Percentage growth of
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8985",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The natural resources of the Earth are indispensable for the survival of humans, plants, and animals and for the state of biodiversity. The way they are managed determines the extent to which they will be preserved for future generations. Climate change underscores the need for the proper use of natural resources. This book brings together reviews of literature and the results of research studies on the status and management of soil, water, plant, and wildlife resources, especially as they relate to the biological sciences, in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, and Latin America. It covers work on classification and inventories, impacts of anthropogenic activities, and exploitation and conservation. The book will be of interest to scientists and practitioners of natural resource management worldwide.",isbn:"978-1-83880-465-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-464-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-600-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82948",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",numberOfPages:386,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",publishedDate:"February 17th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11452,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:23,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:32,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 25th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 30th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 18th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 18th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280886/images/system/280886.jpg",biography:"Edward Ronald Rhodes has a BSc in Agriculture from the University of Sierra Leone and a Ph.D. in Soil Science from Aberdeen University, United Kingdom. He is a Professor Emeritus of Soil Science in the Department of Soil Science, Njala University, Sierra Leone. He has about 30 years’ experience in teaching and conducting and supervising research at Njala University. He was a Fulbright-Hays Research Scholar at Colorado State University, USA. He was a staff member (Senior Scientist) of IFDC, in Togo and of the FAO (Component Advisor) in Malawi. He is a member of the College of Research Associates United Nations University Institute for Natural Resources in Africa. Professor Rhodes was President of the University of Sierra Leone Research Council and, more recently, the Prochancellor of Njala University.",institutionString:"Njala University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Njala University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sierra Leone"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"50322",title:"Dr.",name:"Humood",middleName:null,surname:"Naser",slug:"humood-naser",fullName:"Humood Naser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/50322/images/system/50322.png",biography:"Dr. Humood Naser is an Associate Professor of Environmental Biology at the Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Bahrain. Naser holds a Ph.D. in Environmental Biology from Newcastle University, and an M.Sc. in Integrated Environmental Studies from the University of Southampton, UK. He is the author of four books, five chapters, and several articles published in reputed journals. His general research interests include environmental and ecological impact assessment, conservation biology, effects of environmental pollutants on species and ecosystems, environmental quality monitoring, and sustainable development.",institutionString:"University of Bahrain",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Bahrain",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bahrain"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"136",title:"Environmental Sustainability",slug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-sustainability"}],chapters:[{id:"68714",title:"Taxonomical Keys for Morphological Identification of Coral-Associated Polychaetes from Great Nicobar Islands",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88668",slug:"taxonomical-keys-for-morphological-identification-of-coral-associated-polychaetes-from-great-nicobar",totalDownloads:636,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present study illustrates the insufficient taxonomy records and highlights the use of microscopic diagnostic tool in polychaete taxonomy. It leads to a better understanding of coral-associated polychaete taxonomy in Great Nicobar Islands, India. A total of 24 species under 14 genera, 7 orders, and 11 families were identified, in spite of 3 species of Phyllocidae, 8 species of Nereidae, 5 species of Eunicidae, 2 species of Spionidae, and 1 species of Opheliidae, Sabellariidae, Terebellidae, Polynoidae, Amphinomidae, and Sabellidae. The current status of taxonomic information varies greatly among taxa and among geographic areas within taxa. The problems encountered included nomenclature, diagnoses, and determination of taxonomic relationships. We provide examples of a variety of these problems. Each species has distinct features of the particular families, and taxonomic section to assist the polychaete identification that is necessary to assess the biodiversity and taxonomy at any level. This chapter considers the importance of monitoring biological diversity, current morphological taxonomy of polychaetes and describes the approach developed for protected areas in Great Nicobar Islands.",signatures:"Veeramuthu Sekar, Ramadoss Rajasekaran, Srinivasan Balakrishnan and Ramamoorthy Raguraman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68714",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68714",authors:[{id:"227990",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasan",surname:"Balakrishnan",slug:"srinivasan-balakrishnan",fullName:"Srinivasan Balakrishnan"},{id:"308613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sekar",surname:"Veera",slug:"sekar-veera",fullName:"Sekar Veera"},{id:"308614",title:"Dr.",name:"R.",surname:"Rajasekaran",slug:"r.-rajasekaran",fullName:"R. Rajasekaran"}],corrections:null},{id:"68900",title:"Ground Forest Inventory and Assessment of Carbon Stocks in Sierra Leone, West Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88950",slug:"ground-forest-inventory-and-assessment-of-carbon-stocks-in-sierra-leone-west-africa",totalDownloads:657,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Forest and woodland are renewable natural resources providing basic human necessities. They have the ability to sequester carbon and mitigate climate change. Sustainable forest management is guided by forest mensuration and inventory which include measuring and calculating growth and changes in trees and forests. The objective of the study was to estimate timber resources and carbon stock using simple hand tools in Kasewe and Singamba forests in the southern part of Sierra Leone. All trees with diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 10 cm were measured in every plot for DBH, and three trees were measured for height. The correlation between mean wood volume and carbon stock was highly significant. For Kasewe plantation forest, mean wood volume and carbon stock were 151 m3 ha−1 and 44 t C ha−1, respectively, and for the Singamba natural forest, they were 181 m3 ha−1 and 82 t C ha−1, respectively. The linear correlation between basal area and volume, DBH and volume and basal area and total biomass was significant for the plantation species tested. Realistic national forest inventory and community forestry are inevitable for sustainable forest management in Sierra Leone.",signatures:"Stephen Brima Mattia and Sampha Sesay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68900",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68900",authors:[{id:"305409",title:"Mr.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Mattia",slug:"stephen-mattia",fullName:"Stephen Mattia"},{id:"305411",title:"Mr.",name:"Sampha",surname:"Sesay",slug:"sampha-sesay",fullName:"Sampha Sesay"}],corrections:null},{id:"67819",title:"Physical Vulnerabilities from Wildfires: Flames, Floods, and Debris Flows",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87203",slug:"physical-vulnerabilities-from-wildfires-flames-floods-and-debris-flows",totalDownloads:809,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Humans live in or adjacent to wildland ecosystems that burn periodically and are part of nearly all ecosystems that are in the pyrosphere. There are many hazards posed by wildfire and certain consequences of living in these ecosystems. Most are associated with wildfire, but the increased use of prescribed fire is an issue because of associated risks with human attempts to manage ecological goals. The hazards posed by wildfire involve cultural and economic loss, social disruption, infrastructure damage, human injury and mortality, damage to natural resources, and deterioration in air quality. The economic and human health and safety costs are on the rise due to increasing wildland-urban interface problems and extreme wildfire behavior brought on by climate change. In the past, urban fires have been the greatest threat to human health and safety killing over 100,000 people. World ecosystems have been modified extensively by fire. We live on a “fire planet.” With larger human populations and a changing, drying climate, the impact of fire on humans and the hazards faced by our natural and developed world will continue to increase. The increase in wildfire hazards in the twenty-first century will require higher levels of training, increased investments in wildfire personnel and infrastructure, greater wildfire awareness, and improved planning to reduce fire impacts.",signatures:"Daniel G. Neary and Jackson M. Leonard",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67819",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67819",authors:[{id:"40845",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel G.",surname:"Neary",slug:"daniel-g.-neary",fullName:"Daniel G. Neary"},{id:"276254",title:"Dr.",name:"Jackson",surname:"Leonard",slug:"jackson-leonard",fullName:"Jackson Leonard"}],corrections:null},{id:"71854",title:"Succession after Fire in a Coastal Pine Forest in Norway",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92158",slug:"succession-after-fire-in-a-coastal-pine-forest-in-norway",totalDownloads:527,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomass and chemical composition in six dominant field and bottom layer species have been recorded for 5 years after a wildfire in a coastal pine forest in Sveio, West Norway, in June 1992. As a follow-up of this study, the percentage coverage of field and bottom layer species and the regeneration of main tree species (Pinus sylvestris, Betula pubescens, and Salix spp.) were recorded in 1997, 2001, and 2008. Preliminary results indicate that the three dominant field layer species, Calluna vulgaris, Molinia caerulea, and Pteridium aquilinum, had expanded at the expense of other species, in particular Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea, Deschampsia flexuosa, and pioneer moss species, for example, Polytrichum spp. Seedlings of pine and saplings of birch and other deciduous species had established in the burned areas, and the succession of these species was followed and compared with nearby control plots. The strong growth of Calluna vulgaris after the fire indicates that periodic controlled burning may be an alternative management method of balancing carbon uptake rates in coastal areas of western Norway.",signatures:"Oddvar Skre",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71854",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71854",authors:[{id:"317115",title:"Dr.",name:"Oddvar",surname:"Skre",slug:"oddvar-skre",fullName:"Oddvar Skre"}],corrections:null},{id:"68635",title:"Human Impacts on Coral Reef Ecosystem",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88841",slug:"human-impacts-on-coral-reef-ecosystem",totalDownloads:739,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Healthy, Coral reefs are the most spectacular, diverse and economically valuable marine ecosystems on the planet, Complex and productive, coral reefs are extremely important for biodiversity, providing a home to 35,000–60,000 species of plants and animals (over 25% of all marine life), many of which are not described by science. They are also vital for people and business. They provide nurseries for many species of commercially important fish, protection of coastal areas from storm waves. They are providing hundreds of billions of dollars in food, jobs and significant attraction for the tourism industry. Yet coral reef ecosystems have undergone phase shifts to alternate, degraded assemblages because of the combined human activates of unsustainable overfishing, intensive tourism, urbanization, sedimentation, declining water quality, pollution and primarily from the direct and indirect impacts of climate change. Most coral ecologists confirm that coral reef degradation has increased dramatically during the last three decades due to enhanced anthropogenic disturbances and their interaction with natural stressors. So, it is necessary to recognize the threats facing coral reefs from anthropogenic activities and try to minimize and mitigate these impacts.",signatures:"Hussein A. El-Naggar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68635",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68635",authors:[{id:"300468",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein",surname:"El-Naggar",slug:"hussein-el-naggar",fullName:"Hussein El-Naggar"}],corrections:null},{id:"70462",title:"Human Factors: The Impact on Industry and the Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90419",slug:"human-factors-the-impact-on-industry-and-the-environment",totalDownloads:982,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"New technology is evolving rapidly, creating new environmental and industrial challenges that must be considered. Technology continues to focus on the demands of industry to increase efficiency and production output. At the same time, industry must quickly adapt to new technologies in order to compete and grow and also face the increased awareness for the need to evaluate and mitigate environmental impact. Recent studies indicate that the use of automation in the workplace will nearly double in the next few years. If we look at the control room as being the core of the industrial environment, the focus was previously on the physical and automated components. Little focus has been on the humans that control this rapidly evolving technology, and there is still not enough focus on the most critical component that can not only impact production and output but also create a negative impact on the environment as a result of human error