Design parameters of the DHS.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6495",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Tracheal Intubation",title:"Tracheal Intubation",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Endotracheal intubation is a mandatory practice in the anesthesiologic management of surgical procedures, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, life-saving procedures in the emergency department, and medical procedures, and it involves many medical issues such as anesthesiology, surgery, and pulmonary diseases. This book deals with the basic principles of hypoxia and oxygenation in terms of functional airway anatomy and intubation requirements as well as difficult airway algorithms.",isbn:"978-1-78923-489-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-488-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-502-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70975",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"tracheal-intubation",numberOfPages:136,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"974314e3b82efe09e1ee95861c21554c",bookSignature:"Riza Hakan Erbay",publishedDate:"July 25th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6495.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15637,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:19,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:39,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 23rd 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 14th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 12th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 3rd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 2nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"169248",title:"Dr.",name:"Rıza Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Erbay",slug:"riza-hakan-erbay",fullName:"Rıza Hakan Erbay",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169248/images/5141_n.png",biography:"Dr. Riza Hakan Erbay has become an anesthesiologist at Pamukkale University in 1996. He has obtained his titles of assistant professor in 1997, associate professor in 2005, and professor in 2011. He has mainly worked in the field of orthopedic anesthesia, regional anesthesia and intensive care medicine. He worked as Education Coordinator in the Faculty of Medicine during 2007-2009. He served as Vice-President of Surgical Sciences Department of Faculty of Medicine during 2009-2012. He has obtained the title of Intensivist in 2013. He worked as a Head of the Anesthesiology Clinic in Izmir Tepecik Training and Research Hospital during 2013-2014. He is currently the Chairman of Department of Anesthesiology and Reanimation at the Faculty of Medicine of Pamukkale University.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Pamukkale University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1139",title:"Anesthesiology",slug:"surgery-anesthesiology"}],chapters:[{id:"61712",title:"Functional Anatomy and Physiology of Airway",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77037",slug:"functional-anatomy-and-physiology-of-airway",totalDownloads:3713,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we scope the importance of functional anatomy and physiology of the upper airway. The upper airway has an important role in transporting air to the lungs. Both the anatomical structure of the airways and the functional properties of the mucosa, cartilages, and neural and lymphatic tissues influence the characteristics of the air that is inhaled. The airway changes in size, shape, and position throughout its development from the neonate to the adults. Knowledge of the functional anatomy of the airway in these forms the basis of understanding the pathological conditions that may occur. The upper airway extends from the mouth to the trachea. It includes the mouth, the nose, the palate, the uvula, the pharynx, and the larynx. This section also describes the functional physiology of this airway. Managing the airway of a patient with craniofacial disorders poses many challenges to the anesthesiologist. Anatomical abnormalities may affect only intubation, only airway management, or both. This section also focuses on the abnormal airways in obesity, pregnancy, children and neonate, and patients with abnormal facial defects.",signatures:"Aslı Mete and İlknur Hatice Akbudak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61712",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61712",authors:[{id:"237495",title:"Dr.",name:"Asli",surname:"Mete",slug:"asli-mete",fullName:"Asli Mete"},{id:"237882",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilknur",surname:"Akbudak",slug:"ilknur-akbudak",fullName:"Ilknur Akbudak"}],corrections:null},{id:"61680",title:"Pathophysiology of Apnea, Hypoxia, and Preoxygenation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76851",slug:"pathophysiology-of-apnea-hypoxia-and-preoxygenation",totalDownloads:1749,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Because intubation becomes a long procedure as potential, arterial oxygen (O2) desatu-ration should be taken into account during the intubation. Since oxygen reserves are not always sufficient to meet the duration of intubation, preoxygenation should be routine before anesthetic induction and tracheal intubation. Surveys show that maximal preoxygenation increases oxygen reserves in the body and significantly delays arterial hemoglobin desaturation and hypoxia. In cases of respiratory insufficiency oxygenation can be improved by positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP) or pressure support. Effective technique and FeO2 monitoring can increase the effectiveness of preoxygenation and thus increase the safety margin. Preoxygenation failures have to be identified and alternative oxygenation methods must be readily available in order to be applied quickly and easily. Although genetic and environmental factors play a role in diseases such as heart attack, stroke and cancer, which have become the cause of the worst death in the twenty-first century, the underlying problem in the development of these pathological conditions is hypoxia. Better understanding of hypoxic areas in ischemic tissues or growing tumors as well as increased knowledge of hypoxia cellular and molecular responses will allow possible applications in the treatment of major diseases associated with tissue hypoxia.",signatures:"Ilknur Hatice Akbudak and Asli Mete",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61680",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61680",authors:[{id:"237495",title:"Dr.",name:"Asli",surname:"Mete",slug:"asli-mete",fullName:"Asli Mete"},{id:"237882",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilknur",surname:"Akbudak",slug:"ilknur-akbudak",fullName:"Ilknur Akbudak"}],corrections:null},{id:"60582",title:"Indications for Endotracheal Intubation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76172",slug:"indications-for-endotracheal-intubation",totalDownloads:3664,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Endotracheal intubation may be required when respiratory distress or airway integrity cannot be achieved or maintained for any reason. It should be considered that intubation may be required when evaluating the patient, and that in the long term, airway protection will be needed or that the problem cannot be solved by noninvasive ventilation via airway aids and devices. Identifying the problem causing the patient’s respiratory failure helps in making the decision to intubate. In fact, the clinician must be fast and self-confident when deciding on intubation. It is difficult to decide in some complex situations. It is very important to evaluate the patient, according to clinical status, age, and comorbidity, and to determine urgent intubation need. In non-diagnostic cases, further research is needed to investigate the causes of the condition such as hypoxia/hypercapnia resulting in patient respiratory distress. Different voice tone, swallowing difficulties, coughing attacks, stridor, dyspnea can be a sign of upper airway obstruction. Arterial blood gas analysis will facilitate our decision to make intubation. Non-invasive pulse oximetry and continuous capnography values may also be a guide, but the most important thing is that delayed intubation decision may bring life-threatening situations.",signatures:"Yeliz Şahiner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60582",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60582",authors:[{id:"236458",title:"Dr.",name:"Yeliz",surname:"Şahiner",slug:"yeliz-sahiner",fullName:"Yeliz Şahiner"}],corrections:null},{id:"60584",title:"The Importance of Proper Positioning for Airway Management for Obese Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75514",slug:"the-importance-of-proper-positioning-for-airway-management-for-obese-patients",totalDownloads:1944,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the practice of anesthesia patient care, airway management is the first and most important consideration when caring for all patients. In particular, when caring for obese patients, airway positioning requires additional special attention. The head-elevated laryngoscopy position (HELP) has been presented as the best starting point to improve patient safety, lower risk, and facilitate a successful first attempt at intubation. HELP has also been described as the ramped position.",signatures:"Craig A. Troop",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60584",authors:[{id:"236928",title:"Dr.",name:"Craig",surname:"Troop",slug:"craig-troop",fullName:"Craig Troop"}],corrections:null},{id:"59759",title:"Long-Term Complications of Tracheal Intubation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74160",slug:"long-term-complications-of-tracheal-intubation",totalDownloads:3078,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Endotracheal intubation is an intervention frequently performed in the hospital setting in order to protect the central airway and provide mechanical support of ventilation. Many health care providers are expected to be able to intubate the patients for different indications. As the case in any medical intervention, endotracheal intubation can cause complications. These complications are categorized as early or late according to the time of onset of the presenting symptoms. This chapter will discuss the long term complications of endotracheal intubation that might be encountered by the treating physicians. The chapter will stress on the predisposing factors for these complications and the available methods to avoid and treat them.",signatures:"Abdelfattah A. Touman and Grigoris K. Stratakos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59759",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59759",authors:[{id:"222531",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelfattah",surname:"Touman",slug:"abdelfattah-touman",fullName:"Abdelfattah Touman"},{id:"239166",title:"Dr.",name:"Grigoris",surname:"Stratakos",slug:"grigoris-stratakos",fullName:"Grigoris Stratakos"}],corrections:null},{id:"59951",title:"Intubation: Difficult Airway",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75512",slug:"intubation-difficult-airway",totalDownloads:1492,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the difficult airway algorithm during the intubation process. The current published recommendations will address the definition of the difficult airway, steps by which to secure the airway, and when to employ a surgical airway in the form of tracheotomy or cricothyrodotomy. Finally, the role of the Otolaryngologist-Head and Neck Surgeon will be highlighted in the difficult airway team which should be multidisciplinary when handling airway concerns in a hospital. Overall, the goals of this chapter are to educate the reader on how to critically analyze and decide on the means to adopt a difficult airway algorithm in their own institution(s).",signatures:"Vaninder K. Dhillon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59951",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59951",authors:[{id:"237664",title:"Dr.",name:"Vaninder",surname:"Dhillon",slug:"vaninder-dhillon",fullName:"Vaninder Dhillon"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5490",title:"Current Topics in Anesthesiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"07f7a1b90899e915b73e282575f8e6b5",slug:"current-topics-in-anesthesiology",bookSignature:"Riza Hakan Erbay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5490.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169248",title:"Dr.",name:"Rıza Hakan",surname:"Erbay",slug:"riza-hakan-erbay",fullName:"Rıza Hakan Erbay"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6814",title:"Current Topics in Intensive Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bbe8e72807443305f7cae60bfe79b9e",slug:"current-topics-in-intensive-care-medicine",bookSignature:"R?za Hakan Erbay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6814.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169248",title:"Dr.",name:"Rıza Hakan",surname:"Erbay",slug:"riza-hakan-erbay",fullName:"Rıza Hakan Erbay"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6221",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1a0c61779ec291eb0cf0adfafe2c274e",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",bookSignature:"Víctor M. 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For instance, in some Nordic countries, if people feel cold with in zone air temperature, they could run the heating system to maintain the air temperature warmer due to the DHS operated yearly. Another example is that, in China, following the heating guide, if average outside air temperature lowers than 5°C within 3 days continuously, heating systems should be run from that time (adjusted a few days actually). The space heating systems have been developed from decentralized heating to district heating, which are sometime called as central heating systems, usually with huge served heating floor area.
