FTIR spectrum of Na alginate from
\r\n\tCKs have crucial roles in various viral infections such as influenza, hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), viral meningitis, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and SARS-CoV-2.
\r\n\tCKs mediate the directing of the transport of leukocyte cells into the tumor microenvironment to generate the host response against cancer. CKs can directly modulate tumor tissue expansion by inducing the proliferation of cancerous cells and inhibiting their apoptosis. They can also indirectly modulate the growth of tumor tissue through the effects of CKs on tumor stromal cells, by inducing the release of growth and angiogenic factors of cells that make up the tumor microenvironment.
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a disease caused by hyperglycemia due to a relative or absolute insulin insufficiency. Chronic hyperglycemia can cause complications such as neuropathy, retinopathy, nephropathy, and cardiovascular disease [1]. Hyperglycemia can also cause impaired balance metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins [2]. International Diabetes Federation (IDF) estimates that in 2013 there were 382 × 106 people with diabetes and 316 × 106 people suffer from impaired glucose tolerance and increased risk of diabetes. These results are expected to increase to 471 × 106 in 2035 and predicted less than 25 years; there would be 592 × 106 people have diabetes without quick and precise prevention [3].
\nSeaweeds are the most abundant resources in the ocean. Seaweeds contain polysaccharides, proteins, amino acids, lipids, peptides, minerals, and some vitamins. Polyphenols of seaweed was used as cosmetics and pharmacological as antioxidants, protection from radiation, antibiotics, anti-inflammatory, hypoallergenic, antibacterial, and antidiabetic [4]. Polyphenol extracts from seaweed, for example,
Na alginate from
FTIR spectroscopy was used to identify the polysaccharide structures. A pellet of sodium alginate was prepared with KBr. FTIR spectrum was recorded on Shimadzu-FTIR Prestige 21 with a resolution of 4 cm−1 in the 4000–400 cm−1 region, with a scan speed of 0.20 cm s−1. The FTIR spectrum of sodium Na alginate of
Infrared spectra of Na alginate standard (red) and Na alginate of
Wave number (cm−1) | \nAssignments | \n|
---|---|---|
Na alginate standard [8] | \nNa alginate of | \n|
3425.58 | \n3464.15 | \nνO–H a | \n
2931.80 | \n2931.80 | \nνC–H a | \n
1620.21 | \n1627.92 | \nν asym COO- b | \n
1419.61 | \n1427.32 | \nδ C–O–H, νsym COO− (carboxylate ion)1,3 | \n
1095.57 | \n1087.85 | \nν C-O, ν C-C (pyranose ring)1,2,3 | \n
1033.85 | \n1033.85 | \nν C-O1 | \n
948.98 | \n948.98 | \nν C-O (uronic acid residues)1,3 | \n
894.97 | \n871.82 | \nδ C1-H (β-mannuronic residues)1,3 | \n
The peak infrared spectrum of standard alginate and
Wavelength (cm−1) | \nType of vibration | \n||
---|---|---|---|
Na alginate standard [9] | \nNa alginate of | \nReference | \n|
— | \n779.24 | \n778.201 | \nGuluronic acid residues | \n
948.98 | \n948.98 | \n950–8102 | \nC-O stretching | \n
1033.85 | \n1026.13 | \n1023.401 | \nC-O stretching | \n
1095.57 | \n1087.85 | \n1100–10503 | \nOCO ring (shoulder) | \n
1303.88 | \n— | \n1320–12102 | \nC-O stretching | \n
1419.61 | \n— | \n1460–14002 | \nC-O asymmetric stretching | \n
2931.80 | \n2931.80 | \n~29252 | \nC-H stretching | \n
3425.58 | \n3471.87 | \n3600–32003 | \nO-H stretching | \n
Infrared spectra of Na alginate standard (red) and Na alginate of
Alloxan-induced diabetic rats did not show a significant decrease in body weight after the injection of alloxan. Five groups of diabetic rats had decreased in body weight on 15 days treatment, and there were significant differences between the groups of rats. There was no significant difference between diabetic control (negative control) compared to positive control, and the positive control was not significantly different compared to alloxan diabetic rats treated with Na alginate 200 mg/kg. Alloxan-induced diabetic rats treated with Na alginate(s) (200, 400, 600 mg/kg) did not show significant difference between each other. Administration of Na alginate(s) (400, 600 mg/kg) showed a significant difference compared to negative control. The body weight of alloxan-induced diabetic rats treated with Na alginate 600 mg/kg was not significantly different compared to normal control.
\nThe lowering of rats’ body weight treated with alginate from
Diabetic mice showed weight loss in all treatment groups except the normal control group. Normal control group gained weight of 24.1 g. The negative control group had a very significant weight loss of 51.6 g. The positive control group had a weight loss of 47.2 g. The treatment group of extract 200 mg/kg had a weight loss of 58.8 g. The treatment group of 400 mg/kg extract had a weight loss of 45.3 g. Meanwhile, the treatment group giving 600 mg/kg extract experienced a decrease in body weight by 43.1 g. Streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats are one of the animal models of type 1 diabetes mellitus. It is well known for its selective pancreatic islet beta-cell cytotoxicity and has been extensively used to induce type 1 diabetes in an experimental rat model. Glibenclamide is often used as a standard antidiabetic drug in STZ-induced diabetes to compare the efficacy of a variety of hypoglycemic drugs [18].
\nThroughout the experiments, all the rats were monitored daily and/or weekly for the symptoms of type 1 diabetes mellitus, including polydipsia, polyuria, polyphagia, hyperglycemia, and muscle wasting leading to weight loss and insulin deficiency. Figure 1 shows the observations of body weight of treated rats during the whole period of experiments. The body weight was continuously increased in the normal group and decreased in all diabetes groups. A severe loss of body weight characterizes STZ-induced diabetes. Due to absolute or relative deficiency of insulin and decrease of the production of ATP, protein synthesis decreases in all tissues.
\nAlloxan is a urea derivative which causes selective necrosis of the pancreatic islet β-cells [19]. Alloxan and its reduction product dialuric acid establish a redox cycle with the formation of superoxide radicals [20]. Preprandial blood glucose levels were determined as fasting blood glucose. Fasting is defined as no calorie intake for at least 8 h [1]. Diabetes is diagnosed when the fasting plasma glucose concentration is consistently ≥7 mmol/L (126 mg/dL) or when the 2 h plasma glucose concentration (after drinking a 75 g glucose load) is consistently ≥11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) [21].