that could have been avoided. It is time to take a step back and look at what impact the humans are having on the environment as a result of the rapidly changing technology.",signatures:"Fiona J. Campbell",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70462",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70462",authors:[{id:"312015",title:"Ms.",name:"Fiona",surname:"Campbell",slug:"fiona-campbell",fullName:"Fiona Campbell"}],corrections:null},{id:"72731",title:"Soil Carbon Restoration through Conservation Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93006",slug:"soil-carbon-restoration-through-conservation-agriculture",totalDownloads:689,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Poor soil fertility and soil degradation induced by persistent conventional farming with repeated tillage and removal or in situ burning of crop residue are major limitations to food security and environmental sustainability. However, degraded agricultural lands with depleted soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks are capable of soil carbon restoration through improved management practices like aggregation, humification and deep placement of C that can increase SOC seques-tration. According to FAO, conservation agriculture (CA) is arrived at as a solution to restore SOC with three pillars of minimum soil disturbance, permanent organic soil cover and diversified crop rotations. A significant increase in SOC levels under zero tillage (ZT) over conventional tillage (CT) was found; returning more crop residues to the soil is associated with an increase in SOC concentration that is further increased by crop diversification. Additionally, the incorporation of high-value trees with CA is treated as a working model for C storage. Thus, conservation agriculture is an operational approach to restore SOC that aggrades soil, reduces environmental footprints and makes agricultural systems more resilient to climate change.",signatures:"Snigdha Chatterjee, Satarupa Ghosh and Prasanna Pal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72731",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72731",authors:[{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal"},{id:"320711",title:"Ms.",name:"Satarupa",surname:"Ghosh",slug:"satarupa-ghosh",fullName:"Satarupa Ghosh"},{id:"320977",title:"Ms.",name:"Snigdha",surname:"Chatterjee",slug:"snigdha-chatterjee",fullName:"Snigdha Chatterjee"}],corrections:null},{id:"71798",title:"Effects of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Plant Adaptation to Arid Ecosystem of Bou-Hedma National Park in Tunisia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92087",slug:"effects-of-arbuscular-mycorrhizal-fungi-on-plant-adaptation-to-arid-ecosystem-of-bou-hedma-national-",totalDownloads:303,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plants interact with beneficial microbes living in their rhizosphere, promoting their growth and development. In arid ecosystems, specific plant-associated microbes grant plants access to nutrients that would otherwise be inaccessible. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are probably one of the better known belowground functional networks with plants. AMF plays a crucial role in plant performance and consequently in ecosystem functioning. AMF activities also determine the bio-availability of nutrients and therefore soil fertility. The main objective of the present study was to evaluate the plant-AMF interactions on soil functions under arid ecosystem in Tunisia. AMF colonization was evaluated by visual observation of AMF in fine roots of Astragalus corrugatus and Lotus creticus on Bou-Hedma National Park in Tunisia. Mycorrhizal colonization varied between plants, and the spore number was significantly different across rhizosphere soils. Statistical analysis showed a clearly positive correlation between the number of spores and plant-mycorrhizal intensity. For microbiological proprieties, our results showed that mycorrhizal plants improved significantly the different microbiological parameters. The results of the present study specified the association plant-AMF and highlight AMF importance as a tailored mechanism of plant adaptation to arid ecosystems.",signatures:"Mahmoudi Neji, Mahdhi Mosbah and Mars Mohamed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71798",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71798",authors:[{id:"293907",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Mars",slug:"mohamed-mars",fullName:"Mohamed Mars"},{id:"315768",title:"Dr.",name:"Neji",surname:"Mahmoudi",slug:"neji-mahmoudi",fullName:"Neji Mahmoudi"},{id:"317009",title:"Dr.",name:"Mosbah",surname:"Mahdhi",slug:"mosbah-mahdhi",fullName:"Mosbah Mahdhi"}],corrections:null},{id:"72231",title:"Use of Geoinformatics Techniques for the Assessment and Mapping of Soil Salinity: Concepts and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92443",slug:"use-of-geoinformatics-techniques-for-the-assessment-and-mapping-of-soil-salinity-concepts-and-applic",totalDownloads:451,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Irrigated agriculture has a major impact on the environment, especially soil degradation. Soil salinity is a critical environmental problem, which has great impact on soil fertility and overall agricultural productivity. Since, soil salinity processes are highly dynamic, the methods of detecting soil salinity hazards should also be dynamic. Remote sensing data are modern tools that provide information on variation over time essential for environmental monitoring and change detection, as they also help in the reduction of conventional time-consuming and expensive field sampling methods, which is the traditional method of monitoring and assessment. This chapter thus reviewed the concepts and applications of remote sensing, GIS-assisted spatial analysis and modelling of the salinity issue in irrigation fields. Generally, compared to the labour, time and money invested in field work devoted to collecting soil salinity data and analysis, the availability and ease of acquiring satellite imagery data and analysis made this concept very attractive and efficient.",signatures:"Olumuyiwa Idowu Ojo and Masengo Francois Ilunga",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72231",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72231",authors:[{id:"218356",title:"Dr.",name:"Olumuyiwa",surname:"Ojo",slug:"olumuyiwa-ojo",fullName:"Olumuyiwa Ojo"},{id:"318577",title:"Prof.",name:"Masengo Francois",surname:"Ilunga",slug:"masengo-francois-ilunga",fullName:"Masengo Francois Ilunga"}],corrections:null},{id:"72103",title:"Water Management Strategies and Cultural Practices for Strawberry Establishment in Florida",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92450",slug:"water-management-strategies-and-cultural-practices-for-strawberry-establishment-in-florida",totalDownloads:588,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Florida’s strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch) production system is mainly dependent on short-day cultivars produced as bare-root (BR) transplants, which are high-yielding and low-cost options for Florida growers. The strawberry industry in Florida is greatly dependent on early yield (mid-November, early December). Therefore, Florida growers must secure rapid establishment of the BR transplants and for that reason, high volumes of irrigation water are applied to reduce air temperature around plant crowns and mitigate desiccation. This practice accounts for nearly 14.7 million m3 of irrigation water between mid-September and early October. Several alternatives are available to growers to reduce irrigation water for establishment. One of those alternatives suggests replacing BR transplants for actively growing strawberry plugs (SPs). However, the higher price of SP transplants seems to be the main limitation for their implementation. Alternately, growers could explore the possibility of introducing intermittent irrigation or low-volume sprinklers into their system to establish BR transplants. An inexpensive option, based on a large body of research, would be the application of crop protectants against excessive sun radiation, which could reduce irrigation water for establishment by up to 30%. Despite the suggested alternatives, there is still a great deal of work needed to increase grower’s confidence in these technologies.",signatures:"Emmanuel Torres-Quezada, Isabel Torres-Quezada and Bielinski Marcelo Santos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72103",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72103",authors:[{id:"317339",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Torres Quezada",slug:"emmanuel-torres-quezada",fullName:"Emmanuel Torres Quezada"},{id:"317340",title:"Dr.",name:"Bielinski",surname:"Santos",slug:"bielinski-santos",fullName:"Bielinski Santos"},{id:"319813",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabel",surname:"Torres Quezada",slug:"isabel-torres-quezada",fullName:"Isabel Torres Quezada"}],corrections:null},{id:"70171",title:"Managing and Sustaining the Coupled Water-Land-Food Systems in the Context of Global Change: How Qualitative System Dynamic Modelling Can Assist in Understanding and Designing High-Leverage Interventions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89125",slug:"managing-and-sustaining-the-coupled-water-land-food-systems-in-the-context-of-global-change-how-qual",totalDownloads:686,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The water-land-food system is essential for sustaining the basic human needs. While the demand for these resources is increasing rapidly, their sustainability has been hampered by a plethora of challenges, including rapid population growth, climate change, land-use change, and land degradation. To attain a sustainable supply and efficiently manage these resources, interactions between all resources and the factors constraining/sustaining them need to be understood. In this chapter, four systems archetypes based or grounded in the systems thinking framework and system dynamics approach were employed to explore and identify the key system drivers, factors, and processes that influence the behaviour and sustainability of water-land-food resources nexus in the Volta River Basin, West Africa. Development of the archetypes centered on a generic causal loop diagram constructed with stakeholders in previous studies capturing the linkages between the population, water system, environmental and socioeconomics. These system archetypes illustrate that the past and the current paradigm of water and land and agricultural production management is unsustainable. The results highlight key areas, which could be useful for the current and future sustainable management, even under uncertain system understanding or deficiencies in quantitative data.",signatures:"Julius H. Kotir",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70171",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70171",authors:[{id:"304077",title:"Dr.",name:"Julius",surname:"Kotir",slug:"julius-kotir",fullName:"Julius Kotir"}],corrections:null},{id:"70596",title:"Need for a Collaborative Natural Resource Management Strategy for the Marine Environment—The Case of Plastics in the Mediterranean",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89873",slug:"need-for-a-collaborative-natural-resource-management-strategy-for-the-marine-environment-the-case-of",totalDownloads:435,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Natural resource management issues are at the heart of sustainability and are seldom limited to a localized community. We address marine plastic pollution which not only infests local beaches, but is found in the present research to have high mobility, a serious impact on human health, and a damaging effect on ecosystems. Plastics have reached the deepest points of our oceans and while all oceans are affected, the Mediterranean Sea is particularly vulnerable to pollution because of its high biodiversity density, its enclosed geometry, and its bathymetry. We collected primary and secondary data and drew on separate studies performed by the author. We gauged public attitudes towards plastic waste management in Lebanon and found that the public is aware of the issue and supports the formation of a Mediterranean Rim consortium to address both remedial and preventive strategies. A regression analysis is introduced where a dependent variable represents the need for regional natural resource strategies. It was found to be positively and significantly correlated with the establishment of national policies, engineering innovation as a preventive strategy, and the adoption of local implementation. Our case study in Lebanon unveiled lack of public policies for solid waste management and marine plastic litter, causing implementation challenges. We recommend that the problem of plastic pollution be tackled with cross-border cooperation among neighboring countries around the Mediterranean.",signatures:"Michel Soto Chalhoub",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70596",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70596",authors:[{id:"108542",title:"Dr.",name:"Michel Soto",surname:"Chalhoub",slug:"michel-soto-chalhoub",fullName:"Michel Soto Chalhoub"}],corrections:null},{id:"72038",title:"Treatment of Solid Waste Containing Metals by Biological Methods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92211",slug:"treatment-of-solid-waste-containing-metals-by-biological-methods",totalDownloads:369,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Methods for the treatment of hazardous wastes are based on two main approaches: either hydrometallurgy or pyrometallurgy. Biological methods are considered viable environmental-friendly technologies and have been developed in the last years and have been associated with lower cost and energy requirements, in comparison with nonbiological processes. In these methods, it is important to find suitable microorganisms to degrade organic substances under favorable conditions to complete the treatment. The advantages of biotechnological treatment of hazardous wastes are biodegradation or detoxification of a wide variety of hazardous substances using natural microorganisms, as well as the availability of a wide range of biotechnological methods for the total destruction of these wastes without the production of secondary hazardous derivatives. However, to intensify the biological treatment, it is a necessary requirement to add nutrients and acceptors of electrons, including the control of the optimal conditions. Thus, biotechnology provides a solution for the ecological degradation of harmful heavy metals and toxic chemicals. The main purpose of this chapter is to present and discuss the biological methods used in the treatment of solid waste containing metals and the advantages and disadvantages of each method.",signatures:"Marlenne Gómez-Ramírez and Sergio