Nominal settings of Sentinel-2A/Sentinel-2B MSI with band number, central wavelength, band width, and pixel size/resolution (source ESA).
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Even though Cardiac Magnetic Resonance imaging is currently the imaging modality of choice for tissue characterization, advanced echocardiography represents a modern alternative. Speckle tracking echocardiography can be used to assess myocardial deformation at both segmental and global levels. Since distinct myocardial pathologies affect deformation differently, information about the underlying tissue can be offered by strain imaging. Echocardiography advances also show promising results in the improvement of diagnostic accuracy, management, and follow-up and a major advantage of echocardiography over other imaging modalities is the ability to use it in real-time, in the cardiac catheterization laboratory, allowing for the performance of imaging immediately before, during, and after interventional procedures. Furthermore, the prevalence of adult congenital heart disease continues to grow due to advances in surgical and diagnostic techniques. Echocardiography has proven to be a useful tool in the diagnosis and follow-up of these patients, both after percutaneous and surgical procedures, and its utility has expanded significantly due to the development of better technology. In addition, stress echocardiography could be useful in the evaluation of several cardiac diseases and should be preferred over other imaging modalities due to the lower cost, wider availability, and radiation-free nature.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art novel imaging techniques by focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in this area.
Freshwater constitutes only 3% of the Earth’s water resource, but only 1% is available as surface water in lakes and rivers, while the remainder is frozen in glaciers and ice caps or stored underground. Lakes represent a valuable source of water for consumption and irrigation and provide a variety of key services such as food provision, energy generation, transportation, recreation, and tourism. Lakes are essential components of the hydrological and biogeochemical cycles due to their basic ability to store, retain, clean, and provide water [1]. Lake waters also contribute to support the agricultural sector and livestock to feed the 7 billion of people on our planet [2].
Lake ecosystems are under pressure from various human impacts as well as climate change [3]. They are sensitive to a range of stressors operating at global, regional, and local scales [4] whose impacts manifest in eutrophication, proliferation of toxic algae, increase in turbidity, loss of aquatic benthos, and harmful effects on health for both animals and humans [5]. Significant effort is often devoted to monitor for changes, to the restoration of impacted systems, and to the preservation of healthy lakes. For example, in Europe, the need for having “[…] a coherent and comprehensive overview of water status within each river basin district” was defined by the Water Framework Directive (WFD) [6], setting out the requirements for the monitoring of the status of surface waters with the main objective of maintaining “good” and non-deteriorating status for all waters.
Earth observation (EO) techniques with optical sensors have been used for many decades to support timely and frequent acquisition of synoptic lake water quality information [7 and reference herein]. In recent years, EO has become an operational tool to support traditional measurements providing, at a relatively low cost and for some bio-geophysical parameters, information on surface water status to support a variety of applications [e.g., 8, 9]. EO systems measuring water quality typically are multispectral radiometers which might be grouped by their characteristic spatial and spectral resolution. Spatial resolution (the area on the ground covered by each pixel) is of particular importance for remote sensing of inland waters [10] as it determines the minimum size of lakes visible by each satellite. Four groupings of satellite sensors can currently be distinguished: ocean color (e.g., Sentinel-3 OLCI or MODIS, with pixels of about 300–1000 m), multispectral sensors (e.g., Landsat or Sentinel-2, with pixels of 10–30 m), imaging spectrometers (e.g., Hyperion or PRISMA, with a pixel size of 30 m, but coverage is not global unlike the previous missions), and geostationary platforms (e.g., GOCI, with a 500 m pixel size). Ocean color sensors provide better data for aquatic applications because they have more and narrower spectral bands and higher signal-to-noise ratios, but multispectral sensors are often the only choice for inland water applications because their finer spatial resolution can resolve smaller water bodies [10]. Multiple sensors might be used for improving the resolutions as in [11].