When the DHSs are operated from the beginning to the end, the systems have been expectedly running in an optimal way to improve their performance, increase their energy efficiency, reduce the pollutant emissions and maintain accepted indoor air temperature as well. Consequently, energy efficiency of buildings has been approached. DHS performance is related to operational data collection, status estimation, alarm, data analysis, control settings and control strategies. Energy efficiency should consider the heat transfer from the heat source to the end users, which could be separated by efficiency of heat source, pipe network and substation, respectively. Although zone air temperature is normally kept in constant, but the set points could be reasonably changed such as to increase the human body adaptability with a little bit zone air temperature fluctuation.
From energy-saving point of view, how to reduce energy consumption including fuel, electricity and water is always a hot topic, a question and a great challenge. These reasons behind are that currently DHSs integrated not only have been become larger and larger but also require strong and various technologies to assist the activity. For example, Beijing Heating Group has the biggest DHSs in the world, around 2.55 Mm2 in 2016–2017 heating period with powerful SCADA system to support the operation.
One way to increase system energy and served building efficiency is to investigate the system properties using collected operational data and apply the results to the real system operation. However, this is time-consuming and cannot test all kinds of situations, which are expected because of potential risks. Therefore, what the efficient way could be utilized has been considered by the researchers and HVAC engineers in this field. Currently, this methodology is entitled as dynamic simulation based on mathematical modeling, which basically could be used to obtain system characteristics, study control strategies and predict energy consumption and dynamic responses of system operation.
System modeling has two types of methods: one is steady-state modeling, and the other is dynamic modeling [1, 2]. The thermal capacities of DHSs are not considered in steady-state modeling process, but those have been calculated in dynamic modeling. This is because thermal capacities have profound influence in actual system dynamic responses and process control. To investigate the system responses closely to the real world, the system modeling and simulations in this chapter always refer to the dynamics. The properties of modeling can be described as follows.
An ideal model of an overall DHS can be developed by the first law of thermodynamics and corrected by operational data, which has been changed to the actual model.
Quick dynamic responses and characteristics could be gathered in the simulation with acceptable accuracy by simulating the actual model.
The results could be obtained in simulation environment without any risks.
The boundary conditions could be changed very efficiently by inputting different parameters and could be utilized while they are modified.
Both greater efficiency and time-saving of R&D could be achieved by programming with friendly user interface.
Almost all consideration and simulation could be fulfilled by using dynamic modeling to attain optimal results.
The system responses such as the performance of system, energy efficiency and zone air temperature could be observed and analyzed.
By using simulation method, the optimal parameters of system operation could be found and applied for real system to improve energy efficiency of buildings as well as overall DHSs.
It is relatively difficult to develop an overall dynamic model of a DHS with correction.
Programming based on mathematics, control theory, optimization method and computer skills is required for various dynamic simulations.
Simulations for fast dynamic system, water mass flow rate and pressure, for instance, could consume more time to get results.
Very powerful computers could be required for more accurate simulation with bigger and more complex DHS system.
Any closed system must obey certain laws including energy, momentum and mass conservation [3, 4, 5]. According to the properties of DHSs, the dynamic responses mainly depend on slow response system (temperature dynamics) rather than fast response system (mass and pressure dynamics). To this end, the dynamics of fast response systems could be replaced by using steady-state method without affecting the major dynamic properties of DHSs. Energy and mass conversion are applied for the development of an overall DHS that is addressed in the following section below.
Recently, simulation methods of DHSs have played more important rule than ever followed by the progress of science and technology. The computer, algorithm, programming and software become very powerful as simulation tools. Many businesses or academic software such as BLAST, EnergyPlus, DeST, DOE-2, RNSYS, PKPM-CHEC, eQuest, VisualDOE, ESP-r, Ecotect, IES, etc. [6] can be easily obtained from various channels. However, if considering inside of the software, most of them were developed based on steady-state approach. In research area, dynamics is normally applied to equipment or partial system simulations. Few researchers are working in the dynamic simulation field for developing entire DHS modeling and try to utilize the models for system-level improvement [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12].
In this chapter, a typical hot water DHS is considered and designed. Then, a dynamic mathematical model is developed based on the physical model and thermal dynamic principles. An actual model is developed by correcting an ideal model of the DHS. Following that, the characteristics of the DHS could be collected by using open-loop test (OLT) method. Finally, five types of control strategies are simulated and compared with the analysis of dynamic response, energy consumption and zone air temperature responses.
Due to the heated floor area of DHSs which become very larger, indirect DHSs are commonly formed in practice for major district heating field with substations. A typical DHS diagram is shown in Figure 1, and the meaning of symbols in it is given in the nomenclature.
A typical DHS diagram with control principle.
The hot water with high-level temperature (usually less than 150°C in design condition) is supplied from the boiler (sometimes from CHPs) in the heat source and transfers heat to the substations; then the heat is released to the secondary side in the substation, and the temperature of the return water in the primary side is decreased. The radiators at the end-users receive transferred heat from the substations and then are emitted to the indoor air for space heating. The supplied heat should be continuously gained to maintain suitable zone air temperature due to the heat balance between the indoor and the outdoor environments. The three-way control valves installed in the primary side of the substations are utilized to regulate the water mass flow into the heat exchangers and to balance the heat supplied to the secondary systems. Note that the makeup water systems in the secondary side are same as it is in the primary side (drawing ignored).
From Figure 1, it is realized that the structure of the indirect DHS includes the following subsystem such as heat source, pipe network in the primary side, substation, pipe network in the secondary side, heat emit system from terminal, indoor air and outside environment.
To obtain the mathematical model of the DHS, it is required to design the heating system illustrated in Figure 1. The design parameters are given in Table 1. The DHS is designed based on these parameters, which could be utilized to develop mathematical model and simulations.