\nAdministration of alloxan led to a significant increase of preprandial blood glucose levels in rats after 3 days. Administration of Na alginate(s) (200, 400, 400 mg/kg) significantly reduced the blood glucose level compared to diabetic control. The dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg of Na alginate did not show a significant difference compared to normal control and positive control (Table 3). The result was supported by previous studies using fiber to decrease preprandial blood glucose. Nelson et al. [22] used high indigestible fiber and low indigestible fiber diet to decrease preprandial blood glucose in diabetic dogs for 8 months which resulted in high indigestible fiber significantly that reduces preprandial blood glucose better than low indigestible fiber. Nelson et al. [23] used similar treatment in diabetic cats for 24 weeks and showed high indigestible fiber which gave a better effect on decreasing preprandial blood glucose than low indigestible fiber. Chandalia et al. [12] compared the amount of fiber that was given to diabetic patients according to the American Diet Association (8 g digestible fiber and 16 indigestible fiber) and fiber-rich diet (25 g digestible fiber and 25 indigestible fiber) for 6 weeks. Fiber-rich diet decreased 13% preprandial blood glucose lower than ADA diet.
\nGroup | \nPreprandial blood glucose (mg/dL)* | \n|
---|---|---|
Normal control | \n106.06 ± 11.33b,c | \n126.30 ± 0.50a | \n
Negative control | \n208.57 ± 70.60a | \n568.82 ± 46.40c | \n
Positive control | \n86.29 ± 13.83b | \n316.35 ± 20.90b | \n
Alginate (200 mg/kg) | \n108.50 ± 11.28c | \n279.45 ± 92.50b | \n
Alginate (400 mg/kg) | \n96.55 ± 15.65b,c | \n336.63 ± 66.32b | \n
Alginate (600 mg/kg) | \n99.03 ± 14.26b,c | \n257.66 ± 34.61b | \n
Effect of Na alginate of
Values are means ± SD. Values followed by the different superscript symbol(s) in each column were significantly different (
Normal postprandial blood glucose level is <180 mg/dL [1]. In the normal state, the postprandial blood glucose level increases less than 50 mg/dL from the preprandial blood glucose level after carbohydrate intake [24]. Alloxan-induced diabetic rats’ postprandial blood glucose level surpassed 200 mg/dL after 3 days of injection. After 15 days of treatment, the result was the administration of Na alginate(s) (200, 400, 600 mg/kg) which significantly reduces postprandial blood glucose levels on rats compared to diabetic control (P < 0.05). However, it failed to restore the level to that of normal control group and positive control group (P < 0.05). The positive control group could restore the postprandial blood glucose level at the same level as a normal control group (Table 4).
\nGroup | \nPostprandial blood glucose (mg/dL)* | \n|
---|---|---|
Normal control | \n133.05 ± 15.81b | \n150.416 ± 5.1a | \n
Negative control | \n360.48 ± 40.80a | \n633.470 ± 27.8c | \n
Positive control | \n140.75 ± 9.16b | \n333.814 ± 64.5ab | \n
Alginate (200 mg/kg) | \n257.08 ± 34.20c | \n421.652 ± 21.4bc | \n
Alginate (400 mg/kg) | \n238.61 ± 21.48c | \n433.333 ± 21.8bc | \n
Alginate (600 mg/kg) | \n196.05 ± 18.22d | \n381.250 ± 11.4ab | \n
Effect of Na alginate of
Values are means ± SD. Values followed by the different superscript symbol(s) in each column were significantly different (
Wolf et al. [25] used 1.5 g sodium alginate to show its effect on postprandial glucose peak and glucose uptake reduction after 3 h which resulted in line 32.80 ± 3.40 and 1429 ± 276 mg/dL. Sodium alginate had a reduction effect better than 1.2 g gum arabic and 0.3 g gum guar with postprandial glucose peak 40.40 ± 3.30 mg/dL and glucose uptake 1717 ± 433 mg/dL. A study on the effect of a meal containing alginate compared to testing a meal without alginate by Torsdottir et al. [26] showed that postprandial blood glucose levels by meal containing alginate decrease 31% lower than a meal without alginate.
\nPreprandial glucose levels for all treatment groups of alginate from
All treatment groups of extracts of
In general, the viscosity of dietary fiber can reduce the rise in blood glucose levels and reduce food intake by slowing the empty stomach and slowing the absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. Based on these two mechanisms, it is still not clear what mechanisms apply to sodium alginate, perhaps one or both [30]. Different doses of alginate will affect the viscosity of the given test preparation. So, it will lead to differences in the viscosity of the fluid in the gastrointestinal tract and ultimately result in differences in the rate of glucose absorption from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood vessels [31].
\nDiabetes is associated with major abnormalities in fatty acid metabolism. The resulting disturbance results in an abnormal lipoprotein cascade from the large chylomicron through to the small HDL particle [31, 32]. Total cholesterol in the serum of negative control was not significantly different compared to positive control, Na alginate 200 and 400 mg/kg treatment, and normal control. Na alginate 600 mg/kg of
Group | \nTotal cholesterol (mg/dL)* | \n|
---|---|---|
Normal control | \n70.40 ± 7.12b | \n41.55 ± 0.20a | \n
Negative control | \n67.75 ± 16.02b | \n68.41 ± 12.50b | \n
Positive control | \n72.40 ± 15.24b | \n45.79 ± 9.80a | \n
Alginate (200 mg/kg) | \n55.80 ± 3.42a,b | \n49.05 ± 20.00ab | \n
Alginate (400 mg/kg) | \n65.60 ± 14.47b | \n54.46 ± 11.00ab | \n
Alginate (600 mg/kg) | \n47.80 ± 5.40a | \n34.20 ± 7.50a | \n
Effect of Na alginate of
Values are means ± SD. Values followed by the different superscript symbol(s) in each column were significantly different (
Several previous studies supported the result. Suzuki et al. [33] evaluated the effect of alginate-rich guluronic and mannuronic on cholesterol levels in rats fed with diets containing both alginates and cholesterol which resulted from reductions in liver cholesterol in rats fed with each alginate and significantly low cholesterol accumulation in mannuronic acid-rich alginate. Ren et al. [34] screened 26 species of seaweeds and six polysaccharides from algae to study their effect on lipid in rats fed with basal diet for 28 days of treatment. The six polysaccharides were sulfated glucuronoxylomannan (0.5%), fucoidin (1%), sodium alginate (1%), funorin (2.5%), porphyrin (2.5%), and agar (2.5%). Reduction effect of each polysaccharide was 64, 65, 68, 77, 88, and 95%, respectively, compared to control group. At the end of the study, the polysaccharides could restore the cholesterol level to the same level as the control group.
\nTotal cholesterol levels of the normal control group, positive control, and alginate 600 mg/kg of
Wikanta et al. [35] reported that sodium alginate could lower total cholesterol in mice with hypercholesterolemia. Administration of sodium alginate with a viscosity of 450 cps significantly reduced total cholesterol levels compared to sodium alginate with lower viscosity. Because, sodium alginate is a water-soluble fiber compound, forming a viscous solution. The stomach fluid cannot digest this compound in the gastrointestinal tract. When dissolved in water, the sodium alginate fibers form a mesh-like grid that strongly binds many water molecules in a well-defended solute. Its properties as emulgator increasingly enhance the binding ability. A similar mechanism occurs against lipid molecules in bile acids in the gastrointestinal tract. The binding or bonding of lipids by the alginate makes lipid and cholesterol unable to absorb the body through the small intestine so that it eventually comes out with the stool. Suzuki et al. [33] also reported that alginate with various mannuronic acid and guluronic acid compositions can decrease total blood cholesterol levels.