A. Tenorio-Sánchez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72038",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72038",authors:[{id:"316745",title:"Dr.",name:"Marlenne",surname:"Gomez-Ramirez",slug:"marlenne-gomez-ramirez",fullName:"Marlenne Gomez-Ramirez"},{id:"316788",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Sergio A",surname:"Tenorio-Sánchez",slug:"sergio-a-tenorio-sanchez",fullName:"Sergio A Tenorio-Sánchez"}],corrections:null},{id:"72286",title:"Protected Areas in Cameroon at the Mercy of the 2035 Emergent Project",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92086",slug:"protected-areas-in-cameroon-at-the-mercy-of-the-2035-emergent-project",totalDownloads:640,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cameroon is investing efforts to protect the environment through the creation of protected areas (PAs) while at the same time longing to attain its development objectives of becoming an emergent country in 2035 through the exploitation of its natural potentials. Attaining both objectives is usually accompanied with conflicts between different ministerial departments. This paper consequently seeks to identify those PAs that overlap with other projects (mining, agro-industries, and forest exploitation) and calculate the surface area of the former that has been taken up by the later. Data were obtained from the Interactive Forestry Atlas of Cameroon Version 3.0 produced by the World Resources Institute (WRI) and its partners. Internet sites and existing reports on environmental and development issues in Cameroon among others served as important sources of information. Results demonstrate that an approximate area of more than 1 million hectares (ha) of PA land have been taken-up by the three economic development-oriented projects mentioned above. That is an estimated 1,173,479 ha, 3575 ha and 1814.44 ha of PA land that have been taken-up by mining sites, agro-industries, and forest exploitation, respectively. For both objectives to be attained, concerted efforts from all ministerial departments concerned is mandatory.",signatures:"Bienvenu Magloire Takem Mbi and Aloysious Kohtem Lebga",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72286",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72286",authors:[{id:"214710",title:"Dr.",name:"Bienvenu Magloire Takem",surname:"Mbi",slug:"bienvenu-magloire-takem-mbi",fullName:"Bienvenu Magloire Takem Mbi"},{id:"316244",title:"Mr.",name:"Aloysious Aloy",surname:"Kohtem Lebga",slug:"aloysious-aloy-kohtem-lebga",fullName:"Aloysious Aloy Kohtem Lebga"}],corrections:null},{id:"72058",title:"Sustainable Management of Tropical Dry Forests: An Overview from Cameroonian Context and the Special Case of Mozogo-Gokoro National Park",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91982",slug:"sustainable-management-of-tropical-dry-forests-an-overview-from-cameroonian-context-and-the-special-",totalDownloads:457,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Climate change, desertification, and biodiversity are critical factors in the ongoing multilateral mobilization for sustainable management of natural resources. In order to investigate the administration of a national park, this chapter focuses firstly on the directions taken by the international normative arsenal in the Cameroonian context of forest governance and specifically the reminder of some regulatory texts concerning national parks. After addressing the issue of management of protected areas in the dry Far North of Cameroon, the second part examined the special case of the Mozogo-Gokoro National Park, located in this region, with reference to the results of a survey and administrative report consultations. The analysis reveals a gap between international and national legal instruments and their actual implementations. The park’s status as a plant conservation model in Sudano-Sahelian zone is mostly attributable to empirical local practices adapted to the resilience of vegetation.",signatures:"Rodrigue Constant Sandjong Sani, Mama Ntoupka, Toua Vroumsia, Tchobsala and Adamou Ibrahima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72058",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72058",authors:[{id:"143856",title:"Dr.",name:"Adamou",surname:"Ibrahima",slug:"adamou-ibrahima",fullName:"Adamou Ibrahima"},{id:"316426",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigue Constant",surname:"Sandjong Sani",slug:"rodrigue-constant-sandjong-sani",fullName:"Rodrigue Constant Sandjong Sani"},{id:"318179",title:"Dr.",name:"Mama",surname:"Ntoupka",slug:"mama-ntoupka",fullName:"Mama Ntoupka"},{id:"318180",title:"Prof.",name:"Toua",surname:"Vroumsia",slug:"toua-vroumsia",fullName:"Toua Vroumsia"},{id:"318181",title:"Prof.",name:"N",surname:"Tchobsala",slug:"n-tchobsala",fullName:"N Tchobsala"}],corrections:null},{id:"68844",title:"Challenges of Conservation and Sustainable Management of African Rosewood (Pterocarpuserinaceus) in West Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88796",slug:"challenges-of-conservation-and-sustainable-management-of-african-rosewood-em-pterocarpus-em-em-erina",totalDownloads:716,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pterocarpus erinaceus is an endemic and threatened plant species in arid and semiarid zones of West Africa and is highly exploited for timber, animal feeding, and various medicinal uses. The species is currently native to the Guinean forest-savannah mosaic ecoregion and reported from Senegal to Cameroon. The values of the main characteristics of the P. erinaceus forest stands (density, average diameter, average height and average stem height) vary significantly (P < 10−3) from the Guinean zone to the Sahelian zone. It has high technological performance and can be classified as heavy and very hard wood with a density of the order of 0.80 ± 0.07 g/cm3 and an average hardness of 12 ± 3.7 g/cm3. The species is the subject of large-scale international traffic between West Africa and Asia, which is by far the greatest threat to the species. The various uses induce repeated mutilation and increase pressures on the species resulting in a significant reduction in its natural populations. In response to this situation, measures are proposed, including large-scale plant production strategies, the definition of minimum felling diameters, policy measures, etc., to meet the restoration needs of natural stands of P. erinaceus and the fight against climate change.",signatures:"Adjonou Kossi, Houetchegnon Towanou, Rabiou Habou, Segla Kossi Novinyo, Abotsi Komla Elikplim, Johnson Benziwa Nathalie, Alaba Pyoabalo, Ouinsavi Christine A.I. Nougbodé, Quashie Akossiwoa Marie-Luce, Kokutse Adzo Dzifa, Mahamane Ali and Kokou Kouami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68844",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68844",authors:[{id:"50015",title:"Prof.",name:"Kokou",surname:"Kouami",slug:"kokou-kouami",fullName:"Kokou Kouami"},{id:"304170",title:"Dr.",name:"Kossi",surname:"Adjonou",slug:"kossi-adjonou",fullName:"Kossi Adjonou"},{id:"309621",title:"Prof.",name:"Ouinsavi",surname:"Christine",slug:"ouinsavi-christine",fullName:"Ouinsavi Christine"},{id:"309622",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabiou",surname:"Habou",slug:"rabiou-habou",fullName:"Rabiou Habou"},{id:"309623",title:"Dr.",name:"Segla",surname:"Kossi Novinyo",slug:"segla-kossi-novinyo",fullName:"Segla Kossi Novinyo"},{id:"309624",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Komla",surname:"Abotsi",slug:"komla-abotsi",fullName:"Komla Abotsi"},{id:"309625",title:"MSc.",name:"Johnson",surname:"Benziwa Nathalie",slug:"johnson-benziwa-nathalie",fullName:"Johnson Benziwa Nathalie"},{id:"309626",title:"MSc.",name:"Alaba",surname:"Pyoabalo",slug:"alaba-pyoabalo",fullName:"Alaba Pyoabalo"},{id:"309627",title:"Prof.",name:"Quashie Épouse Mensah Attoh",surname:"Akossiwoa Marie-Luce",slug:"quashie-epouse-mensah-attoh-akossiwoa-marie-luce",fullName:"Quashie Épouse Mensah Attoh Akossiwoa Marie-Luce"},{id:"309628",title:"Prof.",name:"Kokutse",surname:"Adzo Dzifa",slug:"kokutse-adzo-dzifa",fullName:"Kokutse Adzo Dzifa"}],corrections:null},{id:"69922",title:"The Utilization and Conservation of Indigenous Wild Plant Resources in the Limpopo Province, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89920",slug:"the-utilization-and-conservation-of-indigenous-wild-plant-resources-in-the-limpopo-province-south-af",totalDownloads:379,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The knowledge pertaining to uses of indigenous wild plants and their conservation methods by the rural communities of the Limpopo Province (South Africa) is not fully reconnoitered. The available data highlighting these aspects are scattered in general ethnobotanical literatures. The current study therefore sought to collate, analyze, and describe such information. Search engines and local libraries were used to document information. A total of 50 useful wild plant species belonging to 32 botanical families, mainly the Fabaceae (28%, n = 9) and Cucurbitaceae (13%, n = 4), were harvested by rural communities inhabiting the Limpopo Province. These species were mainly exploited wholly for medicinal (62%, n = 31) and food (20%, n = 10) purposes. Leaves, bark, fruits, and roots, respectively, were the most commonly used plant parts. Overall, the traditional conservation approaches employed by the indigenous people to ensure continual supply of these organs for different livelihoods encompass traditional beliefs and taboos, sustainable harvesting practices as well as domestication of plants. However, not all these approaches promote effective conservation and sustainable utilization of wild plant resources.",signatures:"Sebua S. Semenya and Matjutla J. Mokgoebo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69922",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69922",authors:[{id:"277762",title:"Mr.",name:"Matjutla",surname:"Mokgoebo",slug:"matjutla-mokgoebo",fullName:"Matjutla Mokgoebo"},{id:"306706",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebua",surname:"Semenya",slug:"sebua-semenya",fullName:"Sebua Semenya"}],corrections:null},{id:"71524",title:"Brazilian Amazon Plants: An Overview of Chemical Composition and Biological Activity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91255",slug:"brazilian-amazon-plants-an-overview-of-chemical-composition-and-biological-activity",totalDownloads:564,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Currently, the number of diseases has been increasing and reaching the population directly, and the deliberate use of drugs is creating resistance of pathogens in several drugs, a fact evidenced by the increased ineffectiveness of drugs and the persistence of infections in the body. Given this, it is necessary to search for new alternative drugs that can effectively promote effective therapy. It is possible to highlight, in Brazil, the diversity of the Amazonian flora, which has several species with considerable potential as a source of new molecules with identified biological activity. Thus, a literature review was conducted in order to describe the applications of some Amazonian extracts and their chemical characteristics and biological activity. The Amazon rain forest has considerable diversity of plant species with biological properties that may be useful to public health. Further research is needed to identify new compounds with health benefits.",signatures:"Reinaldo Martins Cunha Junior, Pâmella Buenos Aires Domingues, Rafael de Oliveira Ambrósio, Caio Augusto Freitas Martins, Jéssica Genoveva Boline Passarelli Capaz Pinto da Silva and Fabio Alessandro Pieri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71524",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71524",authors:[{id:"313643",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Pieri",slug:"fabio-pieri",fullName:"Fabio Pieri"},{id:"317144",title:"Mr.",name:"Reinaldo Martins",surname:"Cunha-Junior",slug:"reinaldo-martins-cunha-junior",fullName:"Reinaldo Martins Cunha-Junior"},{id:"317145",title:"Ms.",name:"Pamela Buenos Aires",surname:"Domingues",slug:"pamela-buenos-aires-domingues",fullName:"Pamela Buenos Aires Domingues"},{id:"317147",title:"Mr.",name:"Rafael De Oliveira",surname:"Ambrósio",slug:"rafael-de-oliveira-ambrosio",fullName:"Rafael De Oliveira Ambrósio"},{id:"317148",title:"Mr.",name:"Caio Augusto Freitas",surname:"Martins",slug:"caio-augusto-freitas-martins",fullName:"Caio Augusto Freitas Martins"},{id:"317149",title:"Ms.",name:"Jéssica Genoveva Boline Passarelli Capaz Pinto",surname:"Da Silva",slug:"jessica-genoveva-boline-passarelli-capaz-pinto-da-silva",fullName:"Jéssica Genoveva Boline Passarelli Capaz Pinto Da Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"70009",title:"The Contribution of Research in Combating Wildlife Poaching in Tanzania: Review of Existing Literature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89909",slug:"the-contribution-of-research-in-combating-wildlife-poaching-in-tanzania-review-of-existing-literatur",totalDownloads:825,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Conservation challenges such as human population growth, land use changes, human-wildlife conflicts, poaching, encroachment, wildlife diseases and pollution, among others, have grown in recent decades. Their solutions and policy responses require scientific approaches based on informed decisions. This chapter seeks to inform the contribution of research in addressing wildlife poaching in Tanzania, one of the serious management challenges facing the wildlife sector in the country. It reviews a number of publications to establish contribution of numerous scientific studies on wildlife poaching conducted in Tanzania. The review identifies different ways in which research can contribute in combating the problem—including establishing status and trends of poaching, understanding the drivers and effects of poaching, inspiring interventions at different levels and recommending the appropriate policy actions and strategies.",signatures:"Jafari R. Kideghesho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70009",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70009",authors:[{id:"280695",title:"Prof.",name:"Jafari R.",surname:"Kideghesho",slug:"jafari-r.-kideghesho",fullName:"Jafari R. Kideghesho"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8903",title:"Carbon-Based Material for Environmental Protection and Remediation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"19da699b370f320eca63ef2ba02f745d",slug:"carbon-based-material-for-environmental-protection-and-remediation",bookSignature:"Mattia Bartoli, Marco Frediani and Luca Rosi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8903.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8264",title:"New Frontiers on Life Cycle Assessment",subtitle:"Theory and Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59f13958eb30b72de4f8d1bc63f6dd2d",slug:"new-frontiers-on-life-cycle-assessment-theory-and-application",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo and Fabio De Felice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8264.