After processing of the light measured by a satellite sensor at the top of the atmosphere by removing light scattered by the atmosphere, stray light from adjacent pixels and specular reflection from the water surface physical and biochemical parameters of lakes can be estimated using several methods. Parameters that can be estimated include turbidity, photosynthetic biota (e.g., phytoplankton, macrophytes, and cyanobacteria), colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM, e.g., humic and fulvic substances), and suspended non-algal particulate matter (e.g., detritus from land). Lakes are complex ecosystems relative to oceanic waters due to the large variety and range of concentrations of living and nonliving material [12]. This complexity also applies to the optical properties, i.e., the spectral characteristics of absorption and scattering of light, of the constituents of lake water [13, 14], and, therefore, their estimation in lakes is extremely challenging. For example, if one component (e.g., CDOM) dominates the others (e.g., phytoplankton), it may mask the signature of the other components in the reflectance spectrum and reduce the accuracy of determining their concentrations. Due to this optical complexity, most algorithms for the retrieval of biogeochemical parameters are tailored to specific lakes and are not applicable to systems with optical properties different to those used for their development [e.g., 15, 16].
When research activities are focusing on mapping water quality in lakes from national to global scales, simpler yet robust approaches might be therefore strategically adopted. Among those, the methods estimating the color of water as perceived by the human eye show promise, because it does not rely on knowledge on inherent optical properties and concentrations of water components. Although perceived color is not unambiguously related to quantitative water quality attributes such as clarity, the phytoplankton, suspended matter, and CDOM, the color of water can be seen as a water quality attribute in its own right with the advantage of intuitive meaning in public perception.
The Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage (CIE) [17] mathematically defines color by weighting the reflectance spectrum of an object with three mixing curves, or chromaticity curves, each specifying the respective sensitivity of the human eye to one of the primary colors. To adapt this definition to the spectral bands of satellite sensors, several methods have been developed starting from the use of Forel-Ule (FU) scale, a historical standard recently recalibrated [18]. More recently, van der Woerd and Wernand [19] developed an algorithm to derive the hue angle consistently from different ocean color and multispectral sensors. Hue angle can be thought of as the pure color most closely resembling the true color of natural waters.
Several studies have used color analysis for a variety of applications in different aquatic ecosystems, including oceans and lakes. For example, [20] used chromaticity coordinates to prove the capability of Landsat-5 in assessing water quality changes from the pelagic to the coastal zone in Lake Garda (Italy). Wang et al [21] assessed the trophic state of global inland waters using a MODIS-derived Forel-Ule index finding that oligotrophic large lakes are concentrated in plateau regions in central Asia and South America, while eutrophic large lakes are concentrated in central Africa, eastern Asia, and mid-northern and southeast North America. In New Zealand, [22] calculate the color of water on almost 45,000 observations from 1486 lakes over 4 years. A preliminary exploratory analysis suggests that both geophysical and anthropogenic factors, such as catchment land use, provide environmental control of lake color and are promising avenues for future analysis. Lastly, [23] revealed that subtropical oceans will get bluer as fewer phytoplanktons are able to survive in its waters, while green regions at the poles will turn greener as warming waters become more habitable for them.
In this study, the method developed in [24] is adopted to calculate the color of Italian lakes based on multispectral Sentinel-2 images, whose 10-m spatial resolution allowed us to observe 170 lakes of the country. We follow [22] to analyze and classify lake colors from two different periods in 2017 for seasonal variations and patterns related to geomorphology and other primary drivers of water quality.
About 2000 lakes are known in Italy, and ~500 of those have a surface area greater than 0.2 km2 (400 of which are freshwater bodies and 100 brackish water bodies) [25]. The lakes are diverse systems with a plethora of values, including biodiversity, water provision, recreation, and landscape. For example, the volcanic-lake district located between Lazio and Basilicata administrative regions has 80% of the deep lakes within the Mediterranean coastal region holding 94% of the freshwater in central and southern Italy [26].
