Physicochemical parameters of
Abstract
Extra virgin olive oil has been mainly produced and consumed in Mediterranean countries since ancient times; olive oil is one of the principal ingredients in the Mediterranean diet, and it constitutes the main source of nutritional fat. Aside from the high nutritional content of olive oil, it is also known for its cosmetic and therapeutic properties. In 1956, Thiers obtained satisfactory results in the treatment of scleroderma, stating that olive oil and its derivatives could be considered “a new group of therapeutic agents.” Hincky reported the beneficial properties of olive oil in the treatment of dry, senescent and sensitive skins. This has opened a new perspective for the use of the olive fruit, thus contributing to the increase in research about new applications. One such application is ozonized olive oil, which combines the properties of ozone with those of olive oil, to obtain a peerless compound. The composition of olive oil makes it a suitable vehicle for cutaneous absorption, as it is able to stabilize ozone, which is a highly reactive molecule. The oxidant power of ozone has interesting effects on microorganism and on wound healing.
Keywords
- extra virgin olive oil
- ozone
- herbal medicine
- antimicrobial activity
- wound healing
1. Introduction
Herbal medicine is commonly used to treat skin disorders, and the ethnobotanical remedies are developed in different regions, based on local plants. In particular, two different systems, Ayurvedic herbs, estabilished in India, and the traditional Chinese medicine, which uses the combination of different herbs, are known. In the occidental world, the use of herbal medicine is relative to purified extracts, often substituted for synthetic chemical drugs. In the last years, we assisted an intense return, in the occidental world, to herbal medicine, probably because we are living in the green revolution [1]. The use of vegetable raw materials in the preparation of products for local application on the skin dates back to ancient times. The term phytocosmetics, from Greek
1.1. Olive oil
Olive oil consists of glycerides, such as oleic, arachidic, palmitic, linoleic, and stearic acids, and of phenolic compounds. It is very important in the culinary use, but it has important applications in cosmetic and pharmaceutical fields. The olive tree
1.1.1. Beneficial effects of olive oil: health properties
Virgin olive oil has been and still is the subject of numerous studies that have attributed great properties to it, both in the field of health and in cosmetology. Various epidemiological studies have shown that the incidence of inflammatory, cardiovascular, and tumor illnesses is generally lower in Mediterranean European countries (such as Greece, Italy, and Spain) than in other western and northern countries [4]. This can be attributed to the high consumption of olive oil in the Mediterranean diet, which contributes to the daily requirement of vitamin E, essential fatty acids, and specific antioxidants, particularly represented by phenolic compounds and tocopherols. In addition, antioxidants have a primary role in resistance to oxidation and hence in the stability of olive oil and have been shown to exert numerous beneficial effects on the human body. The antioxidants’ protective effect is mainly due to their ability to inhibit the action of oxygen free radicals, indicated by the acronym ROSs [5]. ROSs are highly reactive species represented by atoms or molecules with one or more electrons being dissipated, capable of generating the so-called oxidative stress. When the organism is subject to an increase in oxidative stress, an increase of F2-isoprostanes (IsoPs) in plasma levels and of urinary excretion is observed. IsoPs are a type of novel compound, structurally similar to prostaglandins, biosynthesized
1.1.2. Dermatological and cosmetic properties
In recent years, in a number of fields, including cosmetics, there has been a renewed interest in materials of natural origin, particularly those of vegetable origin. Since ancient times, olive oil has been known not only for its high nutritional power but also for its cosmetic and therapeutic properties [34]. In 1971, Thiers was still pointing to its potential use in the cosmetic sector. To date, olive oil is certainly the most appreciated natural ingredient, alongside jojoba and avocado oils. The topical application of olive oil may be advised for its soothing action and its beneficial effects on eczema, surface wounds, and burns [35, 36]. In particular, the presence of phytosterols and triterpenoid compounds offers revitalizing and soothing properties for the skin. Vitamins E and A have an intense antioxidant action and have the ability to prevent irritation and aging of the skin, to help maintain its softness, smoothness, stability, and elasticity. As a result, in the cosmetic field, olive oil can be used to prevent signs of aging as a soothing emollient for dry skin and to strengthen hair [37]. Indeed, it is very often a component of lotions, lip balms, shampoos, bath oils, and massage oils. From a dermatologic point of view, olive oil has also proven to have antimicrobial activity,
An interesting and powerful way to use extra virgin olive oil is with ozone. The process of ozonization allows the properties of ozone gas to be combined with those of olive oil; the result is a peerless compound. Since ancient times, ozone has also been used in a large number of medical indications [45, 46, 47, 48, 49].