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6170",title:"Arid Environments and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e0649511530c554a4cd5baf9432a4d3c",slug:"arid-environments-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Hasan Arman and Ibrahim Yuksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6170.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"143532",title:"Prof.",name:"Hasan",surname:"Arman",slug:"hasan-arman",fullName:"Hasan Arman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8983",title:"Sustainability Concept In Developing Countries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b7e452ede9e56b4a3b7e35c835f8446",slug:"sustainability-concept-in-developing-countries",bookSignature:"Surendra N. 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Goto, Hossein R. Najafabadi, Guilherme C. Duran, Edson K. Ueda, André K. Sato, Thiago C. Martins, Rogério Y. Takimoto, Hossein Gohari, Ahmad Barari and Marcos S.G. Tsuzuki",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"May 25th 2021",datePrePublished:"July 6th 2021",datePublished:null,book:{id:"10627",title:"Engineering Problems - Uncertainties, Constraints and Optimization Techniques",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineering Problems - Uncertainties, Constraints and Optimization Techniques",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marcos Sales Guerra Tsuzuki and Prof. Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10627.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"146384",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Sales Guerra",middleName:null,surname:"Tsuzuki",slug:"marcos-sales-guerra-tsuzuki",fullName:"Marcos Sales Guerra Tsuzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null}},chapter:{id:"77426",slug:"versatility-of-simulated-annealing-with-crystallization-heuristic-its-application-to-a-great-assortm",signatures:"Tiago G. Goto, Hossein R. Najafabadi, Guilherme C. Duran, Edson K. Ueda, André K. Sato, Thiago C. Martins, Rogério Y. Takimoto, Hossein Gohari, Ahmad Barari and Marcos S.G. Tsuzuki",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"May 25th 2021",datePrePublished:"July 6th 2021",datePublished:null,book:{id:"10627",title:"Engineering Problems - Uncertainties, Constraints and Optimization Techniques",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineering Problems - Uncertainties, Constraints and Optimization Techniques",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marcos Sales Guerra Tsuzuki and Prof. Rehab O. 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The applications of corrosion resistance materials will also bring great values to reader's work at different fields. \nIn addition to traditional corrosion study, the book also contains chapters dealing with energy, fuel cell, daily life materials, corrosion study in green materials, and in semiconductor industry.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0467-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6188-2",doi:"10.5772/1844",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"corrosion-resistance",numberOfPages:484,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"07e772d5bde6effcc31982a3f4fc0038",bookSignature:"Hong Shih",publishedDate:"March 30th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1380.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:85660,numberOfWosCitations:99,numberOfCrossrefCitations:50,numberOfDimensionsCitations:130,numberOfTotalCitations:279,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 5th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 3rd 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 7th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 7th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 6th 2012",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"11 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"89658",title:"Dr.",name:"Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Shih",slug:"hong-shih",fullName:"Hong Shih",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89658/images/system/89658.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hong Shih, Senior Technology Director at Lam Research Corporation, received his Ph.D. in Metallurgy from the Pennsylvania State University in 1986. He was a Post Doctor and a Research Professor at University of Southern California. He holds B.S. in Chemistry from Beijing University in 1970 and M.S. in Electrochemistry from Academic Sinica in 1981. He has been working at Applied Materials (1994-2002) and at Lam Research Corporation (2002-). He has 120 publications in the referred journals and books, 160 technical consulting reports,200 semiconductor equipment specifications and best known methods, 1,300 technical reports, and 190 USA and International Patents granted/published. His pioneer work in the study of materials under high density plasma opened a new scientific and engineering field. Dr. Shih is a well-known scientist on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, corrosion monitoring and control, electrochemical techniques and expert in plasma resistance materials, anodized aluminum, surface coatings, precision wet cleaning, defect, particle, and metal contamination reduction on plasma etching equipment served in semiconductor wafer fabrication.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Lam Research (United States)",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"949",title:"Solid Mechanics",slug:"solid-mechanics"}],chapters:[{id:"34479",title:"A Systematic Study and Characterization of Advanced Corrosion Resistance Materials and Their Applications for Plasma Etching Processes in Semiconductor Silicon Wafer 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Recently, metallic nanomaterials have become the most enormous and rapid emerging materials of science areas. The increased attention of nanomaterial fabrication, especially nanoparticles (NPs), is due to their fascinating properties revealed by their size, high surface area, and extraordinary surface activity exhibiting outstanding catalytic, electrical, and optical properties. Thus, metallic NPs have participated in extensive applications of research methodology and in advance micro- and nanotechnologies. They are proved as excellent heterogeneous catalysis, used in thin-film fabrication technology, in electronics, and in the manufacturing of microelectronic devices [1]. For controlled synthesis of NPs, the traditional colloid techniques are shared with modern techniques for [1]. Metallic NPs have powerful absorption spectrum in visible range, which is due to electron coherent oscillations on the surface of particles, called surface plasmon resonance (SPR). The SPR spectrum of metallic NPs has multiple applications in the field of biotechnology and has drawn enormous attraction recently [2, 3].
\nSilver is one of the widely studied metals during the last decades in nanotechnology research. Its distribution of size, stability, morphology, and surface charge/modification each plays a vital role in many scientific fields [1]. Its main features provide improvement in photography, microelectronics, photonics, photocatalysis, lithography, and antimicrobial and antifungal activity [4, 5, 6].
\nGold (Au) NPs are also famous candidates for medical therapy, cancer treatment, gene therapy, diagnostics, drug delivery, and biological purposes [7, 8, 9]. Its main advantage is its simple formation by chemical reduction and exhibiting low toxicity. To improve the capability of gold NPs, different techniques have been employed that provide various dimensions of NPs and its functionalization [10, 11, 12]. Due to inert characteristics of gold NPs, it is well known for biocompatibility, but its cytotoxicity mostly depends on nanoparticle’s size having precise concentration [13].
\nThe next prominent metal is copper (Cu) that has similar optical, electrical, and thermal characteristics like silver and gold. The only disadvantage is its oxidation state during the synthesis process; thus, it is the major challenge for any scientist. Although gold is costly as compared to silver and copper, consequently the fabrication of the latter NPs develops into more complimentary in recent research [14]. Copper NPs provide an ideal compromise between its novel properties and cost, thus proving an important material for industry. In fact, its vast field of applications is magnetic media for storage devices, solar energy transformations, electronics, and catalysis, and in addition, it has revealed a promising antimicrobial action [15].
\nFabrication of metallic NPs can be achieved by three ways: (i) physical methods in which metallic aggregates subdivided mechanically such as by laser ablation, vapor deposition, wire discharge, and mechanical milling; (ii) chemical methods in which metallic atoms produce nucleation and then growth occurs; and (iii) biological methods in which metallic NPs are formed by the reduction of metallic salts with any plant serum. The physical techniques yield dispersions with broad distribution of particle size. Chemical methods such as salt reduction are convenient method for the controlled sized particles [16].
\nOne of the advance and toxic-free techniques for nanoparticle fabrication is laser-ablated solid metal targets. In this technique, bulk target is positioned in any liquid environment and ablated by a pulsed laser. From ablated portion of the target, a dense plume of vapor and atomic clusters is ejected into the liquid environment and, thus, has rapid formation of NPs. This technology generates small, surfactant-free, and monodisperse NPs, having many advantages on chemical reduction technique [17, 18, 19] due to the use of toxic reducing agents. The size, dispersion, and composition of NPs generated by LAL method dispersed in liquid medium can be well controlled [20, 21, 22] by adjusting the target, liquid type, and laser parameters, like wavelength, fluence, and pulse duration [23].
\nThe second traditional method is wet chemistry mostly utilized to fabricate metallic NPs. This technique also has the ability to produce NPs of controlled morphology, composition, and crystallinity. Here, chemical reduction of salts generates comparatively larger NPs as compared to that of LAL technique [24, 25]. In wet chemical method, the formation of NPs has undergone by the following processes:
\nMetal and metallic salts are well known for antibacterial mechanism for centuries as silver pots were used for drinking water from 4000 BCE [36, 37]. Recent research in nanophysics capable the scientist to study the antibacterial properties on various metallic NPs [38, 39].
\nBasic toxic antibacterial mechanism of metallic NPs is still under debate, but three main mechanisms are supposed which include, firstly, the formation of reactive oxidative species (ROS); secondly, releasing process of ions; and, finally, interaction of NPs with the cell membrane (Figure 1). Metallic NPs as compared to their salts have enhanced potential to combat bacterial infections [40, 41, 42, 43]. Mostly, the size of NPs influences the antibacterial mechanism [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49].
\nVarious mechanisms of antimicrobial activity of the metal NPs [
The first step of antibacterial mechanism is the metallic ions of nanometer range attached to the cell via transmembrane protein. After attaching to bacterial cells, producing structural changes in the cell membrane and blocking the transport channels [6, 50], the whole process is size dependent. Small NPs are more efficient, while larger NPs have a higher absolute surface area permitting for better adhesion property of van der Waals forces. Then, NPs may be internalized, produce ionization within the cell, and damage intracellular structures resulting in cell death (Figure 1) [40].
\nThe production of reactive oxidative species (ROS) by metal NPs plays a large role in their antibacterial effectiveness (Figure 1). ROS consist of short-lived oxidants, such as superoxide radicals (O−2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl radicals (OH−1), and singlet oxygen (O−2) [51, 52]. Due to the high reactivity of these species, ROS can cause damage to peptidoglycan and cell membranes, DNA, mRNA, ribosomes, and proteins [42]. ROS can also inhibit transcription, translation, enzymatic activity, and the electron transport chain [42, 51]. Some metal oxide NPs rely on the generation of ROS as a main mechanism of toxicity [6, 41, 50].
\nMetal atoms have the tendency to attach with thiol group of enzymes and finally deactivate the function of enzymes. It is also suggested that metal ions attach themselves between the pyrimidine and purine base pairs disturbing the bonding of hydrogen between two strands of antiparallel and destruct the molecule of DNA (Figure 1). Although this has to be further investigated, but this is true that metal ions have tendency to attach with DNA, once they go into the cell [53].
\nThere are various direct and indirect methods for the microbial growth measurement. In direct method, mostly microbial effects are evaluated by viable technique of plate count, serial dilution, and disk diffusion method, while indirect methods are analyzed by turbidity, dry weight, and by metabolic activity. In brief, short description of direct and indirect methods is as follows.
\nIn the plate count techniques, Petri dishes are used for each reading. Agar plate is prepared, and one plate of inoculums and other plates with inoculum and nanoparticle solutions are spread on it with the help of sterile spreader; this plate is incubated for 24 hours at 37°C and then counted the colonies of each plate. Then, the inhibition percentage growth with each reading is calculated [54, 55].
\nThe prepared culture of bacteria is mixed in nutrient broth to form liquid culture. Then, sterile nutrient agar solution is prepared and put into dishes and waited to be solidified. After that, holes are generated with the help of cork borer. Bacterial culture is spread on the agar with sterile cotton bud. Holes are filled with solution of metallic NPs and stabilized; after that, the plates are incubated for 24 hours at 37°C. The zones of inhibition are observed the next day and calculated with standard error. For accurate analysis, proper repetition of the experiments is done for microbial study [16].
\nIndirect methods are basically referred as time-consuming methods, and the large number of samples is prepared at a time. A spectrophotometer is utilized to analyze the turbidity process by measuring the quantity of light that transmits through a bacterial cell suspension. As more transmission occurs through suspension, it means that turbidity decreases, indicating the reduction in bacterial cells and vice versa [56, 57].