Lakes in Italy have different origins and features. Alpine lakes are generally small, fed by meltwater, and are normally located at altitudes above 2000 m a.s.l. where they occupy basins carved by glaciers. The deep subalpine lakes—the largest in Italy—occupy deep elongated valleys shaped by the erosive action of glaciers during the last glacial period. The debris left by ice on the edge of the plain forms the so-called morainic amphitheaters that, like the case of Lake Garda, still mark the southern limit of these water basins. The moraine lakes are entirely enclosed by hills formed by glacial deposits on the border between the Prealps and the Po Plain (e.g., lakes Viverone, Varese, Pusiano). The barrier lakes are formed following the obstruction of a river valley due to a landslide or the accumulation of alluvial sediments; examples are Lake Alleghe (landslide) and Lake Levico (accumulation of sediments). Volcanic lakes, mainly found in central Italy, feature an almost circular shape. Their formation is mainly related to subsidence and caldera formation during the final stages of volcanic activity [27]; examples are Lake Bolsena and Lake Bracciano. Alluvial lakes located in Central Apennines are formed by the filling of depressions originated by the raising of the Apennine chain (e.g., Lake Trasimeno). Other types of lakes include coastal and artificial ones.
Italy’s overall lacustrine water volume is about 146 billion m3, with seven large lakes (Garda, Maggiore, Como, Bolsena, Iseo, Bracciano, and Monte Cotugno) representing more than 97% of this amount. A major part of these lakes is located in the northern sector of the Italian Peninsula (along the Alpine range), although the Mediterranean regions are characterized by a high number of artificial lakes mainly supporting drinking or irrigation purposes. The morphology of the lakes is diverse with surface areas ranging between 3.4 and 370 km2 (lakes Comabbio and Garda, respectively), maximum depths ranging between 2 and 410 m (Lesina and Como), and altitudes ranging between 0 and 507 m a.s.l. (lakes Lesina and Varano, and Vico).
Since 1997, a systematic investigation of morphological, physical, chemical, and biological features of the main lakes (with areas >0.2 km2) has been implemented under the Project LIMNO. This project has the objective of developing a territorial information system for the interdisciplinary study of Italian lake environments. It consists of a database focused on morphometric, chemical, and biological data of water and sediments and the geographic information system tool (GIS LIMNO), which also includes thematic information on land use.
A major outcome of this project is the ability to analyze the physical and chemical variables for time trends in many lakes, especially the subalpine ones. For Lake Pusiano, it was revealed that the total phosphorus (TP) concentration, after having increased up to 200 μg/L (i.e., hypereutrophic) around the middle of the 1980s of the last century, has undergone a constant decline, down to the value of 58 μg/L in 2004. In other cases, however, opposite trends were observed. For example, Lake Garda exhibited TP concentrations in the range of 15 (1990s) to 34 μg/L during the 2004 circulation. In general, TP concentration shows higher values in lakes located at altitudes lower than 1000 m a.s.l. (median = 43 μg/L), while, for high-altitude lakes, this value never exceeds 4 μg/L. A similar trend has been also detected for total alkalinity (TAlk), with the highest values at low-altitude lakes (TAlk = 2.65 meq/L) and lowest values at high-altitude lakes (TAlk = 0.40 meq/L). This trend is also reflected by pH, which shows the minimum values at the highest altitudes. To sum up, the collected evidence has confirmed a considerable reduction in the maximum values of nutrients and contaminants even if data has often verified an increase in their basal levels.
Sentinel-2 is a multispectral imaging mission of the Copernicus program. The mission that is funded by ESA Member States and the European Commission consists of twin satellites, the Sentinel-2A and Sentinel-2B, launched on 23 June 2015 on 7 March 2017, respectively.
Sentinel-2A and Sentinel-2B carry the Multispectral Imager (MSI), a push-broom sensor designed and built by Airbus Defense and Space, France. MSI has 13 spectral bands, ranging from the visible to the shortwave infrared (443–2190 nm) [28], with a swath width of 290 km and spatial resolutions of 10, 20, and 60 m (Table 1).
S2A | S2B | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Band number | Central wavelength (nm) | Bandwidth (nm) | Central wavelength (nm) | Bandwidth (nm) | Spatial resolution (m) |
b1 | 442.7 | 21 | 442.2 | 21 | 60 |
b2 | 492.4 | 66 | 492.1 | 66 | 10 |
b3 | 559.8 | 36 | 559.0 | 36 | 10 |
b4 | 664.6 | 31 | 664.9 | 31 | 10 |
b5 | 704.1 | 15 | 703.8 | 16 | 20 |
b6 | 740.5 | 15 | 739.1 | 15 | 20 |
b7 | 782.8 | 20 | 779.7 | 20 | 20 |
b8 | 832.8 | 106 | 832.9 | 106 | 10 |
b8a | 864.7 | 21 | 864.0 | 22 | 20 |
b9 | 945.1 | 20 | 943.2 | 21 | 60 |
b10 | 1373.5 | 31 | 1376.9 | 30 | 60 |
b11 | 1613.7 | 91 | 1610.4 | 94 | 20 |
b12 | 2202.4 | 175 | 2185.7 | 185 | 20 |
Nominal settings of Sentinel-2A/Sentinel-2B MSI with band number, central wavelength, band width, and pixel size/resolution (source ESA).