\nAdministration of Na alginate to alloxan-induced diabetic rats for 200 mg/kg alginate of
Group | \nHDL-c (mg/dL)* | \n|
---|---|---|
Normal control | \n108.00 ± 6.59c | \n70.549 ± 1.50a | \n
Negative control | \n59.75 ± 9.39a | \n75.549 ± 11.10a | \n
Positive control | \n58.00 ± 7.78a | \n96.843 ± 14.10a | \n
Alginate (200 mg/kg) | \n61.80 ± 5.57a | \n97.617 ± 11.50a | \n
Alginate (400 mg/kg) | \n74.80 ± 10.08b | \n84.03 ± 28.20a | \n
Alginate (600 mg/kg) | \n78.60 ± 10.60b | \n75.98 ± 17.70a | \n
Effect of Na alginate of
Values are means ± SD. Values followed by the different superscript symbol(s) in each column were significantly different (
According to Rohman [36] HDL is a protective lipoprotein, in addition to functioning to bring fat to the liver; HDL proved to inhibit the oxidation of LDL and adhesion molecules. HDL-c levels throughout the treatment group did not have a significant difference. The same is also shown in the study of Suzuki et al. [33] that there was no statistically significant difference in HDL-c levels in mice suffering from hypercholesterolemia treated with sodium alginate in comparison with different glucuronic acid and mannuronic acids.
\nLDL-c after administration of alginate(s) from
Group | \nLDL-c (mg/dL)* | \n|
---|---|---|
Normal control | \n58.80 ± 7.19a | \n34.07 ± 0.90a | \n
Negative control | \n60.75 ± 16.52a | \n55.34 ± 8.30b | \n
Positive control | \n65.00 ± 14.05a | \n27.51 ± 10.00a | \n
Alginate (200 mg/kg) | \n49.60 ± 3.13a,b | \n31.81 ± 11.80a | \n
Alginate (400 mg/kg) | \n55.60 ± 13.13a,b | \n33.91 ± 5.30a | \n
Alginate (600 mg/kg) | \n41.00 ± 5.83b | \n28.78 ± 5.30a | \n
Effect of Na alginate of
Values are means ± SD. Values followed by the different superscript symbol(s) in each column were significantly different (
Administration of sodium alginate from
Triglyceride management on type 2 diabetes is targeting for <150 mg/dL [1]. When the glucose levels excess in the blood, glucose will be converted to triglycerides in which triacylglycerol synthesis process is known as lipogenesis. Carbohydrate-rich meal can lead to increase the process of lipogenesis in the liver and adipose tissue. However, the occurrence of insulin resistance inhibits lipogenesis process making glucose and free fatty acid levels in blood plasma increased. In the liver, triglyceride accumulation can cause malfunctioning of the liver (fatty liver) or liver cirrhosis in the long term [39]. Triglyceride of alloxan-induced diabetic rats did not show a significant difference between the groups of treatment using alginate of
Group | \nTriglyceride (mg/dL)* | \n|
---|---|---|
Normal control | \n75.80 ± 10.33a | \n28.73 ± 12.20a | \n
Negative control | \n77.75 ± 20.90a | \n77.73 ± 14.10b | \n
Positive control | \n80.40 ± 13.14a | \n24.31 ± 9.60a | \n
Alginate (200 mg/kg) | \n63.40 ± 25.41a | \n24.12 ± 17.70a | \n
Alginate (400 mg/kg) | \n60.80 ± 13.80a | \n31.73 ± 2.90a | \n
Alginate (600 mg/kg) | \n54.80 ± 10.91a | \n37.67 ± 8.50a | \n
Effect of Na alginate of
Values are means ± SD. Values followed by the different superscript symbol(s) in each column were significantly different (
Paxman et al. [40] reported that a drink containing alginate in the obese patient had no effect on tryglyceride level. Triglyceride levels did not show a significant difference between alginate treatment group and control group. Ren et al. [34] used six polysaccharides from algal species as a treatment for rats given with basal diet for 28 days. All of the polysaccharides used in this research could reduce triglyceride levels as good as their ability reducing LDL-c in blood serum. Funoran and sulfated glucuronoxylorhamman reduced triglyceride levels between 46 and 64% compared to the control group. Sodium alginate could decrease the triglyceride level to 29% compared to the control group. Fucoidan can reduce the triglyceride levels to 12–20% [34].
\nThe levels of triglycerides during the experiment using alginate of
All groups treated with DM except for the normal control group showed elevated triglyceride levels. Levels of triglycerides increased up to 574.867 mg/dL. The condition of hypertriglyceridemia can be diagnosed if the triglyceride level >150 mg/dL [41]. According to Pujar et al. [42], this can be due to direct damage from the pancreatic tissue by high free fatty acids. The concentration of high free fatty acid will decrease the pH and may activate trypsinogen. Also, high triglyceride levels can also be caused by the destruction of chylomicron which is a triglyceride carrier. This changes the acinar function and opens the pancreatic tissue to triglycerides.
\nNecrosis is defined as the type of cell death caused by changing the morphology of the nucleus, including chromatin condensation and fragmentation, minor changes in cytoplasmic organelles, and overall causes of cell shrinkage (apoptosis) and autophagic accumulation of two vacuole membranes in the cytoplasm [43]. In type I diabetes mellitus, patients found changes in the pancreas in the form of the reduced size of the pancreas, atrophy in the exocrine pancreas, and atrophy of the acinar cells around the degenerated Langerhans island. On the other hand, in type II diabetes mellitus, an imbalance of exocrine secretion of the pancreas and impaired control of blood glucose occur [44].
\nNormal controls show normal cell conditions (Figure 3). Negative controls show some damage to the cell. The positive control treatment group also shows the same. The treatment group of sodium alginate extract is entirely damaged in cells (necrosis). The treatment group of
Histological studies of STZ diabetic rat pancreas. Normal control: pancreatic section showed the normal size of islets, and destruction was absent (Grade -). Negative control: pancreatic section showed (green arrow) occasional islets, and (orange arrow) destruction was severe (Grade ++++). Positive control (diabetic rats +5 mg glibenclamide/kg b.w.): pancreatic section showed moderate islet architecture (green arrow), and destruction (orange arrow) was moderate (Grade +++). Diabetic rats +200 mg alginate/kg b.w., and diabetic rats 400 mg alginate/kg b.w.: pancreatic section showed (green arrow) occasional islets, and (orange arrow) destruction was severe (Grade ++++). Diabetic rats +600 mg alginate/kg b.w.: pancreatic section showed (green arrow) additive improvement in the mass of islets as compared to other alginate treatments, and (orange arrow) destructions was mild (Grade ++). Grade −, normal; Grade ++++, severe destruction; Grade +++, moderate destruction; Grade ++, mild injury.
