated that intracranial pressure, cerebral blood flow and cerebral perfusion pressure increase during anesthesia with variable doses of ketamine and no neurological side effects or sequels were noticed [32, 33]. Other series of studies with small numbers of patients with different central nervous system pathologies that had in common abnormal cerebral spinal fluid circulation reported similar findings, emphasizing the absence of side effects [34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. Other recent systematic studies with various degrees and types of limitations reported that in heterogeneous acute brain populations (subarachnoid hemorrhage, tumors, TBI), ketamine induces only temporary variations in intracranial pressure without modifying cerebral perfusion pressure and has no detrimental effect on outcome, intensive care unit stay or mortality [36, 37, 38]. When assessing populations of severe acute bran injury, ketamine was not associated with an increase of intracranial pressure in sedated and normocapnic mechanically ventilated patients; furthermore, ketamine may decrease intracranial pressure in some individualized situations [39]. Other recent updates of ketamine administration in TBI led to similar findings [40].
As regards the ketamine use in acute phase of severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), in 2021, Daniel Agustin Godoy stated that ketamine is “an old drug for new uses,” having more and more evidences of its benefits even in this condition. In the acute phase of severe acute brain injury, it is paramount to prevent and avoid secondary insults that can further complicate a primary brain injury [41]. Managing a goal-driven sedation and optimal pain control is a cornerstone of improving patient survival, satisfaction and minimizing distress. Without an optimal sedation, there are rising consequences including delayed recovery, difficult weaning from mechanical ventilation, higher complication rate and prolonged hospital staying [42].
Several different classes of hypnotic drugs are used in the management of patients with TBI [43, 44, 45]. These drugs are used at induction of anesthesia, to provide and keep sedation, to reduce elevated intracranial pressure, to control seizures and facilitate mechanical ventilation [46, 47]. To date, it is unclear which agent or combination of drugs is the most effective in achieving these goals. Ketamine is a versatile agent with attractive pharmacological and pharmacokinetic properties.
Controversies concerning the optimal sedation management persist, especially in critically TBI, who were systematically excluded from large randomized studies [44]. Different from other agents, ketamine does not depress respiratory activity or airway reflexes (except at very high doses) and may have potential neuroprotective effects, as well as a potential in decreasing seizures and non-convulsive epileptic activity [48, 49]. These properties make from ketamine a realistic choice when profound analgesia and sedation are required.
But there are still some restrictions in severe traumatic brain injury, and certain conditions would contraindicate ketamine administration, such as loss of cerebral autoregulation, hydrocephalus or the concomitant presence of untreated brain aneurysms [40, 50, 51].
Ketamine induces intraocular pressure (IOP) changes bur, which are mild and without clinical significance [52, 53]. The current guidelines do not limit the use of ketamine in known or suspected open globe injuries [54].
Ketamine is not recommended to be used for procedural sedation in eye examination as one of the known side effects of this drug is nystagmus.
An absolute contraindication is hypersensitivity to this drug [40]. Due to hepatic metabolism and mainly kidney elimination, it should not be administrated in the context of liver failure and/or renal failure [40, 50, 51]. Other relative contraindications are those conditions where high blood pressure triggers potentially dangerous complications such as diastolic cardiac dysfunction, coronary ischemia or aortic dissection [40, 55]. In severe alcoholism, toxicity of ketamine has been described [40]. Use of ketamine in pediatrics is restricted to children younger than 3 months of age. There was reported higher incidence of airway complications like laryngospasm in very young patients [52].
Concerning the TBI, there are only a few contraindications nowadays. These were presented in a previous section.
Nevertheless, ketamine attributes to psychotomimetic effects, which could be the main reserve for not being a first choice when sedation is required [48, 49].
In this section, indications for ketamine use will be divided in four general situations: analgesia, procedural sedation, induction of anesthesia/RSI and acute agitation/excited delirium [56].
Ketamine’s analgesic effect is comparable to opioids but with a lesser impact on hemodynamics or respiratory system.