\nIn recent research, Zafar et.al. [57] have worked on the antibacterial mechanism of silver NPs fabricated by laser ablation and by chemical method having different sizes and examined these NPs against Gram-positive (+) bacteria (
A medium (nutrient broth) (5.00 ml) was arranged in the labeled tubes and then sterilized, thus forming broth media in transparent form. The bacterium culture was then ready by shifting an identified Gram-positive [
Turbidity of tubes was confirmed by Elisa reader, a spectrophotometer having a filter of 600 nm wavelength. The values of optical density (OD) from Elisa reader in absorption mode represented the bacterial growth of labeled samples. Three OD values of each dose were taken, and their mean was calculated with standard deviation (St. Dev.). Three designed doses of SNPs were taken. Bacterial growth in nutrient broth revealed the total percentage (%) of bacterium growth. The percentage (%) change in the growth of bacterium was measured against OD value of pure nutrient media of broth (reference OD value). Similarly, the maximum calculated growth of
Inoculum | \nOD value of culture (S) | \nOD value for culture R=S – 0.065±0.001 | \nPercentage growth =\n | \n
---|---|---|---|
0.262 ± 0.004 | \n0.197 ± 0.005 | \n75.19 ± 0.9 | \n|
0.253 ± 0.003 | \n0.188 ± 0.004 | \n74.3 ± 0.7 | \n|
0.207 ± 0.001 | \n0.142 ± 0.002 | \n68.5 ± 0.3 | \n|
0.232 ± 0.001 | \n0.167 ± 0.002 | \n72 ± 0.3 | \n
Percentage growth of
Same process had been applied for the calculation of all doses. The growth of bacteria decreases with increasing dose of NPs [57]. Chemically synthesized SNPs inhibited 67.02%
Two sized SNPs were considered for antibacterial evaluation. The chemically synthesized SNPs have size range ~30–40 nm (Sample S1), while the laser-ablated SNPs had size range ~20–30 nm (Sample S2). Equal doses of laser-ablated NPs provided enhanced inhibition against each bacterium. Chemically synthesized SNPs exhibit less efficiency with respect to laser ablated SNPs. The first reason was slightly larger-sized nanoparticles, and, secondly, it might be possible that some chemical species may be adsorbed on the surface of NPs which declined the antibacterial performance. Hence, for the pureness of sample, chemical fabrication has many restrictions to employ these NPs for the biological, catalytic, and sensing applications.
\nFor statistical analysis and regression line, along X-axis, dose of SNPs was taken, whereas along Y-axis, percentage growth was plotted. Regression line has been plotted by using the values from Table 2 in given equations:
\nStrain | \nPercentage growth inhibition of chemically synthesized SNPs | \nPercentage growth inhibition of laser-ablated SNPs | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(% + standard error) | \n(% + standard error) | \n|||||
Low dose (0.78μg/ml) | \nMedium dose (1.57 μg/ml) | \nHigh dose (2.35μg/ml) | \nLow dose (0.78μg/ml_ | \nMedium dose (1.57 μg/ml_ | \nHigh dose (2.10μg/ml) | \n|
41.5 ± 0.5 | \n53.8 ± 1.7 | \n67.02 ± 0.9 | \n52.3 ± 0.5 | \n76.3 ± 1.7 | \n92.0 ± 0.9 | \n|
46.81 ± 1.7 | \n63.2 ± 0.9 | \n87.9 ± 0.9 | \n57.1 ± 1.7 | \n84.5 ± 0.9 | \n99.81 ± 0.9 | \n|
38.1 ± 0.3 | \n58.9 ± 0.3 | \n80.2 ± 0.3 | \n40.5 ± 0.3 | \n68 ± 0.3 | \n82 ± 0.3 | \n|
31.5 ± 0.3 | \n33.7 ± 0.3 | \n39.9 ± 0.3 | \n- | \n- | \n- | \n
Low-, medium-, and high-dose effects of laser-ablated SNPs and chemically synthesized SNPs on
From regression lines (Figure 2), the calculated minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of chemically synthesized NPs (30–40 nm) was estimated as ~2.8, 13.5, 4.37, and 2.81 μg/ml for
Regression line and percentage inhibition of
Antibacterial mechanism was further evaluated against
Well diffusion method: chemically synthesized (S1) SNPs against (a)
Strain | \nZone of inhibition (mm) of chemically synthesized Ag nanoparticles | \nZone of inhibition (mm) of laser-ablated Ag nanoparticles | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(% + standard error) | \n(% + standard error) | \n|||||
Low dose (0.78 μg/ml) | \nMedium dose (1.57 μg/ml) | \nHigh dose (2.35 μg/ml) | \nLow dose (0.78 μg/ml) | \nMedium dose (1.57 μg/ml) | \nHigh dose (2.10 μg/ml) | \n|
11 ± 0.2 | \n12 ± 0.3 | \n13 ± 0.2 | \n11 ± 0.5 | \n13 ± 0.2 | \n15 ± 0.3 | \n|
16 ± 1.7 | \n19 ± 0.9 | \n21 ± 0.9 | \n18 ± 1.7 | \n21 ± 0.3 | \n23 ± 0.2 | \n
Zone of inhibition for low, medium, and high doses of chemically synthesized and laser-ablated SNPs on
In previous studies, Laszlo Korosi fabricated SNPs by LAL method and concluded that size of SNPs strongly effected on the antibacterial mechanism. The antibacterial activity of SNPs (3 nm) was very much high against
The antibacterial efficiency of two samples of chemically synthesized gold nanoparticles (GNPs) was evaluated by Shamaila et.al. [59]. The first sample of GNPs, G1, has a size range of ~ 6–34 nm, and the second sample, G2, has a size range ~ 20–40 nm. Their potential efficacy was checked against Gram-negative bacteria
Same process was used for turbidity method as described in Section 2.1.1. Three doses were selected, low dose of ~ 1.35 μg, medium dose of ~ 2.03 μg, and High dose of 2.70 ~ μg GNPs (Table 4). The mean OD values with standard deviation of all test tubes for all doses were calculated carefully. The antimicrobial potential of GNPs against
Strain | \nPercentage reduction in growth of sample G1 of gold NPs (% + standard error) | \nPercentage reduction in growth of sample G2 of gold NPs (% + standard error) | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low dose (1.35μg/ml) | \nMedium dose (2.03 μg/ml) | \nHigh dose (2.7μg/ml) | \nLow dose (1.35μg/ml) | \nMedium dose (2.03 μg/ml) | \nHigh dose (2.7μg/ml) | \n|
46.4 ± 0.4 | \n33.75 ± 1.2 | \n22.4 ± 0.8 | \n53.1± 0.6 | \n40 ± 1.4 | \n23.7 ± 0.8 | \n|
45.2 ± 1.4 | \n26.6 ± 0.8 | \n4.2 ± 0.8 | \n47.6 ± 1.2 | \n32.2 ± 0.8 | \n6.2 ± 0.8 | \n|
38.3 ± 0.4 | \n22.8 ± 0.4 | \n10.0 ± 0.6 | \n42.7 ± 0.4 | \n26.8 ± 0.4 | \n13.8 ± 0.4 | \n|
57.8 ± 0.4 | \n52.1 ± 0.6 | \n45.2 ± 0.4 | \n60.7 ± 0.4 | \n56.3 ± 0.6 | \n49.4 ± 0.4 | \n
Antibacterial effects of two sized G1 and G2 GNPs against four bacteria [59].
Observing the calculations of Table 4, it was concluded that GNPs of G1 sample (size range 6–34 nm) which is smaller than NPs of G2 sample revealed the reduction in percentage (%) growth. For
The comparison of antibacterial results of two sets of samples of NPs having different sizes is given in Table 4. Equal doses of these samples were taken which give inhibition for each human pathogen. Sample G1 NPs exhibited more antibacterial mechanism with respect to sample G2 NPs due to size difference. There is difference in the antimicrobial results of GNPs for Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterium. This is due to the difference in its membrane structure, i.e., the thickness of layer peptidoglycan and wide variation range between both types of bacteria [58]. Thus, inhibition of Gram-positive bacteria is achieved with higher dose of NPs.
\nRegression line has been plotted between doses and percentage (%) growth, exactly like silver NPs with given equations in Section 2.1.1. Curves of growth inhibition were plotted for G1 and G2 NPs. From Figure 4, the MIC values of sample G1 (size 7–34 nm) are calculated ~ 2.93, 3.92, 3.15, and 7.56 μg/ml for
Calculation of doses for each bacterium: (a) sample G1 and (b) sample G2 of GNPs [
The doses were further tested to examine the zone of inhibition of
G1 NPs and G2 NP results from method of well diffusion against
Well diffusion method of two sized GNPs for
Micro organisms | \nOrganism category | \nDose | \nZone of inhibition (mm) | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(μL) | \nControl | \nG2 NPs | \nG1 NPs | \n||
Gram-positive | \n05 15 30 | \n0 0 0 | \n13 20 22 | \n12 23 25 | \n|
Gram-negative | \n05 15 30 | \n0 0 0 | \n10 28 31 | \n11 32 35 | \n
Zone of inhibitions for samples G1 and G2 of GNPs [59].
The current research examined the calculated inhibition zone for
In the present research of Khalid et al. [64], copper nanoparticles (Cu NPs) were used to evaluate the antibacterial mechanism. The size of chemically synthesized Cu NPs without any stabilizer was rapidly increased. Antibacterial mechanism of laser-ablated Cu NPs (with filter and without filter of MCE membrane) was examined against
Three concentrations of Cu NPs were used. Cu NPs were proved to be very toxic for bacteria
Dose ( | \nCopper nanoparticles by chemical reduction method | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
With MCE membrane growth inhibition (%) | \nWithout MCE membrane growth inhibition (%) | \n|||||
Low dose | \nMedium dose | \nHigh dose | \nLow dose | \nMedium dose | \nHigh dose | \n|
65.1± 0.6 | \n48.06± 1.0 | \n31.8± 0.8 | \n69.6± 0.8 | \n57.1± 1.2 | \n42.1± 0.6 | \n|
58.3± 1.4 | \n34.6± 0.8 | \n1.9± 0.8 | \n68.1± 0.6 | \n49.8± 0.8 | \n27.4± 1.0 | \n
Antibacterial effects of doses of copper NPs on
To find out how much maximum dose was required for complete reduction in the bacterial growth, statistical analysis was calculated by the equations given in Section 2.1.1. Figure 6 represents regression line.
\nGraphically representation of growth inhibition by Cu NPs for (a)
By chemical reduction, Cu NP doses required for maximum growth inhibition of
The zone of inhibition of laser-ablated Cu NPs was further observed [24] by agar method of well diffusion (Table 7). The calculations of zone of inhibition for
Sr. no. | \nConcentration of nanoparticles | \nGrowth of | \nGrowth of | \nInhibition zone of | \nInhibition zone of | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \n1.9 μM | \n52.6 | \n60.8 | \n16 | \n14 | \n
2 | \n3.9 μM | \n23.7 | \n42.5 | \n19 | \n16 | \n
3 | \n5.8 μM | \n0.9 | \n19.3 | \n32 | \n- | \n
4 | \n6.9 μM | \n- | \n1.3 | \n- | \n22 | \n
Effects of copper NPs having low, medium, and high doses on
Zone of inhibition by Cu NPs in mm for (a)
Antimicrobial performance of metallic NPs depends on the features of bacterial species. The main dissimilarity between Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria is its membrane structure such that peptidoglycan layer thickness has the main features of polymer along with amino acid and sugar, thus forming an outside layer of plasma membrane (cell wall) which offers the stability to structure which is responding to the osmotic pressure of cytoplasm. Its range of thickness is higher (50%) in Gram-positive (+) and lower (8%) in Gram-negative (−) bacterium. Gram-positive bacterium comprises peptidoglycan layer in multiple steps having long teichoic acid chain. Conversely, Gram-negative bacteria contain a single and thin peptidoglycan layer with the absence of teichoic acid. Outer membrane has periplasmic and lipopolysaccharide layer [58].
\nThus, the main process is first the attachment of metal ions or NPs to the bacterium outer cell wall and then accumulation of protein precursor’s layer, which ultimately disables the proton motive force. Metallic NP destabilizes the outer membrane, produces crack in the membrane of plasma, and reduces the synthase activities of the depletion layer of intracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) [31], thus reducing the process of metabolism. It destructs the ribosome subunit by t RNA binding and thus finally the total collapse of biological mechanism.