Administration of alginate from
Research Grants Flagship Universitas Gadjah Mada supported this research through DIPA UGM 2014 number LPPM-UGM/478/LIT/2014.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
Broiler production is based on increasing meat quality, improving the characteristics of the chicken meat. Characteristics such as appearance, texture, juiciness, watery, firmness, tenderness, odor, and flavor of the meat are important for the consumer’s judgment before and after purchasing a meat product. However, quantifiable meat properties, such as water-holding capacity (WHC), shear force, drip loss, cooking loss, pH, and shelf life, are indispensable for the processing of meat products with added value. Many research was carried out as an alternative to improve the quantity, quality, and homogeneity of farm animals and their products. The use of additives can contribute to improving animal performance and meat quality parameters. One of these alternatives is the supplementation of nanoparticles, probiotics, and prebiotics in the diet of broiler chickens.
In this review, general aspects of the use of nanoparticles, probiotics, and prebiotics in poultry feed are reported.
Nanomaterials are being used in agriculture, feed, and food [1]. Some are stable at high temperature and pressure [2] and can be easily assimilated into the digestive system [3]. The action mode of the nanoparticles depends mainly on many factors, such as particle size, sizes smaller than 300 nm spread in the blood, but particles smaller than 100 nm reach tissues [4]. Thus, there is better interaction with other biologically active substances due to a larger surface area
Silver nanoparticles exhibit a strong antimicrobial effect [9]. On the other hand, the use of nano-minerals, such as nano-selenium, nano-chromium, or nano-zinc, can improve the parameters of animal production, their healthiness, and the quality of the products obtained from them, research has shown better effects in relation to the inorganic salts of these elements and chelates used on a large scale in the animal feed industry [10]. Considering this, in the livestock industry, research was conducted to improve the composition and quality of meat. Thus, the enrichment of feed with nanoparticles and their effects on meat properties were evaluated.
Selenium (Se) influences the physiological function and growth performance of animals and humans [11, 12]. Thus, it is necessary for various enzymes that are active in all cells. Dietary supplementation with selenium can increase growth performance in broilers [13, 14]. Studies show that the use of nano-selenium in supplementation improved weight gain and feed-conversion rate [15, 16], higher percentages of breast and drumstick, and a lower percentage of abdominal fat [15]. Some studies indicated that supplementation of 0.30 mg/kg of selenium improves growth performance [17, 18, 19, 20]. According to Zhou and Wang [19] supplementation of diets with 0.30 mg/kg of nano-selenium with organic sources of selenium was effective in increasing growth performance and feed-conversion rates of broilers [16, 19]. Other studies showed no effect of nano-selenium supplementation in the diet in relation to body weight gain [21] and growth performance [22].
Zinc (Zn) is essential with widely variable functions in many important enzymatic processes of glucose, protein, and lipid metabolism and production and secretion of hormones [23]. It is nutritionally essential for the development and maintenance of growth performance in broilers [24]. The permitted level of Zn for poultry diets, as recommended by the National Research Council [25], is 40 mg/kg. However, high zinc content in the diet can lead to excess zinc in the feces, which causes environmental pollution [26], affects the balance of other trace elements in the body, and can reduce the stability of vitamins and other nutrients [27]. The substitution of the inorganic source of ZnO by nano-ZnO or combined nano-ZnO and Zn promoted the growth of broilers, increased the absorption of Zn and antioxidant status without negative influence on the distribution of selected minerals in broiler tissues [28]. Other studies have shown that nano-Zn supplementation improved weight gain and feed efficiency [29, 30], decreased cholesterol levels [31], decreased abdominal lipids [30] as well as improved the meat quality of broilers [30]. A concentration of 2.5 ppm of nano-ZnO can improve the performance of broilers [32]. Concentrations of 20 and 60 mg/kg of nano-ZnO can promote body weight gain [33].
Silver (Ag) has been considered antibacterial made by humans and can be used as an additive instead of antibiotics due to its antibacterial properties and adaptability to biological systems [34]. Nanosilver was destructive in the influence on pathogenic intestinal microorganisms and induced better nutrient absorption, improvement in feed intake, weight gain, and feed efficiency of broilers [35]. However, the study conducted by Ahmadi [36] showed that when Ag-NPs were introduced in diets there was no improvement compared to control treatment, performance, body weight, feed intake, feed-conversion rate, and feed efficiency of broilers during a 42-day experimental period. This effect may be a result of Ag-NPs could affect organisms in the intestine (intestinal microflora). Nanosilver is an effective elimination agent against a broad spectrum of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria [37], including antibiotic-resistant strains [38, 39].
Manganese (Mn) have an important role in bone development, normal nutrient metabolism, and biochemical processes, such as pyruvate carboxylase, superoxide dismutase, and glycolyltransferase [40, 41]. Levels of 100–400 mg/kg supplemental manganese sulfate (MnSO4) decreased abdominal fat deposition [42, 43] and the level of malondialdehyde (MDA) in the broiler muscle, reducing lipoprotein lipase activity and increasing the activity of superoxide dismutase containing Mn (MnSOD) [42]. According to Brooks et al. [44] supplementation of Mn 20–500 mg/kg in diets for broilers did not affect BWG (weight gain) or FI (feed intake). Several other studies found no effects of dietary levels of Mn on growth performance [40, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48].
Chromium (Cr) is important for physiological and nutritional activity [49]. It has potent hypocholesterolemic and antioxidant properties. It helps in the metabolism of fats, carbohydrates, and protein in animals; manifests itself in reducing the amount of glucose and cholesterol in the blood; helps in reducing fat deposits; and stimulates the formation of muscle tissue [50]. Kumari et al. [51] reported higher weight gain, the feed-conversion efficiency in the diet can produce lean meat with decreased muscle cholesterol and fat percentage for dietary supplementation with nano-Cr (400–1600 ppb). In the study conducted with chromium and nano-chromium supplementation and under thermal stress the results showed better performance, including weight gain and feed-conversion rate of broilers [52].
The pH influences the quality of meat that reflects the change in acidity in the fermentation process of muscle tissue and speed of glycogen fermentation after slaughter, the stable pH value is conducive to normal maturation of muscles [53]. After slaughter, a rapid decrease in pH in the muscle results in the denaturation of the myofibrillar protein with the decrease in protein solubility, obtaining a poor WHC and greater drip loss [54], decreased juiciness, and intense muscle coloration [55].
The increase in the pH value observed after selenium supplementation indicates a delay in the metabolic conversion of glucose into lactic acid in the postmortem muscle [18]. The breast muscles of chickens that received nano-Se supplementation showed higher pH values after 45 min of 6.17 and after 24 h pH value 5.85 [18]. Similar results were reported for chicken breast meat with a Met-Se diet [56]. Mohammadi et al. [16] used dietary sources of Se and REO (rosemary essential oil) and did not observe effect at pH 4 h after slaughter.