Ketamine could be an optimal analgesic in a trauma condition with moderate to severe pain, in or at risk for developing hemorrhagic shock or respiratory failure [57].
Ketamine potentiates the analgesic effect of opioids and could be given to trauma patients with insufficient pain control after receiving opioids or when a top-up of opioids may be risky or harmful.
Ketamine may be given to the trauma condition, as an alternative to opioids or other non-opioids medication.
Ketamine could be an adequate option for the trauma patient receiving buprenorphine/naloxone for opioid misuse.
Ketamine is optimal choice as a procedural sedation agent in patients with or at risk for respiratory failure or hemorrhagic shock.
For short sedation procedures as in burns debridement or musculoskeletal injuries maneuvers.
Is an optimal choice in shocked trauma patients for RSI due to its analgesic and sedative features and also for its cardiovascular stability?
Ketamine may be used in trauma conditions when fast control of agitation is required such as in patients with delirium or when rapid control is essential to diminish the risk of injury to staff, family or the patients themselves.
The dose considerations of ketamine in adults can be either body weight-based or non-weight-based. For a better accuracy in dose calculations in pediatrics, the dose should always be weight or length based using a standardized measuring tape.
There are no standard recommendations for the ketamine dose. What follows are dose recommendations based on literature review and expert opinion.
Intermittent dose:
0.1–0.3 mg/kg (maximum 30 mg) i.v. every 20 min as required for a maximum of three doses.
This can be given by slow i.v. push or as an i.v. bag over 10–15 min (associated with side effects such as feelings of unreality and oversedation with no difference in analgesic efficacy) [58].
0.5–1.0 mg/kg intranasal (i.n.)
Adult continuous infusion dose:
0.1–0.4 mg/kg/hour i.v.
Adult non-weight-based analgesic dosing:
50 mg i.m., repeat as required every 30–60 min for pain control or until nystagmus develops indicating approach of the dissociative state.
20 mg slow i.v./i.o. push over 1 min, repeat as required every 20 min for desired analgesia or until nystagmus appears indicating reaching the dissociative state.
1 mg/kg i.v. (maximum 100 mg per dose)
Induction of anesthesia/RSI
2 mg/kg i.v. (maximum 200 mg)
3–5 mg/kg i.m.
1–2 mg/kg i.v.
i.v. access in the acutely agitated patient or the patient with excited delirium might be too risky and difficult; so, it is not advisable due to the increased risk to the practitioner of occupational needle stick injury.
High-dose (5 mg/kg) prehospital i.m. ketamine administration is associated with an increased intubation rate upon arrival to the hospital [59, 60, 61]. Clinicians giving high-dose ketamine should be prepared to control the airway.
In some expert’s opinion doses between 0.5 and 0.9 mg/kg i.v. are not efficacious for sedation and could trigger a sense of unreality that can lead to issues in patient management.
Ketamine can induce a transient apnea in high doses or with fast administration. These conditions are associated with higher intubation rate. Patients given ketamine should be kept under observation for the risk of respiratory failure, and clinicians using ketamine, especially in high doses, should be ready to take over airway control.
There is a lack of safety data to support recommendations in what concerning the use of ketamine in pregnancy and during breast feeding [62].
Another previous controversy, but recently cleared, ketamine use can be considered in trauma patients with schizophrenia as there does not seems to be a higher incidence of psychosis in these kinds of conditions [63, 64].
Fast IV administration can trigger transient apnea. Ketamine should be given in a slow bolus, over 1 min or more unless being used in RSI where it is followed shortly by a muscle relaxing drug and intubation. Transient apnea following i.m. administration appears to be extremely rare [43].
Reported side effects are laryngospasm, hypersalivation, nausea, dizziness, nystagmus, dysphoria and emergence agitation. Most of the time, these side effects are transient and self-limited and do not require any intervention or rescue. If laryngospasm occurs, it can be managed with repositioning or jaw thrust and positive pressure ventilation. In rare instances, intubation may be necessary.
Emergence reactions are notable to be rare. When appears, these can be safely managed with benzodiazepine use. Pre-medicating with benzodiazepines is not recommended.