By providing spatial resolution on the order of tens of meters and spectral bands comparable to the Operational Land Imager on Landsat 8 (and imagers on previous Landsat missions back to Landsat-5), Sentinel-2 is becoming to be considered as a key sensor for mapping lakes [10], which are often too small for ocean color sensors largely used in water quality studies [e.g., 21]. Then, considering the capacity of revisiting the same area every 5 days (2–3 days toward mid to high latitudes because of the overlap of the paths), Sentinel-2 is also useful for tracking changes over time scales of weeks. Therefore, in the last years, a number of lake studies have been developed with Sentinel-2 [e.g., 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
In our study, 45 Sentinel-2A and Sentinel-2B MSI images were chosen, 22 during the spring (end of March to end of May) and the remaining acquired between late August and the end of September (late summer). Images were selected based on clear sky conditions and low glint contamination. Level-2C standard products were downloaded via the Copernicus Open Access Hub. The level-2C standard product is atmospherically corrected using the Sen2Cor [35]. Although the level-2C products rely on an atmospheric correction scheme not specifically designed for retrieving water leaving reflectance, it was recently demonstrated that its accuracy was better for inland than for coastal waters [36]; moreover level-2C MSI data have been used both in lake [37] and shallow water [38] applications. The MSI bands 1–5 were resampled at 10 m and then converted into remote sensing reflectance (
The chromaticity coordinates
The
Any pair of
The final step was the computation of dominant wavelength (
For each lake,
Chromaticity diagram showing the color of water of 170 lake observations determined from Sentinel-2A/Sentinel-2B MSI data of 2017. Data related to spring are shown on the left, whereas those observed in late summer are shown on the right. The white point (WP:
The optical properties of clean water are dominated by absorption and scattering by water molecules whose spectral dependence produces a blue reflectance spectrum. Therefore, the common perception that blue is “clean” is often true, while moving toward green, yellow, orange, and red, the optical effects of the other water components, such as phytoplankton, CDOM, and non-algal particle, become predominant. However, a simple back calculation from color to the direct causes of color change, e.g., proliferating phytoplankton or increasing sediment resuspension, is not possible. Nevertheless, any changes from blue can be reasonably attributed to decreasing water purity and is often also associated with a reduction in water clarity.
The frequency distribution of the dominant wavelength for the 170 lakes for both periods is plotted in Figure 2. Both histograms show a bimodal frequency distribution. In spring, most observations are in the blue-green part of the spectrum, with a secondary mode at green-yellow wavelengths. Vice versa, in late summer, most observations are in the green-yellow part of the spectrum and the secondary mode in the blue-green. To explain these changes, the lakes have been clustered according to three
Frequency histogram of dominant wavelength for the 170 lakes: on top, spring data; on bottom, late summer data.
Of the 170 lakes, 96 did not show any transition from one color class to another, while 13 lakes moved from blue to yellow, showing a major change of optical properties also likely associated with a reduction in water clarity. The remaining 61 lakes showed smaller transitions to the neighboring color: 45 from blue to green or from green to yellow. The other 16 lakes showed transitions in the opposite direction, from green to blue or from yellow to green, suggesting improving water clarity from spring to late summer.
The geographic distribution of the three color classes is presented in Figure 3. Subalpine lakes in the northern part of the country including the largest lakes of the country (lakes Garda and Maggiore of 370 and 210 km2, respectively) are distinctly blue in the spring. This lake district represents more than 80% of the total Italian lacustrine volume and is therefore of great interest. Moving from spring to late summer, a change of color toward green and yellow was observed in many of these lakes. Notably, the largest of these lakes, e.g., Lake Garda, remained blue.