Studies by Liu et al. [24] showed that Zn supplementation increases the pH value (5.88–6.06) after 24 h in the thigh muscle independent of the Zn source. A similar study was conducted by El-Hack et al. [30] who observed an increase in the pH value from 5.5 to 6.0 when supplemented with nano-ZnNPs. However, pH values of 6.15–6.25 were observed in chicken meat when supplemented to diet with nano-Zn (ZONPs - 10–50 ppm zinc oxide) [57]. Already lower pH values of 5.63–5.69 for chicken meat using nano-ZnO supplementation (2.5–40 ppm) were reported by Hussan et al. [32]. Supplemental Zn significantly increased pH values in broiler muscle [24, 57]. In agreement, Selim et al. [58] reported that chickens fed ZONPs reduced the pH of the breast muscle and thigh by 6.8%. ZONPs at 40 ppm reduced color and overall acceptability compared to control. According to Selim et al. [58], the use of ZONPs at 40 or 80 ppm did not affect the sensory evaluation of chicken meat, including texture, aroma, color, and general acceptability.
Shokri et al. [48] reported higher pH values for broilers fed diets supplemented with nano-Mn when compared with control, pH values 6.41–6.44 for breast and pH values of 6.50–6.83 for thigh after slaughter. After 4 h of slaughter, pH values of 6.15–6.24 for breast meat and thigh pH values of 5.99–6.20 were observed. Lu et al. [42] reported that the added Mn content had no effect on water-retention capacity and pH values in the thigh muscles and intramuscular fat in the chest and thigh muscles.
In a study conducted by Hashemi et al. [59], there were no differences in pH values after slaughter between control poultry and poultry fed nano-Ag, pH values from 5.38 to 5.78 for breast muscle were observed.
According to Sams and Mills [60], the normal pH values at the end of the postmortem process are between 5.60–5.80 and 5.78–5.86, respectively. However, according to Soeparno [61], normal pH values would be in the range of 5.3–6.5. The high muscle pH makes the meat more susceptible to bacterial deterioration, while the low muscle pH increases the shelf life of chicken meat [62].
Some evidence indicates positive correlations between WHC and pH and a negative correlation between WHC and humidity [55]. In fact, Young et al. [63] explained that there is no good relative correlation between pH and water-retention capacity, and the lower overall final pH did not result in an overall decrease in water-retention capacity.
According to Huff-Lonergan and Lonergan [64], meat oxidation could decrease sensitivity to hydrolysis, weaken protein degradation, and reduce water reserves among myofibrils, which would increase meat juice loss by influencing softness and water-retention capacity.
Selenium is an essential trace element that positively regulates the antioxidant defense mechanism and is vital for the body’s intra- and extracellular antioxidant systems [65]. Research shows improvement in antioxidant properties [18, 19, 65]. For levels from 0.15 to 0.3 ppm using different sources of if there was an improvement in oxidation levels [20].
MDA is one of the final products of the peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in cells and is a marker of oxidative stress [66]. Concentrations of 0.3–0.5 mg/kg of nano-Se in diet supplementation were effective to improve oxidation resistance by reporting lower MDA concentration in broiler samples fed diets supplemented with nano-Zn [18, 65]. The storage under cooling of the chest and thigh muscles is supplemented with Se observed a decrease in MDA concentration [16]. In addition, El-Deep et al. [17] reported a reduction in lipid peroxidation (MDA content) in broilers under high ambient temperature.
Changes in carcass characteristics may be due to increased tissue zinc residue, the effect of zinc on the antioxidant status and the oxidative enzyme, and especially the antioxidant function and water-holding capacity of muscle [24, 33, 58]. In the study by El-Hack et al. [30] the activity of liver enzymes and malondialdehyde (MDA) decreased in the groups treated with nano-Zn (ZnNPs). Supplementation of broilers with 25 and 50 mg/kg of nano-Zn showed lower TBA values [67].
Hashemi et al. [59] observed an increase in MDA levels with an increase in nano-Ag supplementation levels. Protein oxidation can lead to the production of intermolecular bonds, including disulfide, dityrosine, and other intermolecular bridges to form the aggregation and polymerization of proteins [68].
Jankowski et al. [69] indicated that the antioxidant system worked properly when Mn was added in the form of nanoparticles, which can be attributed to the increase in the activity of Mn-SOD, GPx, and CAT. Lu et al. [70] reported that broilers fed diets supplemented with Mn presented low concentrations of MDA in the thigh muscle. Similar results were obtained when nano-Mn was added to the diets causing a reduction in the concentration of MDA in the thigh muscle in storage under refrigeration [48]. In contrast, Bozkurt et al. [71] reported that MDA concentrations increased in broilers fed diets supplemented with Mn. Already Bulbul et al. [72] reported that organic and inorganic sources of Zn and Mn decreased oxidative stress in laying hens.
According to Ognik et al. [73], a dose of 10 mg/kg in the form of NP-Mn2O3 induced large-scale lipid oxidation reactions. The reduction of Mn content, regardless of the form used, is disadvantageous, since it weakens the defense of the antioxidant system, which can induce oxidative processes in cells. In addition, the increase in dietary levels of Mn from 0 to 200 mg/kg in the diet regardless of the source showed lower values of TBARS [42, 43, 45, 70]. According to Kim et al. [43], high levels of Mn in the diet can be considered to improve carcass quality, preferably from the nano-Mn source because it presents higher bioavailability of Mn.
The oxidation of lipids in the breast muscle is a representative factor that reduces the quality of meat [74], and Mn is indicated as a necessary element for the production of SOD (superoxide dismutase) to increase antioxidant capacity and improve meat quality in chickens [41]. Oxidative changes in intramuscular lipids and products were determined based on TBARS [75, 76]. Thus, it has been demonstrated that the use of Mn in diets in organic (manganese methionine) or inorganic (MnO) forms increases MDA, glutathione peroxidase, and nitrogen oxide in chicken meat exposed to high-density stocking stress [71].
Studies report that Mn significantly reduced MDA levels in broilers [42, ] and turkeys [77]. This may be due to the change in the activity of MnSOD (superoxide dismutase) in the mitochondria of muscle cells because MnSOD plays an important role in delayed lipid peroxidation of the cell membrane. However, there is an increase in the effect of MDA concentration with high Mn in the diet in the longissimus thoracis of pigs [78].
The activity of GSH-Px (glutathione peroxidase) affecting the oxidation state of myofibrillar protein could affect drip loss [79]. Studies report lower drip losses in breast meat of chickens who were fed nano-Se [19, 65] and organic Se [21, 80].
The pH drop retard leads to reduced protein denaturation, and consequently, to reduced drip and cooking loss [81], thus improving the water-retention capacity of meat. The use of nano-Se showed a decrease in drip loss [18].
Chicken meat with low pH has been associated with low WHC, which results in loss of cooking and drip loss. The lower pH decreases the ability of muscle proteins to bind to water, causing the shrinkage of myofibrils [82].