When used in concomitantly, ketamine increases the pain control effects of opioids. The administration of ketamine and opioids in combination improves analgesia with lesser doses of opioids thus decreasing the chance of opioid-induced adverse effects on cardiovascular and respiratory system [65].
Combining ketamine with opioid medication has been reported to block opioid-induced hyperalgesia and acute opioid tolerance.
When used in concomitantly, ketamine increases the sedative effects of benzodiazepines with its risk for respiratory depression. Extra caution should be sought, and airway monitoring should be considered.
Benzodiazepines should not be used prophylactically to prevent emergence reactions and should only be considered to manage an emergence reaction if the patient is a danger to themselves or staff. Suboptimal sedation requesting additional ketamine versus a true emergence reaction should be taken into consideration before the benzodiazepine administration.
Ketamine increases the sedative effects of alcohol, and it is essential to anticipate the risks of respiratory decompensation when ketamine is administered to an acutely intoxicated patient [57].
Ketamine should be excluded if cocaine use is suspected as ketamine’s sympathomimetic effects could superimpose over the cardiovascular toxicity of cocaine [18].
In the literature, there are not sufficient data in what concerning the use of ketamine in the geriatrics. It is advisable to decrease the dose when using ketamine in the elderly since NMDA receptor binding is slowed with age.
Ketamine is an alternative option to opioids and benzodiazepines for analgesia and sedation in the pediatric trauma patient over the age of 3 months.
Because of possible negative consequences on the developing brain in kids who have received repeated or prolonged exposure to drugs that block NMDA receptors, the use of ketamine in infants less than 3 years of age should be assessed within the context of the benefits and risks of the procedure [19].
Before ketamine use, it is first to take into account the adjunct measures for analgesia such as fractures immobilization or dislocations reductions.
Precautions should be taken when using ketamine out of hospital in the head-injured child. Adverse effects of ketamine in the children with head injuries have not been reported in the literature, though evidence on this topic is limited [66].
Analgesia and sedation are dynamic processes that must meet specific goals, be controlled and be easily modified according to the progress of patient’s condition. Knowledge of drug pharmacology and its safety margin and profile are paramount to limit their side effects. Setting a goal-directed strategy, establishing local protocols of administration and monitoring treatment are the cornerstone of an efficient analgesia and sedation strategy. These qualities contribute to fulfilling an optimal and safe level of sedation, looking to balance the deleterious effects of under or over sedation [12].
Further studies on the use of ketamine in the adult and pediatric trauma patient population are required.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
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\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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These cells were first recognized by Elia Metchnikoff in 1882 in the larvae of starfish upon insertion of thorns of tangerine tree and later in Daphnia magna or common water flea infected with fungal spores as cells responsible for the process of phagocytosis of foreign particles. Elia Metchnikoff received the Noble prize (Physiology and Medicine) for his discovery and describing the process of phagocytosis in 1908. More than 130 years have passed and different subtypes and roles of macrophages as innate immune cells have been established by the researchers. In addition to their immunoregulatory role in immune homeostasis and pathogenic infection, they also play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of sterile inflammatory conditions including autoimmunity, obesity, and cancer. The present chapter describes the immunoregulatory role of macrophages in the homeostasis and inflammatory diseases varying from autoimmunity to metabolic diseases including obesity.