2. Ozone
Ozone is an oxygen derivative and is known primarily for its ecological role in the Earth’s balance, absorbing most of the ultraviolet radiation from the sun and preventing it from reaching humans in a harmful way. It is an unstable gas that cannot be stored; in fact, it dissolves in very short time. Ozone is totally neutral to the human body, and in fact, it does not (i) modify pH, (ii) irritate skin or mucous membranes, (iii) damage hair or clothing, (iv) interact with drugs, and (v) cause allergic reactions. This molecule has been subjected to countless studies, and in particular, its strong oxidation capacity has been tested in order to underline its disinfectant and sanitizing properties principally applied as a disinfectant of drinking and waste water [45, 46, 47]. To this purpose, the dedicated design and construction of equipment for the production of gaseous ozone for air and water purification are increasing. But research into the properties of ozone has yielded promising results in biological applications, thus confirming the ozone activity in stimulating natural cell defenses and increasing their energy availability. Indeed, since ancient times, ozone has also been used in a large number of medical indications [48, 49]. Scientific studies have shown that ozone, while being highly unstable, can be trapped inside vegetable oils. These are composed of triglycerides in which saturated and unsaturated fatty acids are present, which have the ability to retain ozone, thus allowing them to prolong their use. In addition, the greater the amount of unsaturated fats present, the greater the amount of ozone that will be retained [50]. Therefore, when extra virgin olive oil is ozonated, the produced product combines the beneficial properties of extra virgin olive oil with those of ozone. There are countless ozone-based products on the market, and in particular, in our laboratory, we have developed Bioxoil™, an ozonated extra virgin olive oil available in pharmacies. This product is exclusively made from olive cultivars from Puglia and Salento and the oil is ozonated by an innovative patented method (number: M2011A001045 titled: “Process for the ozonization of a vegetable oil“) that confers quality and efficiency in various fields of application; in particular, Bioxoil™ is indicated for the treatment of acne, herpes, psoriasis, fungal infections, bed sores, and wounds in general, due to its healing and disinfectant properties (Figure 1).
Bioxoil™ is produced from extra virgin olive oils from two local
Sample | Acidity index (AI), % (means ± SD) | Peroxide index (PI), mmol O2 kg−1, (means ± SD) |
---|---|---|
0.2 ± 0.03 | 12 ± 1.2 | |
1.8 ± 0.02 | 533 ± 1.5 | |
0.3 ± 0.02 | 13 ± 1.5 | |
1.3 ± 0.01 | 677 ± 1.6 |
In our experiments, the ability of ozone to react with olive oil and in particular with the carbon-carbon double bonds present in unsaturated fatty acids was demonstrated by gas liquid chromatography (GLC). The composition of fatty acids of each olive oil and respective ozonated oil are analyzed by GLC. Data demonstrate that the amount of oleic acid decreases in both ozonized oil samples: in
Composition of fatty acids (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Control | Ozonated oil | Control | Ozonated oil | |
Palmitic acid | 12.45 | 11.91 | 11.89 | 11.30 |
Linolenic acid | 5.57 | 2.19 | 4.96 | 2.06 |
Cis-oleic acid | ||||
Trans-oleic acid | 8.22 | 6.68 | 7.88 | 7.2 |
Stearic acid | 3.48 | 1.29 | 3.32 | 3.22 |
Nonanal | 0 | 11.69 | 0 | 10.07 |
Nonanoic acid | 0 | 1.36 | 0 | 1.98 |
3. Biocompatibility of ozonated olive oil with skin
The skin is the largest organ of the body and is the major barrier between the inside and outside of our body. It is formed of two main layers: the epidermis, a thin outer portion, and the dermis, the connective tissue layer of skin. This portion is involved in the thermoregulation process, and the resident dermal fibroblasts secrete collagen, elastin, and substances that offer support and elasticity of the skin. The epidermis is subdivided into four layers: (i) the stratum germinativum (SG) that provides the germinal cells necessary for the regeneration of epidermidis; (ii) the stratum spinosum (SS), in which the cells divided in the SG start to accumulate many desmosomes on their surface; (iii) the stratum granulosum (SGR), in which the keratinocytes accumulate dense basophilic keratohyalin granules that contain lipids, which help to form a waterproof barrier; and (iv) the stratum corneum (SC), the outermost layer, in which the cells are dead. The skin is constantly exposed to the environmental stress of pollutants or cigarette smoke, for example, so it is necessary for the wellness of the skin to preserve it from oxidative stress. To this purpose, there are a variety of antioxidants that include glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, catalases, and nonenzymatic low-molecular weight antioxidants such as vitamin E isoforms, vitamin C, glutathione (GSH), uric acid, and ubiquinol. Interestingly, the distribution of antioxidants in the SC follows a gradient with higher concentrations in deeper layers [51].
The biocompatibility of Bioxoil™ was investigated by MTT assay on fibroblast 3T3 and on keratinocytes HaCaT and compared with ozonated
3.1. Biological action of ozonides
By combining the beneficial properties of extra virgin olive oil with that of ozone, the ozonated extra virgin olive oil becomes very powerful for the topical treatment of acute and chronic skin lesions. The ozonides generated during the ozonization procedure possess many properties including a high germicidal activity on fungi, yeasts, viruses, and bacteria; activation of local microcirculation; stimulation of granulation and tissue growth; and revitalization of epithelial tissues.