Some studies with nano-Se supplementation have observed an increase in meat water-retention capacity [83, 84]. In contrast, Mohammadi et al. [16] in the study reported that using dietary sources of Se and REO (rosemary essential oil) had no effect on water retention capacity (WHC) in the thigh and breast muscles in broiler.
Meat color and drip loss are important indices for assessing meat quality and are closely related to the oxidation state in muscles. The color of the meat is determined by the oxidation state of myoglobin [24]. The use of supplementation with if improves antioxidant capacity and thus could increase the content of myoglobin, thus improving the color of meat [83, 85]. In addition, when phospholipids in cell membranes are oxidized, changes in cellular permeability occur, leading to decreased water-retention capacity of the muscle.
Drip loss is commonly used as an indicator of the water-retention capacity (WHC) of meat. The lower drip loss reflected the higher content of water-soluble nutrients and the increase in meat juiciness [86]. Lower drip losses of the breast muscle were observed when supplemented with nano-Zn (ZONPs 25–50 mg/kg ZnO) [57]. On the other hand, Liu et al. [24] and Selim et al. [58] reported that additional nano ZONPs decreased drip loss in broilers. Similarly, Saenmahayak et al. [87] reported that drip loss increased significantly in the muscles of broilers fed zinc supplemented diets.
The decrease in drip loss in the breast muscle [78] can be attributed to a stable pH value [88].
Regarding water-retention capacity (WHC) no difference was observed in supplementation with nano-Zn [32, 87]. In contrast to our results, Yang et al. [89] recorded an increase in breast muscle WHC with the addition of inorganic zinc in broilers.
The physical and chemical properties of proteins, including solubility, hydrophobicity, WHC, and even nutritional value can be modified by protein oxidation [90]. In postmortem muscle, protein oxidation has been gradually recognized as an important factor for meat quality. During postmortem storage, the muscle has a decreased ability to maintain its antioxidant defense system, and this can cause an increased accumulation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species [91]. Improved antioxidant status can promote the maintenance of cell membrane integrity [65], which can be explained by the results of water-retention capacity. According to Hashemi et al. [59], there was no significant difference for breast in WHC value, while thigh supplementation with nano-Ag resulted in higher levels of WHC, which may be due to the low level of protein oxidation.
The quantifiable properties of meat are indispensable for processors involved in the manufacture of meat products, such as water-retention capacity (WHC), shear force, drip loss, cooking loss, pH, shelf life, protein solubility, and fat-binding capacity [92].
Muscle pH had a significant positive correlation with water-retention capacity (WHC), and WHC had a significant correlation with an a* value [55].
In addition, thighs with nano ZnNPs lower loss by cooking [67].
The color of meat is an indicator of quality, which represents its freshness for consumers [93]. Some studies did not report differences in the color of the breast muscles for supplementation with nano-Se compared to the control [18, 56, 83]. Meanwhile, Boiago et al. [94] observed a decrease in L* values of breast muscles for broilers fed diets supplemented with Met-Se Se, which may be related to a reduction in moisture on the meat surface because of increased water-retention capacity [95].
El-Hack et al. [30] reported lower L* values for breast meat from chickens treated with dietary supplements of nano-Zn ZnNPs and did not observe differences for a* values. For thigh meat, the different treatment groups with nano ZnNPs did not affect the values of L* and a* [67]. However, for the value of b* there was an increase for the thigh muscle [24, 67] and the breast muscle [24, 30, 89].
According to Hashemi et al. [59] in the treatments of zeolite, nano-silver (50 and 75 ppm) there was no significant difference for the color parameters parameter L*, a*, and b* in the breast muscle.
Lipid oxidation can promote the accumulation of metmyoglobin, such as brown pigments, in meat [94, 96]. The increase in the yellowing of meat may be due to the increase in the formation of oxymyoglobin [97]. In addition, lipid oxidation is associated with the destruction of meat pigments, such as carotenoids [98]. Some researchers have also demonstrated that there is a significant negative correlation between the color values of clarity of breast meat and the pH of breast meat [62]. Color is the most important characteristic for the appearance of meat [99], which is influenced by sex, genotype, and breed; moreover, it relates to the pH value [100].
Softness, described as shear force, is an important indicator of consumer acceptability and is determined by the structural properties of various proteins and fats in muscle [101]. Nano-Se supplementation showed a decrease in the value of the shear force of the breast muscles and lower cooking loss [18].
Baowei et al. [85] reported that SS supplementation in the 0.3 g/kg diet reduced the hardness of the goose’s breast muscles. Results indicate that the supplementation of broiler feed with organic Se or nano-Se leads to improvement of meat quality, in relation to the addition of inorganic Se [102].
Many studies have shown that IMP (inosine 5′-monophosphate) contributes to the sensory perception of meat [101]. A higher IMP content was observed in chickens supplemented with nano-Se may be associated with a better quality of Guangxi Yellow chicken meat [19].
Zn supplementation increased the content of intramuscular breast muscle fat in broilers independent of the source of Zn [24]. Hodgson et al. [103] observed that higher levels of intramuscular fat caused a significant decrease in shear force. Liu et al. [24] showed that Zn supplementation decreased the shear force of the thigh muscle and breast muscles, regardless of the source of Zn.
Texture parameters such as succulence, softness, and flavor obtained lower values when using a diet with nano ZnNPs [30].
Regarding the texture profile of broiler breast meat for hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness were influenced by the treatment with nano Ag (NZ75 higher values), while adhesiveness and springiness were not influenced [59]. For the thigh muscle texture profile of broilers, hardness, adhesiveness, and cohesiveness were not influenced, however there was a difference in springiness for supplementation with nano Ag [59]. Results may be related to water-retention capacity (WHC), a quality parameter related to the meat softness process, which is an important parameter in the sensory evaluation of meat [104].
Yang et al. [77] reported the use of Mn in the duck diet, they observed a significant increase in intramuscular fat and decreased shear strength, showing similar results in studies conducted by Yang et al. [89] in broilers.
Meat softness is a factor used to evaluate the acceptability of the consumer of cooked meat [99] and is generally associated with the content of MIF and muscle fiber structure [105]. Shear force is a reliable indicator that inversely represents the softness of the meat.
Probiotics are considered live microbial supplements that beneficially influence the host by improving intestinal microbial balance [106], stimulating metabolism, reducing the risk of infection by opportunistic pathogens [107], tend to improve levels of body antioxidants, which can improve the health of broilers [108]. The study has shown that dietary probiotic supplementation increases growth rate, feed efficiency, and immunity in chickens [109], improve chicken meat quality, such as WHC, tenderness, and oxidative stability [110], increase weight gain and feed-conversion ratio, improve antioxidant capacity in organs and muscle tissue in heat-stressed chickens [111]. Probiotics used in animal nutrition include groups of bacteria, yeasts, and fungi, such as
The prebiotic is a nondigestible feed ingredient that, through its metabolization by microorganisms in the gut, modulates the composition and/or activity of the gut microbiota, thus conferring a beneficial physiological effect on the host [115]. The prebiotics are used as substrates for survival and multiplication of probiotics in a lower gut region that act as symbiotics [116]. Some prebiotics are composed of diverse sugar units. Therefore, each prebiotic may influence the animals differently [117]. Prebiotics such as fructooligosaccharides (FOS), galactooligosaccharides (GOS), and mannan oligosaccharides (MOS) are considered preventive agents, as they can select a gastrointestinal microbiota that not only benefits the host but can serve as a barrier to the colonization of pathogens [118]. Besides, feed additives, such as probiotics, prebiotics, and symbiotics have been proposed as a nutritional strategy to improve the resilience of animals against heat stress [119].