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Vijay Kumar",authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}]},{id:"67289",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86474",title:"The Pivotal Role of Macrophages in Metabolic Distress",slug:"the-pivotal-role-of-macrophages-in-metabolic-distress",totalDownloads:1230,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Obesity is a prevalent condition with several associated co-morbidities including the development of metabolic diseases. In obesity there is immune cell infiltration into the white adipose tissue and this is associated with the generation of inflammation and insulin resistance (IR). A large majority of the infiltrating leukocytes in obese adipose tissue are pro-inflammatory macrophages, which upon activation induce a switch in metabolism from oxidative phosphorylation, as is utilised by macrophages in lean adipose tissue, towards aerobic glycolysis. The signalling pathways evoked in the recruited macrophages induce the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, in signalling pathways which directly interfere with insulin signalling and thus induce a state of IR. As macrophages appear to play such a pivotal role in the generation of IR and are the largest leukocyte population in the adipose tissue, they provide a promising therapeutic target. Indeed, there are several strategies currently being studied to induce a ‘switch’ in macrophages associated with obese adipose tissue, towards the phenotype of those associated with lean adipose tissue, with arguably the most promising being those strategies designed to target the metabolic pathways within the macrophages. This chapter will discuss the polarisation and activation of macrophages within lean and obese adipose tissue and how these cells can be targeted therapeutically.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Joseph Roberts, Padraic G. Fallon and Emily Hams",authors:null},{id:"64543",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81995",title:"Cannabinoid Receptors as Regulators of Neutrophil Activity in Inflammatory Diseases",slug:"cannabinoid-receptors-as-regulators-of-neutrophil-activity-in-inflammatory-diseases",totalDownloads:1115,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cannabinoids are compounds present in Cannabis sativa (phytocannabinoids), endogenously produced (endocannabinoids) or synthesized, that bind to G protein-coupled receptors named cannabinoid receptors B1 and B2. They were first described as psychotropic compounds; however, cannabinoids are also potent immunoregulatory agents. Cannabinoids can modulate neutrophil activity in sterile and infectious inflammatory diseases. Concerning sterile inflammatory diseases as arthritis, ischemic diseases, and colitis, the use of CB2 agonist impairs the intracellular signaling pathways involved in the production of inflammatory mediators and expression of adhesion molecules. As a consequence, neutrophils did not release metalloproteinases either to adhere to endothelial cells, resulting in reduced tissue damage. A similar anti-inflammatory CB2 agonist mechanism of action in sepsis and mycobacterial infection models is observed. However, it is not clear if inflammation resolution promoted by cannabinoid treatment during infection is also related to microbial viability. Despite the growing literature showing the effects of cannabinoids on neutrophils, there are still some gaps that should be filled before proposing cannabinoid-based drugs to treat neutrophil-dependent diseases.",book:{id:"7129",slug:"neutrophils",title:"Neutrophils",fullTitle:"Neutrophils"},signatures:"Mariana Conceição Souza and Elaine Cruz Rosas",authors:null},{id:"68678",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88754",title:"Macrophages in the Pathogenesis of Leprosy",slug:"macrophages-in-the-pathogenesis-of-leprosy",totalDownloads:881,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by the intracellular pathogen Mycobacterium leprae. The disease may present different clinical forms depending on the immunological status of the host. M. leprae may infect macrophages and Schwann cells, and recent studies have demonstrated that macrophages are fundamental cells for determining the outcome of the disease. Skin lesions from patients with the paucibacillary form of the disease present a predominance of macrophages with a pro-inflammatory phenotype (M1), whereas skin lesions of multibacillary patients present a predominance of anti-inflammatory macrophages (M2). More recently, it was shown that autophagy is responsible for the control of bacillary load in paucibacillary macrophages and that the blockade of autophagy is involved in the onset of acute inflammatory reactional episodes in multibacillary cells. So, strategies that aim to induce autophagy in infected macrophages are promising not only to improve the efficacy of multidrug therapy (MDT) but also to avoid the occurrence of reactional episodes that are responsible for the disabilities observed in leprosy patients.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Rhana Berto da Silva Prata, Mayara Garcia de Mattos Barbosa, Bruno Jorge de Andrade Silva, Jéssica Araujo da Paixão de Oliveira, Tamiris Lameira Bittencourt and Roberta Olmo Pinheiro",authors:null},{id:"67817",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86433",title:"Wnt Signaling Regulates Macrophage Mediated Immune Response to Pathogens",slug:"wnt-signaling-regulates-macrophage-mediated-immune-response-to-pathogens",totalDownloads:994,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Infection with pathogenic microbes is a global threat. Macrophages play a fundamental role in promoting host resistance to deadly infections from pathogenic microbes by virtue of a well-orchestrated immune defense system. Phagocytosis and obliteration of invading pathogens by macrophages are an innate immune function that not only sustains immune homeostasis but also bolsters adaptive immune response through antigen processing and presentation. Wnt signaling, where Wnt, a secreted glycoprotein which interacts with Frizzled and ROR cell surface receptors to initiate cellular interactions, could be vital for the immune response executed and propagated by macrophages in both innate and adaptive immune responses. The goal of this chapter is to describe how Wnt signaling influences phagocytosis, autophagy, and transcriptional activation to enable the macrophage to exercise its immune response program to resist infection.