No. | Name | Unit | Data | Remark |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Outside air temperature | °C | −20 | |
2 | Supply water temperature in the primary system | °C | 120 | |
3 | Return water temperature in the primary system | °C | 60 | |
4 | Heat capacity in the heat source | MW | 7 | |
5 | Natural gas-fired boiler | % | 92 | |
6 | Water volume in the boiler body | T | 3 | |
7 | Supply water temperature in the secondary system | °C | 75 | Radiator |
8 | Return water temperature in the secondary system | °C | 50 | Radiator |
9 | Supply water temperature in the secondary system | °C | 50 | Floor heating |
10 | Return water temperature in the secondary system | °C | 40 | Floor heating |
11 | Indoor air temperature | °C | 20 | Radiator terminal |
12 | Indoor air temperature | °C | 18 | Floor heating terminal |
13 | Heated floor area in Substation #1 | m2 | 50,000 | |
14 | Heating load index in Substation #1 | W/m2 | 55 | |
15 | Water volume in the radiator of Substation #1 | T | 75 | |
16 | Factor of the heat transfer coefficient test in Substation #1 | 0.35 | ||
17 | Heated floor area in Substation #2 | m2 | 35,000 | |
18 | Heating load index in Substation #2 | W/m2 | 42 | |
19 | Water volume in the radiator of Substation #2 | T | 38 | |
20 | Factor of the heat transfer coefficient test in Substation #2 | 0.28 | ||
21 | Heated floor area in Substation #3 | m2 | 40,000 | |
22 | Heating load index in Substation #3 | W/m2 | 35 | |
23 | Water volume in the radiator of Substation #3 | T | 38 | |
24 | Factor related to heat transfer coefficient simulation in Substation #3 | 0.04 | ||
25 | Heating load in Substation #1 | MW | 2.75 | |
26 | Heating load in Substation #2 | MW | 1.47 | |
27 | Heating load in Substation #3 | MW | 1.40 |
Design parameters of the DHS.
The designed DHSs are a very complex system from mathematic modeling point of view because of the multiple connections among the subsystems. To simplify the dynamic model development process, several assumptions are listed below without affecting major properties of the DHSs [13]:
Some parameters such as comprehensive heat transfer coefficient of buildings and heated floor area of buildings are integrated.
The water leakage from the pipe network is assumed taking place in the primary pipe network of the substation and in the end-user of the secondary side, and it is divided into half in supply and half in return pipes, respectively.
Transportation delay of pipe network is not considered in the system dynamics.
Fast response system is expressed as steady-state condition.
The solar radiation is considered from south side windows in the outside wall only.
The water mass flow rate remains constant in the secondary system in each substation.
By applying for the first law of thermodynamics and mass conservation principle, each subsystem dynamic model is shown and described briefly below:
In Eq. (1), the net heat stored in the water of the boiler body is computed with the difference between the heat from the gas combustion and the heat transferred to the circulation water in the primary system. Note that the boiler efficiency is calculated according to measured operational data.
The return water temperatures from each substation in the primary system are given in Eqs. (2)–(4). The net heat stored in the heat exchanger (primary side) is computed between the heat from the pipe network to the substation and the heat transferred in the substation:
The supply water temperature from the substation in the secondary system is presented in Eqs. (5)–(7). The net heat stored in the heat exchanger in the secondary side is related to the heat transferred in the substation and the heat taken from the substation to the secondary system. Note that the logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is calculated in Eq. (8). Note that it refers to each substation from #1 to 3. Letter i denotes to 1–3, which is the number of substation:
The return water temperature from the end-user (radiator and radiant floor heating) is addressed in Eqs. (9)–(11). The net heat stored in the terminal equals to the heat difference between the heat gathered from the circulation water and emitted to the indoor air.
Zone air temperature dynamic responses can be represented in Eqs. (12)–(14). The net heat stored is related to the heat obtained from the circulation water in the secondary system, the solar radiation from south side windows, the internal heat gains and the heat transferred to the outside environment. Note that the thermal capacity in the terminal of floor heating is considered by accumulating the influence of the concrete structure.
The schematic diagram of a pipe segment is shown in Figure 2. The makeup water and the heat loss from the pipe insulation are considered to gather the water temperature left from the pipe segment. The supply water temperature from the pipe segment is related to the heat loss from the pipe segment, while the return water temperature has been considered in the heat losses from pipe insulation and makeup water. In Eq. (15), the net heat stored in the pipe segment equals to the heat received from the entrance minus the heat outlet from the exit and the heat losses from both makeup water leakage and pipe segment. Note that supply pipe segments do not consider the water leakage by the assumption. Letter j represents each pipe segment.
Schematic diagram of a pipe segment.
In summary, 29 dynamic equations are used to address the overall DHS mathematical model. The developed model is utilized to obtain system properties, simulate various dynamic responses of control strategies and compare with system energy consumption.
The purposes of doing OLT based on the developed dynamic model are stated hereby. Firstly, the mathematical model should be checked out with ideal condition to ensure the accuracy. Then, by applying the experience and operational data, the ideal dynamic model could be corrected to seek the characteristics of the DHS and various simulations.
The ideal conditions represent that outside and indoor air temperature and water mass flow rate in primary and secondary system are same as their design values. The affluent factors of both heat transfer area of each substation and terminal equal to 1. No solar radiation and internal heat gains exist in the ideal dynamic system. The heat losses from both water leakage and pipe network are ignored.
With these situations, the dynamic responses of the ideal model with the fuel control signal by 0.798 are shown in Figure 3. In addition to the zone air temperature in Substation #3, which is equal to 17.9°C due to the huge thermal capacity of the floor heating structure, the supply and return temperatures from the heat source and substations are identical to the design conditions. Steady-state time of the water temperatures and zone air temperatures except for the zone air temperature in Substation #3 (48 h) reaches 15 h similarly.
Dynamic responses of ideal model (a) Time(h), (b) Time(h), (c) Time(h), (d) Time(h).
In practice, the affluent factors of both heat transfer area of each substation and terminal are greater than 1 because of the safety consideration from designers. The circulation water flow rate could be adjusted rather than design values. With these situations, the ideal dynamic model should be modified to simulate the real DHS, which is entitled as actual dynamic model. Regarding the experience and operational data of typical DHSs in China, the affluent factors of each heat transfer area and terminal in Substations #1–#3 are provided as [1.4, 1.4, 1.4, 1.5, 1.35, 1.4], respectively.
While outside and indoor air temperature and water mass flow rate in primary and secondary system are identical to their design values, no solar radiation and internal gains exist, the water leakage and heat losses from pipe segments are considered, the control signal of fuel equals to 0.854 and the dynamic responses of the temperatures from actual model are shown in Figure 4. In this figure, the steady-state values of the supply and return water temperatures from the heat source and Substations #1–#3 are 97.5, 33.2, 57.6, 31.6, 58.6, 33.6, 38.4 and 28.1°C, while the zone air temperatures equal to 20.8, 19.6 and 18.8°C, respectively. From the values, the supply water temperature from the heat source is not necessary to satisfy its design value (120°C), while outside air temperature is −16.9°C. Meanwhile, the zone air temperatures are not same as the design values. The reason behind is that the affluent factors of the heat transfer area affect the operation very much in the DHS. It is also hinted that the zone air temperature should be controlled separately because they cannot approach its design value simultaneously.
Dynamic responses of actual model (a) Time(h), (b) Time(h), (c) Time(h), (d) Time(h).
Usually, the disturbances taking place in DHSs include outdoor air temperature, solar radiation and internal heat gains, while outdoor air temperature plays the biggest rule in system operation. On the other hand, when the comprehensive heat transfer coefficient (Uen value) of the buildings is getting smaller and smaller, the additional heat gains (solar radiation and internal gains) should be considered in the simulation and in real system operation. In this chapter, outdoor air temperature, solar radiation and internal heat gains are drawn into actual model with the range from 8.2 to 13.1°C, from 0 to 45 W/m2 and from 0.9 to 6.8 W/m2, respectively, for all simulations of the cases.