\nIt has been further concluded that the small-sized metallic NPs with larger surface area exhibited some electronic effects which were beneficial to improve the surface attraction of NPs. In addition, the percentage of enhanced surface area straightly interacted with the membrane of microorganism with vast extent and hence bridged an improved relation with bacteria. These two vital factors powerfully enhanced the antimicrobial action of the NPs with high surface area. Bacterial proteins (cell wall and cytoplasm) were accountable for the cell performance. These NPs disrupted the normal performance of protein function, which causes the cell’s death. NPs basically interacted with soft bases having sulfur or phosphorus components. So, the sulfur of proteins and phosphorus belonging to DNA molecules are favorite attacking sites of NPs. Then, these NPs attached themselves to enzymes (thiol groups), i.e., nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) dehydrogenases and destructed its respiratory chain by releasing of oxygen species, thus creating oxidative stress. Consequently, a major damage is occurred in the cell structures and lastly leads to cell loss [21, 59].
\nShrivastava et al. [66] have reported that the SNPs affected
In the present research work, SNPs exhibited effective antibacterial behavior against
It is demonstrated that the small-sized GNP sample ~ 6–34 nm displays good bacterial performance than the second GNP sample ~ 20–40 nm. This advantage is by reason of its minute size, enhanced surface-area-to-volume ratio, and fine penetration power. Finally, the small-sized NPs effortlessly bind to the prominent parts of the outer membrane, so causing damages in structure, deprivation, and ultimately cell death. Various GNP doses displayed the best antibacterial action against
It is evident that for both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, the increase in the concentration of Cu NPs revealed the decrease in percentage growth. With high dose of Cu NPs, a noticeable antibacterial action (growth inhibition ~ 1.9%) was recorded for
In current research, the observed antibacterial mechanism of all metallic NPs is tested on behalf of concentration and size of NPs. The basic mechanism is that how many metal ions are released because they attributed to their large surface-area-to-volume ratio. These ions directly interact with each bacterium’s outer membrane. One possible justification is nanometer size pores of bacteria cell membranes that can give a pathway for the NPs [59]; secondly, the ions released by NPs may fasten to the cell wall of bacteria and crack it. Ions of NPs which are released produce radicals of hydroxyl that may deform the basic function of essential proteins and finally its DNA for the cell death [57, 58, 59].
\nThe two techniques for fabricating metallic nanoparticles were compared here to specify a broad range of achievable characteristics. This aptitude to give variation in properties of controllable metallic nanoparticles would be eventually profitable for future research relaying on the antibacterial properties of nanoparticles. A direct assessment between metallic NPs generated either by wet chemical technique or LAL method will be supportive in finding the exact trends and mechanisms of antimicrobial, which are currently hot issues of recent advance research. The antibacterial activity was size and dose dependent and was more explicit against Gram-negative bacterium than Gram-positive ones. The fabricated nanoparticles are spherical in shape with polycrystalline nature having various size ranges in nm. Antibacterial behavior of metallic nanoparticles against pathogenic bacteria demonstrates that they can act as an efficient tool for antibacterial. Silver, gold, and copper nanoparticles exhibit their excellent performance physically, catalytically, and chemically because of its larger surface-area-to-volume ratio. Turbidity provides an efficient and fast technique for the estimation of the bacterial development in a liquid. The calculations of MIC are further supportive in calculation of inhibition zone by agar method of diffusion. The present study will be beneficial in environment, information technology, health, cosmetics, and food department fields. Additionally, silver nanoparticles have reduced the life-threatening facts because of their flexible nature with respect to conventional antibiotics. Gold nanoparticles provide benefit in the field of biomedicine, chemistry, and genetics due to their characteristics of functionally active power. In biomedicine, gold NPs can become a vital revolution in the research of drug delivery and cancer therapy. They also proved to be nontoxic and a safe antimicrobial representative due to their powerful functional nature instead of antibiotics. Antimicrobial nanomaterials are potentially eye-catching for a variety of medical applications, i.e., dental procedures. Copper nanoparticles perform best as an antibiotic, antifungal, and antimicrobial agent when utilized for plastics, textiles, and coatings. Copper and its oxide are used for the coating of cellulose of nanofibrillar, a promising nanobiomaterial. The metallic nanoparticles showed potential performance as an antimicrobial against
We are highly thankful to Microbiology Department of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan, for providing facilities for antibacterial analysis. Furthermore, appreciation is given to the assistance of the Physics Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan. Authors are highly obliged to the editors of Intech Open Book for providing this great opportunity.
\nSince the beginning of time, social developments were driven by the need to respond and adapt to different challenges such as natural hazards and the resulting risks [1, 2]. Only recognizing, accepting, and dealing with risks and their consequences has allowed us to grow and evolve to the society we know today by passing through an endless process of trials and errors. Therefore, every achievement or modification of the surrounding environment can be evaluated from a risk perspective [2]. Being part of the past and current developments of our society, the generic concepts of risk, risk assessment and risk management are well established in many disciplines, from technical applications (e.g., in industrial plants and airports), to project management, the finance sector or civil protection [3, 4]. However, their consideration, management and definitions are not as coherent as one might think [5]. Risk and its connected concepts have been defined heterogeneously, in relation to their specific application in a certain field [2].
The broadest definition of risk is given by the International Organization for Standardization ISO Norm 31000 on risk management, mainly addressing organizations and enterprises. ISO defines risk as the “effect of uncertainty on objectives” [6]. This ISO Norm further specifies that “Risk is usually expressed in terms of risk sources [element which alone or in combination has the potential to give rise to risk], potential events [occurrence or change of a particular set of circumstances], their consequences [outcome of an event affecting objectives] and their likelihood [chance of something happening].” [5, 6].
In the context of natural hazards, the climate change adaptation (CCA) and the disaster risk reduction (DRR) communities have a common objective: addressing the prevention and reduction of risks related to extreme weather- and climate-related events [7], and disasters, which are defined as “Severe alterations in the normal functioning of a community or a society due to hazardous physical events […].” [8]. However, in the past the two research communities have evolved autonomously, adopting complementary approaches [9, 10]. In general, DRR has a longer history and has mainly focused on the present, addressing existing risks. On the other hand, CCA focusses mainly on the future, addressing uncertainty and new risks, also related to slow changes [10]. Consequently, the two research communities have developed different definitions of the risk concept.
In the context of DRR, the definition of risk is primarily based on the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) [11]. The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR, formerly known as UNISDR) defines disaster risk as “The potential loss of life, injury, or destroyed or damaged assets which could occur to a system, society or a community in a specific period of time, determined probabilistically as a function of hazard, exposure, vulnerability and capacity” [12]. Until 2018, the CCA community has instead mainly focused on the concept of vulnerability; however, efforts have been made recently to coordinate and integrate a common concept understanding among both research communities [13].
The Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) has been key in proposing solutions for common definitions [10]. In its Fifth Assessment Report, the IPCC has introduced the risk concept with the aim to identify and evaluate the risk of impacts from climate change, which is in line with the DRR practice of understanding and addressing natural hazards (e.g., earthquakes, floods or landslides) [4]: Risk is “The potential for consequences where something of value is at stake and where the outcome is uncertain, […, and] results from the interaction of vulnerability, exposure, and hazard.” [8] (Figure 1; see Table 1 for IPCC definitions of vulnerability, exposure, and hazard).
Conceptual framework of the climatic, ecological, economical, and social impacts on climate-related and natural hazard risks resulting from the interaction of the three (natural) hazard components (frequency: Number of times a natural hazard event occurs within a specified time interval, magnitude: Energy released by a natural hazard event, and intensity: Effects of a natural hazard event at a specific location or area [
Hazard | “The potential occurrence of a natural or human-induced physical event that may cause loss of life, injury, or [...] damage and loss to property, infrastructure, livelihoods, service provision and environmental resources.” |
Exposure | The presence of people; livelihoods; environmental services and resources; infrastructure; or […] assets in places and settings that could be adversely affected.” |
Vulnerability | “The propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected.” |
Risk | The potential for consequences where something of value is at stake and where the outcome is uncertain, […].” |
Defining risk resulting from the interaction of hazard, exposure, and vulnerability [8].
This 2014 IPCC definition of risk introduces a new approach and terminology [5], which is based on the UNDRR and ISO Norm 31000 definitions, allowing for an integration of climate risks into already existing risk management strategies and policies. Some of the terms used in this concept are newly introduced to the CCA community; others are now defined differently [4]. For example, the DRR community interprets vulnerability as the societal, physical, and natural factors which contribute to disaster risk [5], while the CCA community’s vulnerability definition focuses on “the degree to which a system is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change […]” [15].
Since the late 1990s, the concept of risk has been successfully applied in the field of natural hazard management to evaluate protection measures [16, 17, 18]. In this context, risk results from the combination of natural hazards, exposure, and vulnerability (Figure 1) [19], similar to the approaches and practices of the DRR community and to the IPCC risk concept [8]. That is, a hazard alone does not constitute a risk, if occurring in an area with no consequences for humans, and not all elements at risk are necessarily impacted given their exposure and vulnerability [8, 20]. Therefore, risk assessment does not only consider the hazard but also the presence and vulnerability of potentially exposed elements (i.e., assets or people). This includes their physical attributes (i.e., building material of houses), their social, economic, and cultural characteristics (i.e., demographics) and their capacity to cope and adapt [4].
Understanding natural hazard processes and their potentially harmful consequences constitutes an essential prerequisite for developing and implementing efficient risk management strategies [21], including practices, plans and actions for reducing the natural hazard risk in an area by acting on one or more of the three risk components [22]. Disasters related to natural hazards such as floods, droughts, heat waves, cyclones, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, rockfall, landslides and/or snow avalanches can vary widely in frequency, magnitude and intensity, mainly due to the environment they originate from [23]. The most severe disasters directly affect local, regional and national socioeconomic developments and livelihood improvements [10]. Their occurrence often reveals how differently vulnerable communities can be, since they are mitigated or amplified by a complex system of interacting factors such as the settlement in exposed areas, poor risk governance, environmental degradation, inadequate risk communication, or a lack of preparedness by public authorities [2, 24]. The trend in increasing numbers of occurring disasters is also linked to the increased exposure of populations, which is caused by socioeconomic factors such as population growth, rapid urbanization and the concentration of populations and economic assets in regions that are regularly affected by hazardous events [25].
One of these vulnerable regions are mountain areas, which occupy 22% of the Earth’s surface [26]. Mountain areas vary largely in shape, altitude, vegetation, and climate across the globe [27, 28]. Despite these differences, mountain areas are globally renowned for the biodiversity they host and the ecosystem services they provide, including the provision of freshwater to about half of the world’s population [28]. In addition to their acknowledged natural functions, mountain areas are home to more than 915 million people, representing 13 percent of the global population [29]. The inhabitants of mountain areas are particularly exposed and vulnerable to natural hazards as well as climate change [5].
Consistent with the global context, the European Alps (Figure 2) have been identified as one of the continent’s most vulnerable areas to climate-related hazards [5]. Due to their high population density, the European Alps have always been affected by multiple natural hazards since time immemorial. Consequently, the mitigation of natural hazards (i.e., interventions aimed at reducing risks) has always been a major task in the Alpine Region [1, 30, 31]. Following the development of the risk concept and its integration into several international agreements, approaches for disaster risk reduction in mountain areas have been progressively adopted, i.e., methodologies for identifying and planning mitigation and adaptation measures to reduce risk by reducing vulnerability or, eventually, exposure [32, 33].
Extents of the Interreg alpine space, the EUSALP alpine region and the European Alps (alpine Convention). Adapted from [
However, significant changes in the Alpine landscapes over the last century caused by fast and profound socioeconomic developments, force mountain communities to continue facing new and complex challenges:
Population expansion has led to high-density settlements located in areas that were previously considered to be unsafe [1, 30];
Transportation infrastructures crossing the Alps have significantly increased, making this region one of the main thoroughfares in Europe [34]; and
Alpine tourism has gained popularity, so that many remote mountain areas that were previously avoided are now expected to be permanently accessible [35, 36].