3.1.1. Germicidal activity
The excessive consumption of antibiotics for the treatment of infectious diseases has fuelled the drug resistance phenomenon,
For virus inactivation, a higher gas dosage than that required for bacteria is necessary. The ozone oxidates and subsequently inactivates the specific viral receptors used to bind the cell wall for virus invasion [54]. We tested the antibacterial activity of Bioxoil™ on mycete
The antibacterial activity of Bioxoil™ was also tested on
3.1.2. Biological activity
The ozonides easily penetrate the cell membrane and, thanks to their biological properties, stimulate skin cells and improve the tropism of the skin by promoting wound healing and repair of ulcers of various kinds; from the experiments, it was found that topical application of products based on ozonides has determined a considerable increase of fibroblasts resulting in increased production of collagen, glycosoaminoglycans, and formation of elastic and reticular fibers. The healing of skin lesions includes complex movements like tissue hemorrhage, inflammation, re-epithelialization, granulation tissue, and finally remodeling. These events involve the coordination of many cell types and matrix proteins, which are important for the control of the various stages of tissue repair. Previous studies have shown that endogenous growth factors, such as fibroblast growth factor (FGF), growth factor derived from platelets (PDGF), the TGF-β factor, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are important regulators in the healing of wounds [55]. They are released by macrophages, fibroblasts, and keratinocytes at the site of injury and participate in the regulation of re-epithelialization, formation of granulation tissue, collagen synthesis, and neovascularization [56, 57, 58]. The beneficial effects of ozone in the treatment of sores are due to the decrease of bacterial infection and the increasing oxygen tension in the wound. In the literature, it is reported that after exposure to ozone transcription factors are activated, such as NF-kB, and these are important regulators of the inflammatory response and tissue repair process [58]. In conclusion, the ozonated olive oil can accelerate acute cutaneous wound repair, by stimulation of dermal fibroblast, and the ozonized oil has shown to be effective against Gram-negative and -positive bacteria, mycetes, and viruses, so it can be used for the cure of infections.
4. Conclusions
The goal of pharmacological research has always been that of finding drugs that can cure diseases or soothe the pain that derives from them, and this research has evolved over the years in an extraordinary way both in the field of medical knowledge and scientific studies that are more and more powerful and sophisticated. Medicinal herbs, long popular in many parts of the world, are increasingly spreading in the western world and represent a large commercial market with an estimated annual growth of 25%, often replacing synthetic drugs. Among the medicinal herbs, particular interest is reserved to olive oil, called “yellow gold” by the Egyptians for its innumerable beneficial properties. Herbal trade today sees many products based on olive oil for both hygiene and personal care. In the field of oil-based products, particular interest is directed to products containing ozonated oil; these products are the result of the union of the beneficial properties of olive oil with those of ozone. Ozonated oil is the most practical, innovative, harmless, and noninvasive of the techniques of application developed in the field of ozone therapy over the last 130 years. It has demonstrated interesting therapeutic results. The biological effects of ozone include antimicrobial activity (antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal), antalgic action, and improved O2 metabolism [59]. In this chapter, the possible applications of the Bioxoil™ products, already distributed in pharmacies and herbalist’s shops, have been described; its production line includes five different products characterized by different concentrations of ozonides such as to allow the use for the most varied skin affections. Bioxoil with the highest content of ozonides is indicated for the treatment of bedsores at first and second stages, thanks to its anti-inflammatory and cicatrizing properties, Bioxoil with medium concentrations, but different from each other, is indicated for the treatment of herpes labialis, mycosis, and onychomycosis and for acne due to its antimicrobial action. Finally, Bioxoil with the lowest ozonide content is indicated to soothe contact or allergic irritations. The exceptional usability of the product and its completely natural origin offers a vast market.
Abbreviations
ROS | reactive oxygen species |
IsoPs | F2-isoprostanes |
COX | cyclooxygenase |
LDL | low density lipoprotein |
3,4-DHPEA | hydroxytyrosol |
3,4-DHPEA-EDA | 3,4-dihydroxyphenylethanol-elenolic acid dialdehyde |
p-HPEA-EDA | 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl (4E)-4-formyl-3-(2-oxoethyl)hex-4-enoate |
COX-1 | cyclooxygenase 1 |
COX-2 | cyclooxygenase 2 |
PI | peroxide index |
AI | acidity index |
SG | stratum germinativum |
SS | stratum spinosum |
SGR | stratum granulosum |
SC | stratum corneum |
GSH | glutathione |
LOP | lipid oxidation |
MIC | minimal inhibitory concentration |
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