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Suborno Jati and Malini Sen",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68185",title:"Macrophages: The Potent Immunoregulatory Innate Immune Cells",slug:"macrophages-the-potent-immunoregulatory-innate-immune-cells",totalDownloads:2173,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Macrophages are ubiquitously present innate immune cells in humans and animals belonging to both invertebrates and vertebrates. These cells were first recognized by Elia Metchnikoff in 1882 in the larvae of starfish upon insertion of thorns of tangerine tree and later in Daphnia magna or common water flea infected with fungal spores as cells responsible for the process of phagocytosis of foreign particles. Elia Metchnikoff received the Noble prize (Physiology and Medicine) for his discovery and describing the process of phagocytosis in 1908. More than 130 years have passed and different subtypes and roles of macrophages as innate immune cells have been established by the researchers. In addition to their immunoregulatory role in immune homeostasis and pathogenic infection, they also play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of sterile inflammatory conditions including autoimmunity, obesity, and cancer. The present chapter describes the immunoregulatory role of macrophages in the homeostasis and inflammatory diseases varying from autoimmunity to metabolic diseases including obesity.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Vijay Kumar",authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}]},{id:"68585",title:"Macrophage Polarization Is Decisive for Chronic Bacterial Infection-Induced Carcinogenesis",slug:"macrophage-polarization-is-decisive-for-chronic-bacterial-infection-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:809,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Macrophages are the special cells of the immune system and play both immunological and physiological role. One of the peculiar characteristics of macrophages is that they are double-edged and highly plastic component of immune system. Due to this characteristic, they are responsible for both progressions as well control of a variety of inflammatory, infectious and metabolic diseases and cancer. These are found in the body in three major phenotypes, which are known as M0 (also known as naïve); M1 (classically activated macrophages); and/or M2 (alternatively activated macrophages) at normal physiological conditions. We have been exploring macrophages in context of bacterial infection and previously demonstrated that M2 polarization of M1 effector alveolar macrophages during chronic/persistent Chlamydia pneumonia, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Helicobacter pylori pathogens are decisive for the infection induced cancer development in host. Since chronic infection with these pathogens has been associated with adenocarcinoma, therefore, we feel that disruption of macrophage plasticity plays crucial role in the host for the development of cancer. On the basis of this, we propose that in such pathological conditions, management of M1/M2 imbalance is paramount for minimizing the risk of developing cancer by chronic and persistent infection.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Mishi Wasson, Sonia Kapoor, Manoj Garg, Sandhya Singh and Hridayesh Prakash",authors:null},{id:"64543",title:"Cannabinoid Receptors as Regulators of Neutrophil Activity in Inflammatory Diseases",slug:"cannabinoid-receptors-as-regulators-of-neutrophil-activity-in-inflammatory-diseases",totalDownloads:1115,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cannabinoids are compounds present in Cannabis sativa (phytocannabinoids), endogenously produced (endocannabinoids) or synthesized, that bind to G protein-coupled receptors named cannabinoid receptors B1 and B2. They were first described as psychotropic compounds; however, cannabinoids are also potent immunoregulatory agents. Cannabinoids can modulate neutrophil activity in sterile and infectious inflammatory diseases. Concerning sterile inflammatory diseases as arthritis, ischemic diseases, and colitis, the use of CB2 agonist impairs the intracellular signaling pathways involved in the production of inflammatory mediators and expression of adhesion molecules. As a consequence, neutrophils