This increase in assets and people driven by urbanization and socioeconomic processes has led to an increase in the number of potentially exposed elements. In addition to the damages to assets and infrastructures and losses to the residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural and public sectors worth billions of Euros [35]. For example, at least 4,750 casualties were caused by avalanches alone in the Alps from 1970 to 2015, of which approximately 670 occurred in controlled terrain (settlements and transportation corridors) [37], and 1,370 people were killed by landslides and rockfall in Europe between 1995 and 2014 [38].
Recent disasters caused by floods, storms, avalanches, and other natural hazards have resulted in a shift towards an aware coexistence with such hazards and in a growing need for greater investments in protection measures [39, 40]. Limited space for settlement expansion, changes to frequencies and magnitudes of natural hazard events and natural forest disturbances as well as changes in traditional land use practices and land cover, including mountain forests, cumulatively affect natural hazard risks [41]. Thus, the safety of mountain populations needs to be ensured, in accordance with the preservation of precious mountain environments, a fundamental precondition for the sustainable development of the Alpine Space (i.e., the cooperation area of the Alpine Space programme covering the Alps and their surrounding lowlands [42]; Figure 2). Such challenges require risk governance concepts, including adaptive and integrated natural hazard risk management [1, 33, 39].
The concept of integrated risk management (IRM) refers to an overall risk management process in conjunction with the ISO Norm 31000 [6], including risk assessment (risk identification, analysis and evaluation), as well as risk treatment (preparedness, response and recovery) [44]. IRM is a systematic approach to cope with all societal-relevant hazards and related risks in an area by considering sophisticated damage indicators as well as ecological, economic and social sustainability criteria, the full spectrum of available measures, and all relevant decision-makers, experts, and those who are affected in a structured way (Figure 3).
The integrated risk management cycle. Forests are integrated as biological hazard prevention measures. Adapted from [
In the last decades, anthropogenic climate change has become the biggest threat to our society, and especially for the inhabitants of mountain areas [33]. Indeed, it was climate change’s recognition and the assessment of its devastating effects which encouraged the latest international advancements in disaster risk management concepts and collaborations among scientists, practitioners, and policy makers. The increasing impacts and awareness of climate change were the motivation for the development of the IPCC’s “risk of climate-related impacts” concept [8]. It is widely recognized how the adverse impacts of climate change on humans and nature are limiting the possibility to achieve global conservation and development objectives such as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and the Sustainable Development Goals [46]. The diverse impacts of climate change, in terms of both subtle trends and abrupt events, are unprecedented over decades to millennia: the increased concentrations of greenhouse gases have led to higher air temperatures, the atmosphere and oceans have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, and sea level has risen [8].
The reason for its big influence on developing risk-based evaluation and management approaches is climate change’s peculiar nature of influencing all three components of the risk concept. That is, climate-related hazards such as extreme weather events are impacting our communities more frequently and with greater intensity, and changes in the climatic system can exacerbate disaster risk [19], a trend that is projected to continue with global warming [7, 47]. In addition, the currently unsustainable exploitation of ecosystems increases the vulnerability of humans and nature to natural hazards, provoking environmental (degradation, conversion, and other ecological changes), social (loss of adaptive capacities, knowledge, and institutions; loss of livelihood options and resilience), and economic (globalization, trade, markets) impacts [2, 48]. Furthermore, climate change is also driving socioeconomic processes by forcing people to migrate, weakening the economic basis of their livelihood, and/or threatening public health, and therefore enhancing their exposure [5].
The recent achievement by the IPCC of addressing climate change impacts in the framework of the risk concept is the direct outcome of decades of efforts from several research communities and policy makers. While the DRR community focuses on sudden hazardous events of a certain magnitude with immediate and severe consequences, climate change risks also include trends that evolve over long time periods. The adverse consequences of these trends are rather manifested in slowly increasing pressure on the environment and people’s livelihoods than in immediate impacts [2]. Therefore, the IPCC framework is particularly suitable for a global perspective on risk, which is needed to manage systemic climate change risk and its cascading effects [40, 49]. In parallel, several global agreements were signed to translate the IPCC findings into political action, such as the ‘Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030’ [11], the ‘Paris Agreement’ [50], the ‘Addis Ababa Action Agenda’ [51], the ‘New Urban Agenda’ [52], and ultimately the so far 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [53].
Today, scientists agree that anthropogenic climate change is altering natural hazard patterns in mountain areas [23, 25, 32]. For example, melting of glaciers and permafrost due to rising air temperatures and changes to mountain hydrology amplify the release of rocks and debris, destabilizing slopes and leading to further erosion, resulting in increasing rockfall and landslide activities [54]. In recent years, several global policy initiatives agreed on the risk paradigm and helped mountain communities to face climate change impacts on their livelihoods by adopting risk mitigation strategies and more resilient lifestyles [40, 55]. An overview of the key scientific networks and policy actors involved in natural hazard risk management in the Alpine Space is given in Table 2.
Name | Acronym | Scope | URL |
---|---|---|---|
International Commission for the Protection of the Alps | CIPRA | Non-governmental and non-profit umbrella organization which promotes the protection and sustainable development of the Alps at the international level. One of its initiatives was the establishment of the Alpine Convention. | [56] |
Disaster Risk Management Knowledge Centre of the European Commission | DRMKC | Instrument to support the knowledge transfer from science into EU policies and to provide informed and evidence-based advice for disaster risk management | [57] |
European Strategy for the Alpine Region | EUSALP | Alpine macro-regional strategy to improve the cooperation in the Alpine Region by identifying common goals and implementing them through transnational collaborations | [58] |
Global Mountain Safeguard Research | GLOMOS | Collaborative program and scientific alliance between the UN University’s Institute for Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS) and Eurac Research for developing resilient mountain communities | [59] |
Interreg Alpine Space programme | — | EU-funded transnational program to facilitate the cooperation between economic, social, and environmental key actors as well as between academia, administration, business and innovation sectors, and policy making | [60] |
Mountain Partnership | — | Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) supported UN voluntary alliance to improve lives and livelihoods of mountain people and to protect mountain environments | [61] |
Mountain Research Initiative | MRI | Swiss-based international network for research in mountain environments conducted across borders and disciplines | [62] |
Platform on Natural Hazards of the Alpine Convention | PLANALP | Alpine Convention platform to develop common strategies designed to prevent natural hazards in the Alps and to exchange on adaptation strategies | [63] |
Key networks and organizations addressing natural hazard risk management in the Alps, the alpine space, and the alpine region (Figure 2).
All these initiatives are contributing to transform mountain areas into living laboratories of risk mitigation and management. However, the unique topographic, geomorphologic, and climatic diversity of the European Alps necessitates that policies are implemented by acknowledging regional and local differences [32, 33]. Only then climate-proof and efficient risk management strategies can be provided to local decision makers and practitioners to foster tangible improvements in the safety and livability of the Alpine Space [20, 54].
In the light of fast and profound socioeconomic, environmental, and climatic changes, the Interreg Alpine Space project GreenRisk4ALPs (GR4A; [64]) aimed at supporting natural hazard risk governance by developing decision support tools for practitioners and policy makers to include Ecosystem-based solutions for Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR) into affordable and long term-oriented integrated risk management. Moreover, GR4A supported overcoming conflicts and resistances by addressing all relevant actors involved in natural hazard risk management, providing science-based communication support, and developing harmonized transalpine recommendations – for municipalities as well as governance institutions. To establish efficient and proactive risk reduction measures, it is key to consider potential implications of current and future developments that determine the natural hazard risk [1, 23, 65]. Besides changes associated with elements potentially at risk, an improved understanding of past, current and future climatic trends is vital to achieve an efficient risk reduction, also due to 1) the known influence of climatic and meteorological dynamics on the occurrence of natural hazards, 2) the dependency of mountain ecosystems on climatic conditions, and 3) their interactions with (gravitational) natural hazards [54], such as landslides [66, 67], rockfall [68, 69], and snow avalanches [70, 71].
Supporting an ecosystem-based integrated risk management and the acknowledgment of the key role forests have for risk reduction in mountain areas, the findings of GR4A help identifying mitigation strategies and subsequently efficient risk reduction measures through an improved and participative risk governance system. How forests can act as a solution for Eco-DRR is the subject of the following two chapters of this book [72, 73]. Moreover, the methodologies and decision support tools related to the risk concept that were developed and applied within GR4A are presented in [74, 75], the book chapters [76, 77, 78], and are explained in detail in the GR4A project reports [20, 65, 79, 80].