Probiotics have a beneficial effect on the host animal, improving its intestinal microbial balance [120]. This creates a healthy intestinal environment with increasing counts of healthy bacteria and suppresses intestinal pathogens, thereby improving digestion and nutrient utilization [121]. According to Al-Shawi et al. [122], the animal not only requires an optimal amount of food but also must improve the digestibility of the food to maximize growth. Some studies have reported lower feed intake in broilers fed with probiotics [123, 124, 125, 126]. Thus, increased nutrient absorption in broilers produces lower feed intake to maintain their nutrition needs [127]. Amerah et al. [123] reported that the inclusion of
The inclusion of
Bai et al. [133] evaluated the feeding of broilers with
According to Patel et al. [141], the effectiveness of probiotics is influenced by the selection of the most efficient strains, manipulation of genes, combination of several strains and the combination of probiotics, and synergistically by the action of the components. However, the use of multiple strains may improve the effectiveness of probiotics as they beneficially affect the host by enhancing growth-promoting bacteria with competitive antagonism against pathogenic bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract [142].
In the broilers fed with multi-strain probiotics, such as
Therefore, the effectiveness of the application of probiotics varies depending on several factors, such as probiotic strains, dosage of administration, method of administration, diet composition, age and breed of birds, and management conditions [114, 131, 132, 136, 144].
The positive prebiotic effect on growth performance can be due to the ability of prebiotics to enhance lactobacilli and bifidobacteria populations, and these beneficial bacteria compete with harmful bacteria for colonization [145].
Prebiotic diet reported higher carcass weight, carcass yield, and breast muscle weight [146, 147], and an increase in body weight gain [148].
The study observed a significant effect of diet on feed conversion, and control birds showed poor feed conversion. The rearing system also affected weight gain and feed intake, so confined birds had better weight gain and feed intake [149]. Birds fed diets supplemented with probiotics and prebiotics showed greater body weight and weight gain, whereas feed intake was greater in control birds. Similar studies, diets with prebiotic treatment and probiotic alone, reported better responses for body weight gain and FCR compared to the use of symbiotic treatment [150]. Several other studies also showed that the addition of probiotics or prebiotics alone or in combinations as synbiotics in feeds had no effect on the feed intake of broiler chickens [151]. On the other hand, dietary synbiotic supplementation can increase the breast muscle weight of broilers in comparison with those fed the basal diet [152].
The physicochemical properties of meat are important and can determine its storage or further processing. They are interconnected and influence the sensory quality of meat. Thus, the use of probiotics can influence these parameters [153]. Meat quality is also a very important parameter for the effect of dietary treatment in broiler studies. The supplementation of probiotics in basal diets had beneficial effects on quality broiler meat [128, 133].
The decreased pH relates to the generation of lactic acid through the anaerobic pathway, and probably promotes the denaturation of myofibrillar proteins, and reduces the ability of these proteins to maintain water [154]. Wang et al. [155] observed the decline in pH, however, pH24h (6.01) was increased by
On the other hand, Cramer et al. [160] observed that
In cooking loss in broiler no difference was reported, regardless of probiotic feeding levels [165, 168, 169]. Also, the drip, cooking, and thaw losses on breast muscle were not observed by Benamirouche et al. [157]. However, some studies observed that heat stress increases drip and cooking loss [79, 144] of the breast meat [167]. In contrast, lower cooking loss was observed in
Meat tenderness can be estimated by measuring the shear force; lower shear force indicates tenderer meat and was one of the crucial sensory qualities that influenced the consumer [172]. The shear force in breast and drumstick meats decreased with
No interactions between probiotic feeding levels and display storage time on CIE L* (lightness), CIE a* (redness) breast muscles from chickens exposed to cyclic heat challenge were found, except for CIE b* (yellowness) [160, 161]. The quail meat color a*, b*, and L* values were decreased by probiotics treatment with all levels studied as compared to the control group [143]. Haščík et al. [178] observed an increase in a* and b* values of the thigh and an increase in the L* values of breast and thigh cuts in birds fed probiotics alone or in combination with pollen. In contrast, Haščík et al. [179] reported that a* values in breast muscle were increased, whereas the values of L* and b* for broiler breast meat were not altered because of
The MDA concentration shows the intensity of the lipid peroxidation rate in the body and indirectly shows the degree of damage by tissue peroxidation [155]. Some studies have reported an antioxidant effect of probiotic feeding on lipid oxidation, suggesting that the improved meat quality might be closely connected with its enhanced antioxidant capacity by yeast supplementation in broilers [110, 133, 135, 155, 156, 160, 169, 170, 180]. Thus, it can improve the quality parameters of broiler meat under heat stress. However, in a study by Kim et al. [161] no effects on lipid oxidation stability were observed.
Sensory evaluation test results for lightly cooked breast meat, there was an improvement in the odor of chicken meat fed with
Broiler chickens subjected to heat stress can induce a lower final pH with variation in meat color, water-holding capacity (WHC), and meat tenderness [81, 144, 163], resulting in lower acceptability of the meat by the consumer. In this sense, poultry farming strives to mitigate the negative effects of heat stress on poultry production, to reduce economic losses. The main concerns about the use of these bioactives are their efficient administration under fully controlled conditions.
Heat stress not only impairs muscle growth and structure [160, 183], but also influences meat quality, decreasing the pH value, water-retention capacity and redness, and increasing skeletal muscle lightness in chickens [5, 184, 185, 186].
Some studies suggest that the glucose level in skeletal muscles may be influenced by heat stress, causing an accumulation of lactic acid in muscle tissue [144], and a rapid decline in pH with low pH values final [5, 144, 160]. Tavaniello et al. [147] and Maiorano et al. [187] no reported influenced pH 24 (5.76 and 5.87) fully fit within the pH range accepted for commercial poultry meat [178, 179]. Already lower values of pH 24 h postmortem were observed under heat stress conditions with and without the use of symbiotic compared to the control.
The redness a∗ value was reduced in breast meat from prebiotics treatment compared to control [147]. Yet, L∗ and b∗ values were similar between the experimental groups. Dietary symbiotic addition reduced L* value. However, it did not affect the b* value [152]. The a* values were lower for the thermoneutral symbiotic, but higher a* values were reported for heat stress and symbiotic. Other studies reported that heat stress can increase L* and reduce a* and b* of breast meat [119]. This could be due to the denaturation of sarcoplasmic proteins, which results in the scattering of light [144].