did not release metalloproteinases either to adhere to endothelial cells, resulting in reduced tissue damage. A similar anti-inflammatory CB2 agonist mechanism of action in sepsis and mycobacterial infection models is observed. However, it is not clear if inflammation resolution promoted by cannabinoid treatment during infection is also related to microbial viability. Despite the growing literature showing the effects of cannabinoids on neutrophils, there are still some gaps that should be filled before proposing cannabinoid-based drugs to treat neutrophil-dependent diseases.",book:{id:"7129",slug:"neutrophils",title:"Neutrophils",fullTitle:"Neutrophils"},signatures:"Mariana Conceição Souza and Elaine Cruz Rosas",authors:null},{id:"63248",title:"Neutrophil Activation by Antibody Receptors",slug:"neutrophil-activation-by-antibody-receptors",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Neutrophils, the most abundant leukocytes in blood, are relevant cells of both the innate and the adaptive immune system. Immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibody molecules are crucial activators of neutrophils. IgGs identify many types of pathogens via their two Fab portions and are in turn detected through their Fc portion by specific Fcγ receptors (FcγRs) on the membrane of neutrophils. Thus, antibodies bring the specificity of the adaptive immune response to the potent antimicrobial and inflammatory functions of neutrophils. Two types of FcγRs with several polymorphic variants exist on the human neutrophil. These receptors are considered to be redundant in inducing cell responses. Yet, new evidence presented in recent years on how the particular IgG subclass and the glycosylation pattern of the antibody modulate the IgG–FcγR interaction has suggested that a particular effector function may in fact be activated in response to a specific type of FcγR. In this chapter, we describe the main types of FcγRs on neutrophils and our current view on how particular FcγRs activate various signaling pathways to promote unique effector cell functions, including phagocytosis, activation of integrins, nuclear factor activation, and formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs).",book:{id:"7129",slug:"neutrophils",title:"Neutrophils",fullTitle:"Neutrophils"},signatures:"Carlos Rosales and Eileen Uribe-Querol",authors:[{id:"192432",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Rosales",slug:"carlos-rosales",fullName:"Carlos Rosales"},{id:"198687",title:"Dr.",name:"Eileen",middleName:null,surname:"Uribe-Querol",slug:"eileen-uribe-querol",fullName:"Eileen Uribe-Querol"}]},{id:"67326",title:"Polarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages by Chinese Medicine Intervention: Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"polarization-of-tumor-associated-macrophages-by-chinese-medicine-intervention-mechanisms-and-applica",totalDownloads:935,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Macrophage polarization is a spectrum of phenotypes and generally can be classified into two states: (1) classically activated or M1 macrophages, which can be driven by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) alone or in association with Th1 cytokines and produce pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6 and, IL-12, and (2) alternatively activated M2 macrophages, which can be promoted by Th2 mediators IL-4 and IL-13 and produce anti-inflammatory cytokines such as TGF-β and IL-10. Current studies have found that the phenotypic switch between M1 and M2 macrophages governs the fate of an organ in inflammation or injury. The imbalance of M1/M2 polarization is closely involved in various pathological processes and is becoming a potential target for therapeutic strategies. Traditional Chinese medicine is an integrated healthcare system composed of many practices and is characterized by multi-target, multi-level, and coordinated intervention effects. Chinese medicines nowadays are applied to regulate phenotype polarization of macrophages to improve the microenvironment, thus ameliorating or even eliminating the symptoms. In this chapter, we will discuss the molecular mechanisms of macrophage polarization, their roles in health and disease, and the intervention with Chinese medicines to modulate the polarization of macrophages in tumor microenvironment (TME) for therapeutic purpose.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Yuanjun Lu, Hor Yue Tan, Ning Wang and Yibin Feng",authors:[{id:"14428",title:"Prof.",name:"Yibin",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"yibin-feng",fullName:"Yibin Feng"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"904",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:50,paginationItems:[{id:"81927",title:"Purinergic System in Immune Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104485",signatures:"Yerly Magnolia Useche Salvador",slug:"purinergic-system-in-immune-response",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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