In many circumstances, DHSs are operated with experience; likely, the supply water temperature from the heat source has been controlled depending on the experience of operators. Nevertheless, the disturbances described above change based on time. It means that the heating supply from the heat source and the heat consumption (heating load) should be tracked and balanced. Thus, the DHS must be regulated accordingly. Otherwise, the zone air temperature could fluctuate in larger range, which influences thermal comfort of end-user. By simulating the dynamic responses of actual model with different conditions (change outdoor air temperature, indoor air temperature as similar as design value, design water mass flow rate in the pipe network, constant water leakage rate, considered pipe insulation heat loss, no solar radiation and internal gains), the simulated stable results from OLTs are listed in Table 2 as set points for related parameters used in control strategies.
To, °C | 15 | 10 | 5 | 0 | −5 | −10 | −16.9 | −20 |
Ts1, °C | 37.5 | 49.1 | 54.2 | 70.6 | 81.1 | 91.4 | 104.2 | 111.8 |
Tw2arg1, °C | 24.5 | 28.5 | 29.2 | 35.3 | 38.4 | 41.3 | 44.5 | 46.9 |
Tw2arg2, °C | 25.1 | 29.3 | 30.2 | 36.6 | 39.8 | 43.0 | 46.5 | 49.0 |
Tw2arg3, °C | 20.4 | 22.7 | 21.8 | 26.5 | 28.3 | 29.9 | 31.6 | 33.2 |
Set points used in control strategies.
Five cases are selected for dynamic simulations (given in Table 3) to study the system responses, the energy consumption (heat consumed in the cases) and the thermal comfort of the end-user [14, 15, 16, 17]. Note that typical PI algorithm is used to all controllers to gather output signals [18].
Case | Control strategy | Description | Used controller |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Experienced Ts1 control | Supply water temperature from the heat source controlled based on experience | Cf |
2 | Tuned Ts1 control | Supply water temperature from the heat source controlled based on tuned set points | Cf |
3 | Tuned Ts1 and Tw2arg control | Supply water temperature from the heat source and average water temperature in the secondary system of each substation controlled based on tuned set points | Cf, C1, C2, C3 |
4 | Tuned Ts1 controlled based on To and Tw2arg controlled based on Toe | Supply water temperature from the heat source controlled based on To and average water temperature in the secondary system of each substation controlled based on equivalent To (Toe) | Cf, C1, C2, C3 |
5 | Tuned Ts1 controlled based on To and zone air temperature controlled based on Tz | Supply water temperature from the heat source controlled based on To and zone air temperature in each substation controlled based on Tz | Cf, C1, C2, C3 |
Control strategies used in the cases.
Many operators run DHSs according to their experience if they cannot realize the set points of supply water temperature from the boiler. In this case with 5 days consciously, the dynamic responses of the DHS are presented in Figure 5. From this figure, the supply water temperature from the boiler changes depending on the outside air temperature (Figure 5(a)). The average water temperature responses of the secondary side in Substations #1 and #2 are almost similar and higher than that in Substation #3 due to the difference between the radiator and the floor heating terminals (Figure 5(b)). The difference of indoor air temperature dynamic responses shown in Figure 5(c) is mainly resulted from the structure of terminals. By considering the responses of the last 2 days rather than the influences of the initial parameter settings, the average and the range of the zone air temperatures in Substations #1–#3 are 20.2, 17.4–24.1, 20.9, 18.1–25.2, 21.1 and 20.7–22.2°C, respectively. The control signal of fuel in the heat source is changed based on the heating load (Figure 5(d)). The water mass flow rate in the pipe network is set to be the design values.
Dynamic responses in case 1 (a) Time(h), (b) Time(h), (c) Time(h), (d) Time(h).
From the simulation by using experience of the supply water temperature from the heat source, the average zone air temperatures excess their design values with bigger fluctuation. This situation should be improved by utilizing tuned supply water temperature set points (Ts1sp). With Ts1sp given in Table 2, the simulation results are shown in Figure 6. With the tuned setting value, the average zone air temperatures in Substations #1–#3 are given as 19.7, 20.2 and 20.1°C, meaning that average zone air temperatures are reduced comparing with those in Case 1.
Dynamic responses in case 2 (a) Time(h), (b) Time(h), (c) Time(h), (d) Time(h).
From Cases 1 and 2, the average and the fluctuation of zone air temperatures are still larger than the expected results. Because the heat properties of the substations are different, indoor air temperatures should be controlled separately to balance their heat supply and requirement. In this situation, the simulation is made and shown in Figure 7 for zone air temperature responses only, and considering the time-consuming simulation, the time span is decreased to 2 days continuously. The results illustrate that the fluctuation of zone air temperatures is reduced significantly, but average zone air temperatures are still high compared with their design values.
Dynamic responses in case 3.
The meaning behind average zone air temperatures excessed the deign values is that the disturbances are never considered in the control algorithm. Consequently, a concept of an equivalent outside air temperature is introduced to reset the original average water temperature set points and improve the stability and decrease zone air temperature swing. The equivalent outside air temperature is calculated in Eq. (16). This case is simulated and addressed in Figure 8. Compared with Figure 7, the purpose of decreasing zone air temperature fluctuation is realized perfectly:
Dynamic responses in case 4.
As known that, average water temperature in a terminal is related to the zone air temperature indirectly, and the return water temperature from the terminal is delayed due to the thermal capacity of the terminal. If the zone air temperature is measured and applied for the control strategy, it would be better to elevate the thermal comfort of indoor environment. To this end, the simulation is made and shown in Figure 9. The dynamic responses of zone air temperatures in Substations #1–#2 are improved very much. Because of the huge thermal capacity of the radiant floor heating structure, the zone air temperature in Substation #3 although approaches 18°C still needs more advanced control strategy such as predictive control or two-temperature control to improve the dynamic response of zone air temperature.
Dynamic responses in case 5.
Due to relevant smaller parts of electricity and water consumption in DHSs, the heat consuming is considered only for energy comparison. The simulated results in the fuel control signal responses are presented in Figure 10. From this figure, the fuel consumption in Case 2 has the lowest value but with larger zone air temperature fluctuation. By observation with all cases, Case 5 is the best control strategy based on both dynamic responses of zone air temperature and the fuel consumption. Without measuring zone air temperature for compensation, Case 4 is the best one for optimal operation of the DHS.
Comparison with fuel consumption.
c | specific heat (J/kg°C) |
C | thermal capacity (J/°C) or controller |
f | factor |
F | heated floor area (m2) |
G | water mass flow rate (kg/s) |
HV | heating valve of fuel (J/kg) |
LMTD | logarithmic mean temperature difference (°C) |
q | heating load per m2 (W/m2) |
Q | heating load (W) |
t | time (s) |
T | temperature (°C) |
u | control signal |
U | heat transfer rate (W/°C) |
1, 2 | number of substation or primary/secondary system |
3 | number of substation |
arg | average |
b | boiler |
d | design |
en | enclosure of building |
ex | heat exchanger |
f | fuel |
hl | heat loss from pipe segment |
ht | heater-radiator |
i | 1–3 |
in | inlet |
int | internal |
j | refer to pipe segment j |
k | factor related to heater transfer coefficient test |
m | mix |
mk | makeup water |
o | outside air |
oe | equivalent outside air |
out | outlet |
r | return |
rf | radiant floor |
s | supply |
seg | segment of pipe network |
sol | solar radiation |
sp | set point |
w | water |
z | zone air |
Alphabet | |
η | efficiency |
Biofilms are complex communities of microbes found attached to a surface or may form aggregates without adhering to a surface. Biofilms also display unique properties, such as multidrug tolerance and resistance to both opsonization and phagocytosis, enabling them to survive in hostile environmental conditions by resisting selective pressures [1]. Sometimes, the host immune system is immunocompromised, making it ineffective in clearing biofilms with evidence that immune cells are paralyzed with disrupted phagocytosis capacities or decreased burst responses, lowering the production of reactive oxygen species [2, 3]. Moreso, these communities of microorganisms are unique since they involve several species in a cooperative. The biofilm thus constitutes a microbial society, with its own set of social rules and patterns of behavior, including altruism and cooperation, both of which favor the success of the group with task-sharing behavior. All of these characteristic patterns are orchestrated by chemical or genetic communication. The biofilm thus constitutes a unique way to stabilize interactions between species, inducing marked changes in the symbiotic relationships [3, 4]. Moreover, biofilms protect invading bacteria against the host’s immune system via impaired activation of phagocytes and the complement system [5]. The use of antibiotics such as imipenem and colistin mostly reduces biofilms but does not eliminate the entire biofilm in most cases [6]. Due to their toxicity and side effects, it is not possible to reach the minimal concentration of antibiotics
Bacteria form complex multicellular structures called biofilms. Biofilm formation is commonly considered to occur in four main stages [7]: (1) adhesion of planktonic cells, (2) microcolony formation, (3) biofilm maturation and (4) detachment (also termed dispersal) of bacteria, which may then colonize new areas (Figure 1). Sessile bacterial cells exist in the stationary or dormant growth phase, exhibiting phenotypes distinct from planktonic bacteria [8]. In biofilms, bacteria display exceptional resistance to environmental stresses, especially antibiotics. This makes biofilms a major public health problem, as they account for 60–80% of human microbial infections [9]. The different stages in biofilm formation involve different environments, as shown in Figure 1.