Geographic distribution of lakes, colored according to their dominant wavelength: on left, spring observations; on right, summer observations. The latitudes in degrees are indicated as reference.
A similar change is occurring in Sardinia, the second largest island of the country. Blue lakes turn yellow and green from spring to late summer. In contrast, only few lakes in Sicily show color transitions, and green and yellow colors prevail. Along the peninsula, more lakes are also blue during the spring than in late summer. However, a geographic gradient is seen in that summertime greening or yellowing is more common in the southern half of the peninsula.
To investigate these trends further, the lakes were split into four clusters according to latitude: northern (with latitudes >44°N), central (with latitudes in the range 44–41°N), southern lakes (with latitudes <44°N), and separately the lakes of Sardinia (Figure 4). Similar to general trends observed at the national scale, a progressive increase in
Box plot depicting dominant wavelengths for spring (white) and autumn (gray) periods for northern (>44°N), central (44–41°N), Sardinian, and southern (<41°N) lakes.
A possible explanation, regardless of physical and chemical differences between lakes, is that the Mediterranean lakes are characterized by an advance of the growing season compared to northern ones. This may translate into an early start of the algal growth with significant effects on the color of the water. Consequently, it is quite natural to guess higher levels of productivity (colors basically more green-yellow) for southern lakes, as described by [39] at a global scale. Additionally, the differences between the two main Mediterranean and Italian islands, Sicily and Sardinia, are probably due to the geological and climatic differences between the two islands [40] and are likely exacerbated by the fact that their lakes are largely artificial reservoirs with site-specific trophic drivers.
In this study, the color of water, a simple and straightforward water quality attribute quantitatively described in terms of dominant wavelength, was retrieved from Sentinel-2A and Sentinel-2B MSI data. The method allowed us to map the color of 170 Italian lakes in two periods during 2017.
The results revealed a general increase in
Our work shows that color observations are an efficient means to capture an intuitive water quality attribute at spatial and temporal scales practically impossible to achieve using ground-based observations. Further investigations are required to relate color of water to trophic status and traditional water quality metrics such as chlorophyll
For more than four decades, satellite sensors have been used for lake monitoring, and since 2015, Sentinel-2 MSI provides free and open data at a spatial resolution suitable for small- to medium-sized lakes (down to 0.3 km2). MSI has similar spectral and spatial resolution as the Landsat series of satellites which allows the new data to be analyzed in continuity with historical imagery spanning back four decades. The color of water as calculated in this work is a promising water quality attribute for time series analysis as it does not rely on algorithms depending on inherent optical properties that have to be calibrated with field observations. While the present study only looked at two seasons in the same year, a long-term analysis could investigate the timing of summertime greening of the lakes in response to climatic forcing mechanism.
Ongoing research is focused on extending the color mapping over past observations. Future applications of chromaticity analysis are promising as each Sentinel-2 satellite has a 7-year lifetime design, and they are planned to be replaced in the framework of ESA’s Copernicus Program in 2022–2023 by new identical missions. This ensures continuity of the data record to 2030 and provides the opportunity for lake water quality monitoring for decades from now.
Sentinel-2 images were downloaded from Copernicus Open Access Hub. Morphometric characteristic of the Italian lakes were obtained CNR-LIMNO Project (http://www.ise.cnr.it/limno/limno.htm). We also thank Pietro Alessandro Brivio who has shared, with some of us, his knowledge on lake chromaticity at the end of the 1990s.