This work was conducted in the context of the GreenRisk4ALPs project (ASP635), which has been financed by Interreg Alpine Space programme, one of the 15 transnational cooperation programs covering the whole of the European Union (EU) in the framework of European Regional policy. We thank Stefano Terzi for valuable comments on an earlier version of this chapter.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Ranz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5163",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",subtitle:"Advances in Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fc469ff4d2cf6651cfdbf3c5cf90a469",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",bookSignature:"Emerson Dechechi Chambo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5163.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94059",title:"Dr.",name:"Emerson",middleName:"Dechechi",surname:"Dechechi Chambó",slug:"emerson-dechechi-chambo",fullName:"Emerson Dechechi Chambó"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"50073",doi:"10.5772/62487",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3411,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"50307",doi:"10.5772/62654",title:"From Extraction to Meliponiculture: A Case Study of the Management of Stingless Bees in the West-Central Region of Mexico",slug:"from-extraction-to-meliponiculture-a-case-study-of-the-management-of-stingless-bees-in-the-west-cent",totalDownloads:2743,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Currently, stingless bees' populations are declining due to environmental degradation. In this context, the authors have developed a research project in the central-western region of Mexico with the goal to generate strategies for conservation and sustainable management of stingless bees. The chapter aims to present the process of this investigation and its main results in terms of a) local knowledge and management strategies of stingless bees, and b) the social process of technological appropriation of meliponiculture by beekeepers. We recognized specific knowledge on the biology and ecology of stingless bees that result in a system for identifying species and management strategies of wild populations of these bees based on the extraction of nests. The implementation of an innovative productive activity based on the principles of meliponiculture and current techniques has been well received by producers, which has led to the formation of the Meliponicultores Michoacanos del Balsas Association, which grows five species of stingless bees. The research suggests that conservation associated with the use of bees (integral meliponiculture) can be enhanced in the region. Faced with the loss of biodiversity and environmental crisis, it is essential to maintain and enhance local knowledge of stingless bees and management practices. This represents an alternative to develop management schemes that allow the raising and breeding of these bees, while its products are obtained.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Alejandro Reyes-González, Andrés Camou-Guerrero and Salvador\nGómez-Arreola",authors:[{id:"179951",title:"Dr.",name:"Andres",middleName:null,surname:"Camou-Guerrero",slug:"andres-camou-guerrero",fullName:"Andres Camou-Guerrero"},{id:"185413",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes-González",slug:"alejandro-reyes-gonzalez",fullName:"Alejandro Reyes-González"},{id:"192049",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvador",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez-Arreola",slug:"salvador-gomez-arreola",fullName:"Salvador Gómez-Arreola"}]},{id:"50170",doi:"10.5772/62395",title:"A Comprehensive Characterization of the Honeybees in Siberia (Russia)",slug:"a-comprehensive-characterization-of-the-honeybees-in-siberia-russia-",totalDownloads:2296,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"A comprehensive study of some populations of honeybee (332 colonies) in Siberia (Tomsk region, Krasnoyarsk Krai (Yenisei population), Altai) using morphometric and molecular genetic methods was conducted. Infestation of bees (132 colonies) by Nosema has also been studied. Three variants of the COI-COII mtDNA locus were registered: PQQ, PQQQ (typical for Apis m. mellifera), and Q (specific for southern races). It was established that 64% of bee colonies from the Tomsk region and all colonies studied from the Krasnoyarsk and the Altai territories originate from Apis m. mellifera on the maternal line. According to the morphometric study, the majority of bee colonies of the Tomsk region are hybrids; in some colonies the mismatch of morphometric and mtDNA data was observed. Moreover, the majority of bee colonies infected by Nosema were hybrids. Yenisei population may be considered as a unique Apis m. mellifera population. Microsatellite analysis (loci А008, Ap049, AC117, AC216, Ap243, H110, A024, A113) showed the specific distribution of genotypes and alleles for some loci in the bees, which differ by geographical location. Loci A024 and Ap049 are of considerable interest for further study as candidate markers for differentiation of subspecies; locus A008 can be considered informative for determining of different ecotypes of Apis m. mellifera.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Nadezhda V. Ostroverkhova, Olga L. Konusova, Aksana N. Kucher\nand Igor V. Sharakhov",authors:[{id:"180112",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nadezhda",middleName:null,surname:"Ostroverkhova",slug:"nadezhda-ostroverkhova",fullName:"Nadezhda Ostroverkhova"},{id:"180249",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Konusova",slug:"olga-konusova",fullName:"Olga Konusova"},{id:"180342",title:"Prof.",name:"Aksana",middleName:null,surname:"Kucher",slug:"aksana-kucher",fullName:"Aksana Kucher"},{id:"180343",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Sharakhov",slug:"igor-sharakhov",fullName:"Igor Sharakhov"}]},{id:"50683",doi:"10.5772/63145",title:"Advances in Pharmacological Activities and Chemical Composition of Propolis Produced in Americas",slug:"advances-in-pharmacological-activities-and-chemical-composition-of-propolis-produced-in-americas",totalDownloads:2578,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Propolis is a resinous material produced by bees from the selective collection of plant exudates that are subsequently mixed with beeswax and salivary bee secretions. Propolis has been used in folk medicine, and certainly, several studies have validated its biological properties. The chemical composition and pharmacological activities of propolis collected through North (including Central America and Caribbean) and South America have been studied in the last years, and several papers have reported differences and similarities among the analysed geographical samples. Propolis has been classified according to its aspect and plant source; however, the ecological diversity present along the Americas provides a plethora of botanical resins. Herein, we summarize and discuss most of the studies performed at present on this profitable product for apiculture, attempting to compare the bioactivity, phytochemical diversity and botanical sources of honeybee propolis produced in Americas.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Efrain Alday, Moisés Navarro-Navarro, Adriana Garibay-Escobar,\nRamón Robles-Zepeda, Javier Hernandez and Carlos Velazquez",authors:[{id:"96966",title:"MSc.",name:"Moises",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Navarro",slug:"moises-navarro-navarro",fullName:"Moises Navarro-Navarro"},{id:"180409",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velazquez",slug:"carlos-velazquez",fullName:"Carlos Velazquez"},{id:"186351",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Zepeda",slug:"ramon-robles-zepeda",fullName:"Ramón Robles-Zepeda"},{id:"186352",title:"MSc.",name:"Efrain",middleName:null,surname:"Alday",slug:"efrain-alday",fullName:"Efrain Alday"},{id:"186353",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez",slug:"javier-hernandez",fullName:"Javier Hernandez"},{id:"189161",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"Garibay-Escobar",slug:"adriana-garibay-escobar",fullName:"Adriana Garibay-Escobar"}]},{id:"71161",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91196",title:"Detailed Review on Pesticidal Toxicity to Honey Bees and Its Management",slug:"detailed-review-on-pesticidal-toxicity-to-honey-bees-and-its-management",totalDownloads:1053,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter deals with the effects of different pesticides used in agro-ecosystem on honey bees and other pollinators and probable measures to manage this escalating problem of global decline of managed as well as the wild insect pollinators. This chapter describes different routes from which pollinators, especially honey bees get exposed to the different toxicants, followed by poisoning symptoms in honey bees. Further, this chapter focuses on the classification of different toxicants in different classes as per their nature. Finally, the management of these different toxicants and their toxicity to avoid bee poisoning has been considered in the later portion of the chapter.",book:{id:"8929",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",title:"Modern Beekeeping",fullTitle:"Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production"},signatures:"Gaurava Kumar, Swoyam Singh and Rukesh Pramod Kodigenahalli Nagarajaiah",authors:[{id:"305621",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Gaurava",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"gaurava-kumar",fullName:"Gaurava Kumar"},{id:"315507",title:"Dr.",name:"Swoyam",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"swoyam-singh",fullName:"Swoyam Singh"},{id:"315508",title:"Dr.",name:"Rukesh",middleName:null,surname:"Pramod K.N.",slug:"rukesh-pramod-k.n.",fullName:"Rukesh Pramod K.N."}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50170",title:"A Comprehensive Characterization of the Honeybees in Siberia (Russia)",slug:"a-comprehensive-characterization-of-the-honeybees-in-siberia-russia-",totalDownloads:2302,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"A comprehensive study of some populations of honeybee (332 colonies) in Siberia (Tomsk region, Krasnoyarsk Krai (Yenisei population), Altai) using morphometric and molecular genetic methods was conducted. Infestation of bees (132 colonies) by Nosema has also been studied. Three variants of the COI-COII mtDNA locus were registered: PQQ, PQQQ (typical for Apis m. mellifera), and Q (specific for southern races). It was established that 64% of bee colonies from the Tomsk region and all colonies studied from the Krasnoyarsk and the Altai territories originate from Apis m. mellifera on the maternal line. According to the morphometric study, the majority of bee colonies of the Tomsk region are hybrids; in some colonies the mismatch of morphometric and mtDNA data was observed. Moreover, the majority of bee colonies infected by Nosema were hybrids. Yenisei population may be considered as a unique Apis m. mellifera population. Microsatellite analysis (loci А008, Ap049, AC117, AC216, Ap243, H110, A024, A113) showed the specific distribution of genotypes and alleles for some loci in the bees, which differ by geographical location. Loci A024 and Ap049 are of considerable interest for further study as candidate markers for differentiation of subspecies; locus A008 can be considered informative for determining of different ecotypes of Apis m. mellifera.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Nadezhda V. Ostroverkhova, Olga L. Konusova, Aksana N. Kucher\nand Igor V. Sharakhov",authors:[{id:"180112",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nadezhda",middleName:null,surname:"Ostroverkhova",slug:"nadezhda-ostroverkhova",fullName:"Nadezhda Ostroverkhova"},{id:"180249",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Konusova",slug:"olga-konusova",fullName:"Olga Konusova"},{id:"180342",title:"Prof.",name:"Aksana",middleName:null,surname:"Kucher",slug:"aksana-kucher",fullName:"Aksana Kucher"},{id:"180343",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Sharakhov",slug:"igor-sharakhov",fullName:"Igor Sharakhov"}]},{id:"70501",title:"Southeast Asian Meliponiculture for Sustainable Livelihood",slug:"southeast-asian-meliponiculture-for-sustainable-livelihood",totalDownloads:1262,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini) are one of the most important pollinators of native plants and economic crops in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. They not only establish large perennial colonies with complex social organization but also have a diverse nesting biology. The economic utilization of a total of 60 stingless bee species in Asia has been reported. The current status of meliponiculture in Southeast Asia is mainly focused on pollination utilization and honey and propolis production. This chapter shows that small-scale beekeeping of stingless bees, which is suitable for the flowering pattern in the tropics, is one of the best potential alternative opportunities. The cost-effectiveness analysis based on production yield, investment cost, and profit-return rate is reviewed. Finally, a sustainable utilization of stingless bees is considered to be an enhancer of pollination services both in an agricultural crop and natural ecosystem.",book:{id:"8929",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",title:"Modern Beekeeping",fullTitle:"Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production"},signatures:"Atsalek Rattanawannee and Orawan Duangphakdee",authors:[{id:"283087",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Atsalek",middleName:null,surname:"Rattanawannee",slug:"atsalek-rattanawannee",fullName:"Atsalek Rattanawannee"},{id:"306411",title:"Dr.",name:"Orawan",middleName:null,surname:"Duangphakdee",slug:"orawan-duangphakdee",fullName:"Orawan Duangphakdee"}]},{id:"50073",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3419,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"50135",title:"Breeding Program Design Principles for Royal Jelly",slug:"breeding-program-design-principles-for-royal-jelly",totalDownloads:2780,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This research was carried out to infer the genetic value to produce royal jelly in Africanized Apis mellifera L. honeybees with the compilation of data collected from 2006 to 2011. Genetic information of the selected and accessed colonies was obtained using the total DNA extraction techniques of nurse honeybees’ thorax with molecular markers for MRJP3 protein and characterized in Apis mellifera L. From the information on the colonies and genealogical structure were predicted genetic values of the colonies and queens for the larvae acceptance trait (%), royal jelly per colony (g), and royal jelly per cup (mg). Animal model with Bayesian Inference was used from Multiple Trait Gibbs Sampling software in Animal Models, Gibbs chains 58,500 cycles resulting from 650,000 cycles with intervals and disposal of 65,000 and 10 withdraw, respectively. From the predicted values, the colonies were classified into upper and lower. To compare the average of the genetic values according to the genotypes, the average multiple comparison tests were proceeded and implemented in routine PROC GENMOD from the Statistical Analysis System. Environmental effects were considered, time and hive type (standard Langstroth) as having flat distribution and collection as chi-square distribution. The studies presented an increase in the alleles C and D and the alleles D and E—referring to MRJPs—found in the highest genetic value for royal jelly production. Alleles D, E, and C are important when evaluating the parameters larvae acceptance, royal jelly per colony, and royal jelly per cup and, occasionally, it was the DE genotype that stood out royal jelly production. Genotypes DE, DC, and EC are those that should be kept in this evaluation system for royal jelly production, and the other genotypes should be discarded because they had the worst performance for the parameters evaluated.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Katia Ostrovski-Tomporoski, Patrícia Faquinello, Fabiana Martins\nCosta-Maia, Maria Claudia Ruvolo-Takasusuki, Pedro da Rosa\nSantos and Vagner Arnaut de Toledo",authors:[{id:"92329",title:"Dr.",name:"Vagner",middleName:"De Alencar",surname:"Arnaut De Toledo",slug:"vagner-arnaut-de-toledo",fullName:"Vagner Arnaut De Toledo"},{id:"119608",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Claudia",middleName:"Colla",surname:"Ruvolo-Takasusuki",slug:"maria-claudia-ruvolo-takasusuki",fullName:"Maria Claudia Ruvolo-Takasusuki"},{id:"180234",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Faquinello",slug:"patricia-faquinello",fullName:"Patricia Faquinello"},{id:"180235",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabiana",middleName:null,surname:"Costa-Maia",slug:"fabiana-costa-maia",fullName:"Fabiana Costa-Maia"},{id:"180368",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Katia",middleName:"Regina",surname:"Ostrovski-Tomporoski",slug:"katia-ostrovski-tomporoski",fullName:"Katia Ostrovski-Tomporoski"}]},{id:"50521",title:"Rearing Bumble Bees for Research and Profit: Practical and Ethical Considerations",slug:"rearing-bumble-bees-for-research-and-profit-practical-and-ethical-considerations",totalDownloads:2928,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The commercial production of bumble bee colonies is a multi-million dollar business worldwide. The pollination of greenhouse tomatoes is largely dependent on this industry. However, microparasites are prevalent in many of these colonies and can spread to wild populations of bumble bees. Academic researchers now commonly purchase colonies for their work. I believe that this raises some questions: (a) What is the danger of exacerbating the problem of spread of parasites and pathogens to wild population of bumble bees from field studies using purchased colonies? (b) How representative studies are done on only a few species, for example, B. terrestris, B. impatiens? (c) Does the purchase and use of these colonies give tacit approval to the industry, which may be having a detrimental effect on the native populations of bumble bees? This is an ethical issue. (d) Loss of “feeling for the organism” by researchers and particularly graduate students. These issues were discussed, and the classical method of bumble bee rearing which avoids these problems was described.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Robin E. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. 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