Stages of biofilm development.
Biofilm formation starts with the attachment of microbial cells to abiotic or biotic surfaces. These biotic surfaces are living tissues such as endothelial lesions, mucosae, and nervous tissues, while abiotic surfaces are non-living cells including indwelling devices, prostheses, clinical environment surfaces, vascular and urinary catheters [10]. This initial attachment depends on the motility and adhesins expression (microbial factors). The extension is influenced by the planktonic strains migrating to specific sites to either adhere to existing lesion or surface or directly cause tissue infection [11]. The physiology of the cell’s changes affecting the surface membrane proteins making the removal of the attached cells laborious, necessitating the action of specific enzymes, sanitisers and detergent. The physicochemical properties of the surfaces (biotic and abiotic) controls microbial adherence making biofilms independent of surface extension [12].
The genes responsible for attachment and matrix assembly are activated when stimulated by factors such as population density and nutrient limitation [7]. The EPS matrix is composed of a mixture of biopolymers. The matrix produced is different and is surface- or medium-specific and differs between
The microbial assembly development process results in simultaneous bacterial aggregation and growth. This disposition is entrenched as a distinct model with the aid of a confocal laser microscopy. The distinct model indicates that active metabolism is exhibited by the cells in the outer biofilm layers while those deeper inside the biofilm downregulate their metabolism, making them inactive in a persistent state [12, 15, 16]. This accumulation mostly involves intercellular adhesion. Specific genes and polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA) are responsible for their accumulation on a polymer surface. However, the purification and structural analysis of these clustered microbial cells indicate the presence of two forms of that PIA, major polysaccharide I (>80%) and a minor polysaccharide II [17].
In the biofilm maturation phase, the canals are created in the biofilm structure, allowing gradient-based passage of nutrients and signaling molecules based on their metabolic state, favoring the organized agglomeration and differentiation of cells [7, 12, 18]. These gradient passages are necessary for nutrients to enter the cells inside the biofilm layers. Biofilm structuring is a disruptive process causing the detachment of cell clusters controlling the biofilm invasion during
The biofilms grow more thicker and compact on the interior, while external layers begin separating. The disentanglement and scattering occurs as a results of nutritional imbalance with insufficient carbon accessibility, increasing the synthesis of extracellular polymeric substances [20]. The scattered cells or clusters travel as septic emboli colonizing new sites, causing infection with possibly novel biofilms [2]. The dispersed cells form biofilms as a result of growth and may return quickly to their normal planktonic phenotype.
The basic structural units of a biofilm are microcolonies and separate communities of bacterial cells embedded into the EPS matrix. These microcolonies are in most cases mushroom-shaped or rod-like and can consist of one or more types of bacteria. The microcolonies consist of 10–25% cells and 79–90% EPS matrix depending on the bacterial type. This EPS matrix protects biofilm cells from various environmental conditions, such as UV radiation, changes in pH values, draining and temperature. There are channels through which water flows between microcolonies. These water channels function in distributing nutrients to microcolonies and receiving harmful metabolites as a simple circulatory system. Biofilms under different hydrodynamic conditions, such as laminar and turbulent flow, show changes in biofilm structure depending on the flow type. In laminar flow, bacterial microcolonies become round, and in turbulent flow, they extend in the downstream direction [21].
The matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) are self-secreted substances that keep bacterial cells in a compact structure attaching them to surfaces which makes the physical aspect of a biofilm [16]. The major constituent of the biomass of the biofilm is the hydrated EPS ranging between 2–15% of the total biofilm mass [4]. The EPS contains mostly extracellular DNA (eDNA), polysaccharides, proteins and lipids (Table 1) [22]. The EPS matrix exhibit three important characteristic features which are enhancing antimicrobial resistance, nutrient capture and social cooperation [14]. The tissues of higher organisms are similar to biofilms structures which are architecturally different and extremely heterogeneous in gene expression, all participating to the resistance mechanisms of biofilms [5, 23].
Components | Percentage of matrix | Functions in biofilm | References |
---|---|---|---|
Microbial cells | 2–5% | Cohesion of the structure | [5] |
DNA and RNA | <1–2% | Cohesion of the structure Nutrient source Exchange of genetic information | [22] |
Polysaccharides | 1–2% | Cohesion of the structure Nutrient source Water retention Protective barrier Sorption of organic compounds and inorganic ions | [22] |
Structural Proteins | <1–2% | Cohesion of the structure Nutrient source Protective barrier Sorption of organic compounds and inorganic ions Electron donor and acceptor | [5] |
Enzymes | <1–2% | Enzymatic activity, Nutrient Source | [22] |
Lipids and biosurfactants | <1–2% | Nutrient source | [22] |
Water | Up to 97% | Lubricates the environment, simple circulatory system distributing nutrients to microcolonies | [22] |
Chemical composition of biofilms.
The formation of biofilms is a dynamic and complex process that includes the initial attachment of bacterial cells to the substratum, physiological changes within the microbe, multiplication of adhered cells to form microcolonies and finally biofilm maturation [30]. Biofilm-associated bacteria demonstrate distinct features from their free-living planktonic counterparts, such as different physiologies and high resistance to immune systems and antibiotics that render biofilms a source of chronic and persistent infections [2, 31]. It is known that the change in phenotype from planktonic to the sessile form occurs in response to changes in environmental conditions [3].
Factors affecting biofilm formation.
Acyl-homoserine lactone quorum sensing system (AHL) in Gram-negative bacteria,
Autoinducing peptide (AIP) quorum sensing system in Gram-positive bacteria
Autoinducer-2 (AI-2) system in both gram-negative and positive bacteria [34].
The acyl homoserine lactone-dependent QS system is a prominent cellular signaling molecules of homoserine lactones involved in quorum sensing regulation used primarily by Gram-negative bacteria. The AHL molecules have the homoserine lactone ring in common varying in length and substituents, synthesized by a specific AHL synthetase. The concentration of AHL contributes to bacterial growth. Autoinducing peptide (AIPs) are signal molecules secreted by membrane transporters and synthesized by Gram-positive bacteria. The AIPs bind to the histidine kinase sensor phosphorylating, consequently altering gene expression as the environmental concentration of AIPs augments [32, 35, 36]. These genes control the formation of innumerable toxins and decomposable exoenzymes [21, 36, 37]. The microorganisms can sense and translate the signals from distinct strains in AI-2 or autoinducer-2 interspecific signals, catalyzed by LuxS synthase as part of their cooperation and communication strategies [6, 25, 38]. Moreover, LuxS is involved in the activation of the methylation cycle and has been demonstrated to control the expression of hundreds of genes associated with the microbial processes of surface adhesion, detachment, and toxin production [24, 39, 40]. The QS system is a paramount target for the treatment of biofilm-associated infections [12].