Less drip and cooking losses were observed, and there was no effect on breast muscle shear force in broilers fed symbiotic compared to those fed a basal diet [152]. However, sob heat stress increased drip loss and cooking loss and decreased shear force in broilers when compared with those under thermoneutral temperature [152]. Similar results were found in broiler exposed to heat stress, which observed decrease in the WHC [119].
Broilers exposed to heat stress reported higher MDA concentration but lower activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in the breast muscle. Compared with broilers fed the basal diet, symbiotic supplementation decreased MDA content and increased GSH-Px activity of breast muscle in broilers [152].
Meat quality is influenced by several factors, such as food. The use of additives to improve meat characteristics was evaluated. It was shown that the type of additive, the quantity, and the method of application are important parameters for obtaining chicken meat with desirable characteristics for the consumer and for the industry in obtaining meat-derived products.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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After having characterised the decision-making process as a cognitive behaviour (1), having recalled the best known traditional models (those of Economics and Psychology) (2), this chapter deals with the properties of complex systems (globality, interactivity, dynamism, and scalability), which render decision-making difficult (3), and concludes with the necessity of a change of paradigm by pointing to paths to follow (4).",book:{id:"6593",slug:"decision-making",title:"Decision Making",fullTitle:"Decision Making"},signatures:"Bernard Cadet",authors:[{id:"232726",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Bernard",middleName:null,surname:"Cadet",slug:"bernard-cadet",fullName:"Bernard Cadet"}]},{id:"63337",title:"Introductory Chapter: An Overview to the Analytic Principles with Business Practice in Decision Making",slug:"introductory-chapter-an-overview-to-the-analytic-principles-with-business-practice-in-decision-makin",totalDownloads:942,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"6593",slug:"decision-making",title:"Decision Making",fullTitle:"Decision Making"},signatures:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez, Alberto Pliego Marugán and\nMayorkinos Papaelias",authors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}]},{id:"80202",title:"Depression, Suicidal Tendencies, Hopelessness, and Stress among Patients with Learning Disabilities",slug:"depression-suicidal-tendencies-hopelessness-and-stress-among-patients-with-learning-disabilities",totalDownloads:104,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Self-harm and suicide are most commonly observed in adolescents specially females in Asian countries and in western. The psychosocial predictors, along with hopelessness and non-suicidal injury (NSSI), have not been studied properly before. Therefore, there is a need to address these issues. The objective of the study was to ascertain the psychosocial and clinical features predicting suicide and NSSI in adolescents with major depression. Increased number of suicidality and impaired family function at entry is autonomously connected with a suicidal attempt. NSSI are connected at base line and apply additive effect on likelihood, one keeping on through treatment period. Poor family functions, as well as family problems and social problems, were the causative agents for adolescent’s high suicidality and NSSI. A history of NSSI treatment is a clinical marker for suicidality. The previous suicidal attempts should be evaluated in depressed juvenile patients as indicators of future suicidal intent and behavior. Both suicidal and NSSI adolescents during the therapy and after treatment endure to be depressed when they are engaged in study. Major causes of suicide among our study participants were lost friend(s), drug abuse, living alone, disturbed parental marriage, sexual abuse, and other domestic problems.",book:{id:"10910",slug:"learning-disabilities-neurobiology-assessment-clinical-features-and-treatments",title:"Learning Disabilities",fullTitle:"Learning Disabilities - Neurobiology, Assessment, Clinical Features and Treatments"},signatures:"Fahad Hassan Shah, Song Ja Kim, Laiba Zakir, Aqsa Ehsan, Sohail Riaz, Muhammad Sulaiman and Saad Salman",authors:[{id:"418086",title:"Dr.",name:"Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"saad-salman",fullName:"Saad Salman"},{id:"439291",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahad Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"fahad-hassan-shah",fullName:"Fahad Hassan Shah"},{id:"439292",title:"Dr.",name:"Song Ja",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"song-ja-kim",fullName:"Song Ja Kim"},{id:"439293",title:"Dr.",name:"Laiba",middleName:null,surname:"Zakir",slug:"laiba-zakir",fullName:"Laiba Zakir"},{id:"439294",title:"Dr.",name:"Aqsa",middleName:null,surname:"Ehsan",slug:"aqsa-ehsan",fullName:"Aqsa Ehsan"},{id:"451112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sohail",middleName:null,surname:"Riaz",slug:"sohail-riaz",fullName:"Sohail Riaz"},{id:"451113",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sulaiman",slug:"muhammad-sulaiman",fullName:"Muhammad Sulaiman"}]},{id:"79900",title:"Dyslexia, Dysgraphia and Dyscalculia: A Response to Intervention Approach to Classification",slug:"dyslexia-dysgraphia-and-dyscalculia-a-response-to-intervention-approach-to-classification",totalDownloads:165,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter provides a model for classification of dyslexia, dysgraphia and dyscalculia through analysis of the response of children to treatment. The model is discussed with reference to the types of multivariate treatment applied in a particular programme which works interactively online using an electronic data-base for linking functional difficulties in learning to treatment, and through this to firm diagnosis and classification. In applying the model, initial diagnosis of learning disabilities is treated as provisional, based on functional indicators as well as test data. Firm classification becomes possible through longitudinal assessment, analysis of response to multivariate intervention as well as response to specific programmes. Diagnosis can then be linked both to concessions as well as ongoing treatment.",book:{id:"10910",slug:"learning-disabilities-neurobiology-assessment-clinical-features-and-treatments",title:"Learning Disabilities",fullTitle:"Learning Disabilities - Neurobiology, Assessment, Clinical Features and Treatments"},signatures:"Charles Potter",authors:[{id:"93190",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Potter",slug:"charles-potter",fullName:"Charles Potter"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"233",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain. She is a Full Professor at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery at the same University. She developed her research activity in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry and Immunology of horses. She is a scientific reviewer of several international journals : American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Comparative Clinical Pathology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology. Since 2014, she has been the Head of the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the Hospital Clínico Veterinario from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University.",institutionString:"CEU-Cardenal Herrera University",institution:{name:"CEU Cardinal Herrera University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"208123",title:"Dr.",name:"Mari-Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Uribe",slug:"mari-carmen-uribe",fullName:"Mari-Carmen Uribe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"345713",title:"Dr.",name:"Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Szabó",slug:"csaba-szabo",fullName:"Csaba Szabó",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"345719",title:"Mrs.",name:"Márta",middleName:null,surname:"Horváth",slug:"marta-horvath",fullName:"Márta Horváth",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"420151",title:"Prof.",name:"Novirman",middleName:null,surname:"Jamarun",slug:"novirman-jamarun",fullName:"Novirman Jamarun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Andalas University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"15",type:"subseries",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors"},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation"},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/60885",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"60885"},fullPath:"/chapters/60885",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()