No potential conflict of interest is reported by the authors.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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Our current training not only generates relatively low number of geriatricians but there also remains a huge need for better staff training and support to provide safe, holistic and dignified care. The cornerstone of modern geriatric medicine is the comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA). This is defined as multidimensional, interdisciplinary diagnostic process that aims to determine a frail older person’s medical conditions, mental health, functional capability and social circumstances in order to develop a coordinated and integrated plan for treatment, rehabilitation and long-term follow-up [2]. All older people admitted to hospital with an acute medical illness, geriatric syndromes including falls, incontinence, delirium or immobility, unexplained functional dependency or need for rehabilitation warrant CGA. CGA could screen for treatable illnesses, establish the key diagnosis leading to hospital admission and formulate a rational therapeutic plan thus resulting in the improved outcome. This chapter starts with an introduction to the ageing nation and impact of ageing on hospitals. This will be followed by discussing physiological changes of ageing and the various components of multidisciplinary assessment for older people admitted to hospital with an acute illness that could lead to high-level holistic care. It also covers a wide range of issues and challenges which medical team/multidisciplinary teams often come across during routine care of acutely unwell older people. 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The concept of frailty has evolved significantly since the mid-twentieth century. The outdated stereotype of a “thin, stooped, slow octogenarian” has transitioned to a more scientific and objective understanding of the problem. Still, a comprehensive and concise definition of “frailty” remains elusive. Until such a definition is firmly established and universally agreed upon, clinicians continue to rely on the somewhat subjective conceptual framework of today. In this chapter, the authors review key issues pertaining to clinical management of frail patients, including diagnosis/identification, preventive strategies, therapeutic approaches, and common pitfalls. The relationship between frailty, various domains of life, and functional status is also discussed. 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Older people, particularly centurions, represent the fastest growing sector and are counted as the success of the society. But not everyone ages successfully and enjoys good health. Many older people have multiple long-term medical, physical, mental, psychological and social problems. This can result in reduced quality of life, higher cost and poorer health outcome including increased mortality. Chronic diseases are associated with disability and low self-reported general health. In addition, physiological changes of ageing and consequent loss of functional reserve of the organ systems lead to the increased physical disability and dependency. Therefore, geriatric medicine could warrant a more holistic approach than general adult medicine. Nearly two-thirds of people admitted to hospital are over 65 years old and an increasing number are frail or have a diagnosis of dementia [1]. Our current training not only generates relatively low number of geriatricians but there also remains a huge need for better staff training and support to provide safe, holistic and dignified care. The cornerstone of modern geriatric medicine is the comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA). This is defined as multidimensional, interdisciplinary diagnostic process that aims to determine a frail older person’s medical conditions, mental health, functional capability and social circumstances in order to develop a coordinated and integrated plan for treatment, rehabilitation and long-term follow-up [2]. All older people admitted to hospital with an acute medical illness, geriatric syndromes including falls, incontinence, delirium or immobility, unexplained functional dependency or need for rehabilitation warrant CGA. CGA could screen for treatable illnesses, establish the key diagnosis leading to hospital admission and formulate a rational therapeutic plan thus resulting in the improved outcome. This chapter starts with an introduction to the ageing nation and impact of ageing on hospitals. This will be followed by discussing physiological changes of ageing and the various components of multidisciplinary assessment for older people admitted to hospital with an acute illness that could lead to high-level holistic care. It also covers a wide range of issues and challenges which medical team/multidisciplinary teams often come across during routine care of acutely unwell older people. 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On the other hand, physiological and cognitive changes interfere with drugs’ pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics contributing to drug-related problems which have been reported to account for a large percentage of emergency treatment and hospitalizations of older people, increasing the costs with health in the most aged regions. In order to reduce the use of potentially inappropriate medicines in this population, strategies and tools have been developed in recent years to assess the appropriateness medication use in the elderly.",book:{id:"9161",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",fullTitle:"Frailty in the Elderly - Understanding and Managing Complexity"},signatures:"Daniela A. 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Both being and feeling frail represent two different drives of cognitive representations concerning how the elderly live their lives. In addition, other factors such as cognitive stimulation, assistive technology and physical activity can support frail people to achieve independence. This chapter aims to provide an overview on how the psychological environment may affect frailty, suggesting a possible role of new technology’s solutions and physical activity as therapeutic interventions.",book:{id:"9161",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",fullTitle:"Frailty in the Elderly - Understanding and Managing Complexity"},signatures:"Francesca Romana Greco and Grazia D’Onofrio",authors:[{id:"263317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca Romana",middleName:null,surname:"Greco",slug:"francesca-romana-greco",fullName:"Francesca Romana Greco"},{id:"272628",title:"Dr.",name:"Grazia",middleName:null,surname:"D'Onofrio",slug:"grazia-d'onofrio",fullName:"Grazia D'Onofrio"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"182",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/635",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"635"},fullPath:"/chapters/635",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()