Biofilm formation is present in approximately 65% of all bacterial infections and approximately 80% of all chronic infections according to the statistics of the National Institute of Health (NIH) (Table 2) [12]. Indwelling devices by bacteria settlement was associated with infections in 4% of the cases when pacemakers and inhaler were utilized and 2% in breast implant cases [35]. The device-related infections were estimated to be about 40% in ventricular-assisted devices, 2% in joint prostheses, 4% in mechanical heart valves and 6% in ventricular shunts [12, 25]. The heart infection (infective valve endocarditis) occurs as a result of the adherence of bacteria cells to the endothelium. The most frequent microbes being staphylococci and streptococci, members of the HACEK group, gram-negative bacteria and fungal strains [42]. The implanting of the endothelium generally occurs from colonization or the infection of different tracts (the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tract) or through the direct crossing of the skin barrier, either due to wounds or through injecting drugs [41]. Some biofilm-driven infections are chronic wounds, diabetic foot infections, and pulmonary infections in patients with cystic fibrosis and specific bacterial species (Table 2) [21, 37, 43].
Bacterial strain | Gram stain | Types of infections | References |
---|---|---|---|
Gram-positive | Chronic biofilm infections: chronic wound infection, right valve endocarditis, lung infections in patients with cystic fibrosis | [20] | |
Gram-positive | Endocarditis: catheter-related infection, joint prosthesis infection | [20] | |
Gram-positive | Lung infections, bacterial meningitis, acute or chronic otitis | [36] | |
Gram-positive | Coculture interactions with | [36] | |
Gram-negative | Opportunistic infections in patients with blood cancer | [41] | |
Gram-negative | Hemolytic uremic syndrome, acute diarrheic syndrome, urinary tract infections | [36] | |
Gram-negative | Bacteremia, liver abscess, urinary tract infections | [20] | |
Gram-negative | Urinary tract infection | [36] | |
Gram-negative | Osteomyelitis, ventilator-associated pneumonia, lung infections in patients with cystic fibrosis, opportunistic infections in neutropenic patients, nosocomial infections. | [41] | |
Gram-negative | Bioremediation, biocontrol- Pythium, Fusarium, antimicrobial properties – | [20] | |
Gram-negative | Biocontrol properties – Pythium | [36] | |
Gram-positive | Salmonella infection | [41] | |
Gram-positive | Gastrointestinal tract infections | [20] |
Examples of bacterial species involved in biofilm formation with their biological effects.
i. Antibiofilm molecules and their mechanism of action:
The material matrix of implanted medical devices and biomaterials provides an ideal site for bacterial adhesion promoting mature biofilm formation [3]. Methods that prevent bacterial attachment to these materials represent a preventative strategy. The most common method for preventing bacterial extension is a surface modification (Table 3). The exterior surface of the implanted medical device or biomaterial is altered, either directly or with the aid of a cover-producing barrier that is hostile to bacteria [45, 46]. This strategy has shown significant promise for preventing biofilm-related infections resulting from orthopedic implants. Thus, the area of surface modification to prevent biofilm formation is a large field [46, 47, 48]. The use of small molecule biofilm inhibitors is another approach used to prevent biofilm formation (Figure 3). The antibiofilm properties of a biofilm inhibitor are often employed to passivate the surface of an implanted medical device or biomaterial [41, 49, 50]. The use of biofilm inhibitors is one of the largest areas in biofilm remediation research, with a plethora of unique biofilm inhibitors currently described (phenols, imidazoles, furanone, indole, bromopyrrole) [51].
Resistance mechanism | Characteristics | References |
---|---|---|
The capsule is an important part of the biofilm in both Gram positive and negative bacteria. Its contribution to the maturation step relies on the electrostatic and hydrogen bonds established on the matrix and the abiotic surface. The composition in glycoprotein and polysaccharides varies with biofilm progression, permitting pathogens to live in difficult environment. The antimicrobial resistance is supported by the glycocalyx with the external layer acquiring antimicrobial compounds, serving as adherent for exoenzymes and protecting against antibacterial activity. | [6, 44] | |
The presence of heavy metals, such as cadmium, nickel, silver, zinc, copper, cobalt, and induces diversity of resistant phenotypes. This causes the enzymatic reduction of ionic particles mediating the transformation of toxic molecules to nontoxic or inactive. | [30] | |
The bacterial metabolic activity and growth rate are influenced by the nutrients and oxygen concentrations within biofilms. This limits the metabolic activity inside the biofilm resulting in the reduction of the growing rate of strains. The enzymatic process inside biofilms is controlled by the changes in cell growth cycle regulating the metabolic and growth rate variations. These microbial communities increase the level of antimicrobial resistance inducing the expression of certain genes in different conditions. | [31, 32] | |
The infections’ chronicity become tolerant to antibacterial agents with the persistent strains being responsible eliciting multidrug forbearance. The glycocalyx improves protection of the immune system inducing the growth of bacterial biofilm competing for antibiotic targets with multi-medicament resistance (MDR) protein synthesis. | [33, 34, 35] | |
The inaccessibility of nutrients due the exposition to bactericidal agent’s inhibitory concentration affects the constitution of the prokaryotic envelope modifying it and conditioning the resistant cell population to exhibit phenotypic adjustment. | [38, 39] | |
QS regulates the heterogeneous organization with nutrient supply during the cell migration procedure. QS deficiency is linked with thinner microbial biofilm growth consequently lowering the EPS production. | [40, 42] | |
The stress response acts as a preventive factor for cell damage more than repair. The causes of stress induction include starvation, decrease or increase temperature, high osmolality and low pH. The altered gene expression due to the stress response in immobilized strains result in increased resistance to antibiotics. | [41, 43, 45] | |
The lipopolysaccharide layer prevents hydrophilic antimicrobials from entering through the outer membrane while the external membrane proteins reject hydrophobic molecules. Most antibacterial agents must penetrate the bacterial cells to target a specific site, modifying the cellular membrane that control antibiotic resistance. | [46, 47] | |
The efflux pumps facilitate bacterial endurance under utmost environmental conditions exerting inherent and gained resistance to diverse antimicrobials of similar or divergent classes. The combination of similar recalcitrance processes leads to the overproduction of efflux pumps regulating the multi-medicament non-compliances. The efflux pumps are major player in the MDR of Gram-negative bacteria due to their clear mechanisms provided in drug discovery platforms of targeted bacterial pathogens. | [48, 49, 50, 51, 52] |
Mechanism of biofilm-mediated antimicrobial resistance.
The different steps in biofilm formation.
Anti-biofilm molecules are diverse compounds that inhibit biofilm formation. The identified anti-biofilm compounds are mainly isolated from natural sources, and some synthetic compounds, chelating agents, and antibiotics possess antibiofilm activity. The different antibiofilm molecules along with their target microorganisms are listed in Table 2. These antibiofilm molecules follow different mechanisms to inhibit biofilm formation in different bacteria, as listed in Table 3.
ii. Using Natural Products:
The formation and development of biofilms is a complicated procedure involving different stages that can be the target of natural antibiofilm agents for the prevention of biofilm development. Natural anti-biofilm agents either act solely or synergistically by diverse mechanisms.
There are five broad classes of natural compounds that have high antibiofilm properties, including phenolics, essential oils, terpenoids, lectins, alkaloids, polypeptides, and polyacetylenes [52]. Phenolics are a group of compounds. It has seven subclasses, which include phenolic acids, quinones, flavonoids, flavones, flavonols, tannins, and coumarins, out of which tannins, specifically condensed tannins, have anti-biofilm activity. These compounds act on biofilms by six main mechanisms, such as substrate deprivation, membrane disruption, binding to the adhesin complex and cell wall, binding to proteins, interacting with eukaryotic DNA, and blocking viral fusion [52, 53]. Many bioactive compounds from medicinal plants for the discovery of novel natural antibiofilm compounds are ongoing. The antibiofilm properties of Indian medicinal plants were studied with Cinnamomum
Compound | Source | Pathogenic species | Experimental details | Molecular mechanism | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Allicin | It decreases the bacterial attachment in the initial stages of biofilm formation as it reduces EPS formation It controls the expression of virulence factors hence interfere with the QS system | [52] | |||
Ajoene | (Pulmonary infection mice model) | It downregulates rhamnolipid production It inhibits small regulatory RNA molecules (rsmY, rsmZ, and rnaIII) that operate in the later phase of QS signaling | [51] | ||
Carvacrol (monoterpenoid) | expression of lasI/lasR genes) and ocking modeling of proteins LasI and LasR | It mainly acts on QS Machinery. The posttranslational inhibition against lasI, which effects AHL production. | [20] | ||
Emodin (anthraquinone) | Siebold & Zucc. | It decreases the release of eDNA and downregulates the expression of biofilm-forming related genes like cidA, icaA, dltB, agrA, sortaseA, and sarA | [22] | ||
Emodin (anthroquinone) | The biofilm formation is inhibited by targeting cellular kinase signaling It acts on planktonic cells by reducing hyphal formation. It acts as a competitive inhibitor of CK2. | [41] | |||
Aloe-emodin | It reduces the production of extracellular proteins and polysaccharide intercellular adhesin It inhibits biofilm formation on polyvinyl chloride surfaces | [52] | |||
Hordenine | It decreases AHL production It reduces the exhibition of virulence factors (proteases, elastase, pyocyanin, rhamnolipid, alginate, and pyroviridine). It impedes the swimming and swarming activity It negatively regulates the expression of lasI, lasR, rhlI and rhlR genes | [52] | |||
Pulverulentone A | It reduces styphyloxanthin production, thus inhibiting biofilm formation It disrupts the cell membrane. | [52] |
Anti-biofilm activity of phytocompounds and their mechanism of action [53].
Biofilm infections are highly resistant to antibiotics and physical treatments. Many strategies support biofilm antibiotic resistance and tolerance, such as persistent cells, adaptive responses, and limited antibiotic penetration. Thus, the underlying mechanisms of antibiotic forbearance and recalcitrance in biofilms are controlled by genes. In human infections, most organized bacterial cells gradually induce immune responses to form biofilms causing chronic infections leading to tissue destruction with permanent pathology. Therefore, biofilms arrangement is a vital perturbation in medical care environment. The exploration of alternative treatment procedures for biofilm-associated infections is of utmost importance. There are little novel and efficient antibiotic strategies which are scattering of biofilms, merging of antimicrobials with quorum sensing inhibitors, and a mixture of these procedures. Although the mentioned anti-biofilm strategies are key research areas, they are still in their infancy and has to be improved to upgrade and implement the strategies. The administration of a single antibiotic is often not enough to eradicate bacterial invasions, and a high concentration of the antibiotic can be extremely toxic. Also, some natural compounds as well as quorum sensing inhibitors, may be toxic and less effective. A possible solution might be the coadministration of antibiotics with antibiofilm peptides that allow the use of low antibiotic concentrations. New anti-biofilm molecules from natural substances with low or no harmful effects and synergistic effects with commonly used antibiotics are necessary. Moreso, natural products from medicinal plants and quorum sensing inhibiting compounds with little or no toxic effects will be of great importance in the fight against biofilms.
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Pal is Professor of Physics at Mahindra École\nCentrale Hyderabad India since July 1st 2014 after retirement\nas Professor of Physics from IIT Delhi; Ph.D.’1975 from IIT\nDelhi; Fellow of OSA and SPIE; Senior Member IEEE;\nHonorary Foreign Member Royal Norwegian Society for\nScience and Arts; Member OSA Board of Directors (2009-\n11); Distinguished Lecturer IEEE Photonics Society (2005-\n07).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Delhi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"69653",title:"Dr.",name:"Chusak",middleName:null,surname:"Limsakul",slug:"chusak-limsakul",fullName:"Chusak Limsakul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Prince of Songkla University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"23804",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamzah",middleName:null,surname:"Arof",slug:"hamzah-arof",fullName:"Hamzah Arof",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/23804/images/5492_n.jpg",biography:"Hamzah Arof received his BSc from Michigan State University, and PhD from the University of Wales. 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Rehabilitation",slug:"physical-medicine-and-rehabilitation"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:48,numberOfWosCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfDimensionsCitations:35,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1124",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7072",title:"Cerebral Palsy",subtitle:"Clinical and Therapeutic Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eebd6581cd862f95edfacb284191e1c5",slug:"cerebral-palsy-clinical-and-therapeutic-aspects",bookSignature:"Isam Jaber Al-Zwaini",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7072.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30993",title:"Prof.",name:"Isam Jaber",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Zwaini",slug:"isam-jaber-al-zwaini",fullName:"Isam Jaber Al-Zwaini"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5203",title:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1d0a0fb7465d107de2089e21227ad8",slug:"recovery-of-motor-function-following-spinal-cord-injury",bookSignature:"Heidi Fuller and Monte Gates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5203.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"87307",title:"Dr.",name:"Heidi",middleName:null,surname:"Fuller",slug:"heidi-fuller",fullName:"Heidi Fuller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"50997",doi:"10.5772/63759",title:"Normal Distribution and Plasticity of Serotonin Receptors after Spinal Cord Injury and Their Impacts on Motor Outputs",slug:"normal-distribution-and-plasticity-of-serotonin-receptors-after-spinal-cord-injury-and-their-impacts",totalDownloads:1607,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Following spinal cord injury (SCI) a series of anatomical and functional plastic changes occur in the spinal cord, including reorganization of the spinal neuronal network, alteration of properties of interneurons and motoneurons as well as up- or down-regulation of different neurotransmitter receptors. In mammalian spinal cord, one of the important neurotransmitters, serotonin (5-HT), plays an essential role in modulating sensory, motor and autonomic functions. Following SCI, especially complete spinal cord lesion, the descending supply of 5-HT is lost. As a consequence different 5-HT receptors undergo variant degrees of plastic changes.",book:{id:"5203",slug:"recovery-of-motor-function-following-spinal-cord-injury",title:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury",fullTitle:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury"},signatures:"Mengliang Zhang",authors:[{id:"180492",title:"Dr.",name:"Mengliang",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"mengliang-zhang",fullName:"Mengliang Zhang"}]},{id:"50752",doi:"10.5772/62947",title:"Experimental Spinal Cord Injury Models in Rodents: Anatomical Correlations and Assessment of Motor Recovery",slug:"experimental-spinal-cord-injury-models-in-rodents-anatomical-correlations-and-assessment-of-motor-re",totalDownloads:2447,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Human traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) causes disruption of descending motor and ascending sensory tracts, which leads to severe disturbances in motor functions. To date, no standard therapy for the regeneration of severed spinal cord axons in humans exists. Experimental SCI in rodents is essential for the development of new treatment strategies and for understanding the underlying mechanisms leading to motor recovery. Here, we provide an overview of the main rodent models and techniques available for the investigation of neuronal regeneration and motor recovery after experimental SCI.",book:{id:"5203",slug:"recovery-of-motor-function-following-spinal-cord-injury",title:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury",fullTitle:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury"},signatures:"Christina F. Vogelaar and Veronica Estrada",authors:[{id:"180296",title:"Dr.",name:"Christina Francisca",middleName:null,surname:"Vogelaar",slug:"christina-francisca-vogelaar",fullName:"Christina Francisca Vogelaar"},{id:"185622",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Estrada",slug:"veronica-estrada",fullName:"Veronica Estrada"}]},{id:"50957",doi:"10.5772/63459",title:"In Vitro Models of Spinal Cord Injury",slug:"in-vitro-models-of-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:2651,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Living organisms are extremely complex functional systems. At present, there are many in vivo models of spinal cord injury (SCI) that allow the modeling of any type of central nervous system (CNS) injury, however, with some disadvantages. The production of injury models can be a highly invasive and time‐consuming process and requires high technical requirements, and costly financial issues should also be taken into account. Of course, a large number of animals have been used to obtain the relevant data of statistical significance. All of these aspects can be reduced by carrying out experiments in in vitro conditions. The primary advantage of in vitro method is that it simplifies the system under study. There are two major groups of in vitro model in use: cell culture and organotypic slice (OTS) culture. OTS is an intermediate system of the screening of in vitro cell culture and animal models and represents the in vitro system preserving the basic tissue architecture that able to closely mimic the cellular and physiological characteristics in vivo. In vitro models are the preferred methods for the study of acute or subacute pathophysiology after a trauma stimulus, enabling precise control on the extracellular environment, easy and repeatable access to the cells.",book:{id:"5203",slug:"recovery-of-motor-function-following-spinal-cord-injury",title:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury",fullTitle:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury"},signatures:"Lucia Slovinska, Juraj Blasko, Miriam Nagyova, Eva Szekiova and\nDasa Cizkova",authors:[{id:"83943",title:"Dr.",name:"Dasa",middleName:null,surname:"Cizkova",slug:"dasa-cizkova",fullName:"Dasa Cizkova"},{id:"90290",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Slovinska",slug:"lucia-slovinska",fullName:"Lucia Slovinska"},{id:"185974",title:"Dr.",name:"Juraj",middleName:null,surname:"Blasko",slug:"juraj-blasko",fullName:"Juraj Blasko"},{id:"189135",title:"Dr.",name:"Miriam",middleName:null,surname:"Nagyova",slug:"miriam-nagyova",fullName:"Miriam Nagyova"},{id:"189136",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",middleName:null,surname:"Szekiova",slug:"eva-szekiova",fullName:"Eva Szekiova"}]},{id:"51289",doi:"10.5772/64092",title:"Orthoses for Spinal Cord Injury Patients",slug:"orthoses-for-spinal-cord-injury-patients",totalDownloads:2132,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"There are some limitations for patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) when walking with assistive devices. Heavy energy expenditure and walking high loads on the upper limb joints are two main reasons of high rejection rate of orthosis by these patients . Many devices have been designed to enable people with paraplegia to ambulate in an upright position as a solution of these limitations such as mechanical orthoses, hybrid orthoses and powered orthoses. All these devices are designed to solve the problem of standing and walking, but there are some other important notes, which should be considered. For example, the size and weight of external orthoses, donning and doffing, cumbersomeness and independency for using are very important.",book:{id:"5203",slug:"recovery-of-motor-function-following-spinal-cord-injury",title:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury",fullTitle:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury"},signatures:"Mokhtar Arazpour, Monireh Ahmadi Bani, Mohammad Ebrahim\nMousavi, Mahmood Bahramizadeh and Mohammad Ali Mardani",authors:[{id:"179731",title:"Dr.",name:"Mokhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Arazpour",slug:"mokhtar-arazpour",fullName:"Mokhtar Arazpour"}]},{id:"51367",doi:"10.5772/64182",title:"Emerging Techniques for Assessment of Sensorimotor Impairments after Spinal Cord Injury",slug:"emerging-techniques-for-assessment-of-sensorimotor-impairments-after-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:1540,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Gait function can be altered after incomplete spinal cord (iSCI) lesions. Muscular weakness, co‐activation of antagonist muscles, and altered muscle mechanics are likely to provoke abnormal gait and postural movements. Functional scales are available for assessment of functional walking in SCI patients, such as walking index for spinal cord injury (WISCI II), timed up and go (TUG) test, 10‐meter walk test (10MWT), and 6‐minute walk test (6MWT). Novel metrics for a more detailed comprehension of neuromuscular control in terms of degree of voluntary motor control have been recently proposed. This section describes novel techniques based on muscle synergy and frequency domain analysis of electromyographic signals. Such techniques are illustrated as potential tools for assessment of motor function after SCI with experimental data and a case study describing a diagnostic scenario. This chapter presents a discussion of the current status of the emerging metrics for assessment of sensorimotor impairments. Conclusions are given with respect to the availability of enriched information about neuromuscular behavior between functional tasks (walking and pedalling) and the potential relevance of these new techniques to improve the efficacy of treatment to improve locomotion after iSCI.",book:{id:"5203",slug:"recovery-of-motor-function-following-spinal-cord-injury",title:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury",fullTitle:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury"},signatures:"Filipe Barroso, Diego Torricelli and Juan C. Moreno",authors:[{id:"180150",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno",slug:"juan-moreno",fullName:"Juan Moreno"},{id:"187371",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Torricelli",slug:"diego-torricelli",fullName:"Diego Torricelli"},{id:"187372",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Filipe",middleName:"Oliveira",surname:"Barroso",slug:"filipe-barroso",fullName:"Filipe Barroso"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63463",title:"Clinical Classification of Cerebral Palsy",slug:"clinical-classification-of-cerebral-palsy",totalDownloads:2582,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The classification of cerebral palsy (CP) remains a challenge; hence the presence of so many classifications and a lack of consensus. Each classification used alone is incomplete. Therefore, a multiaxial classification gives a more comprehensive description of a child with CP. The recent WHO International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) emphasizes the importance of focusing on the functional consequences of various states of health and has stimulated the development of newer functional scales in CP. It is widely accepted that the functional classification is the best classification for the patient because it guides management. The objectives of this chapter are to review the various classifications of CP, to highlight the clinical features used in the various classifications, to outline the recent functional classifications of CP and to highlight how these recent classifications guide current management. It is expected that at the end of this chapter, the reader should be able to understand the difficulties in classifying CP, enumerate and discuss the various classifications of CP, understand the merits and shortcomings of each classification scheme, clinically evaluate and classify a child with CP multiaxially and understand how functional scales predict current and future needs of children with CP.",book:{id:"7072",slug:"cerebral-palsy-clinical-and-therapeutic-aspects",title:"Cerebral Palsy",fullTitle:"Cerebral Palsy - Clinical and Therapeutic Aspects"},signatures:"Christian Chukwukere Ogoke",authors:[{id:"250398",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:"Chukwukere",surname:"Ogoke",slug:"christian-ogoke",fullName:"Christian Ogoke"}]},{id:"62532",title:"Early Markers for Cerebral Palsy",slug:"early-markers-for-cerebral-palsy",totalDownloads:1298,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Cerebral palsy (CP) is a term referring to a nonprogressive disease of the brain originating during the antenatal, neonatal, or early postnatal period when brain neuronal connections are still evolving. Secondary effects of spasticity on growth may, however, be progressive. There may be additional disturbances of sensation, perception, cognition, communication, and behavior. Babies who are neurologically abnormal as newborns are at increased risk of neurologic abnormality in later months and years. Being born preterm (born <37 weeks of gestation) or with a very low birth weight (weighing <1500 g/<32 weeks of gestation) or extreme low birth weight (<1000 g/<28 weeks of gestation) is associated with significant motor impairment. Which specific signs in the neonate are of greatest predictive power, what long-term disability these signs predict, and how well they predict it remain unclear? Physician’s major concern is to identify specific risk factors for severe impairment in early infancy so as to predict the developmental outcome of those children that may manifest later on with neurological deficit especially if they have perinatal insult. Parents on the other hand are also concerned about their growing infants, their development, and neurological outcome. Since cerebral palsy is a permanent disorder, early detection of signs of motor impairment is crucial to assist physicians to give close follow-up of those infants and to reassure parents whose children are normal. It has been shown that intervention may be most efficient when the plasticity of the brain is high, and an early detection of brain impairment is therefore crucial. An earlier follow-up and training program can have a positive effect of the motor development of the child with CP, in particular through prevention of limb contractions, and might make a difference in the child’s ability to handle everyday challenges. In addition, an early detection of CP gives the parents more time for adjustment and preparation. Since clinical manifestations of cerebral palsy do not emerge before a child is at least 6 months, the general movement (GM) is considered the most reliable early markers for monitoring of fetal and infant movement. Abnormal General movements and absence of the so-called fidgety movements at 3-5 months post-term carries a high risk of developing cerebral palsy. Beside a high specificity (82–99%) and sensitivity (95–100%), the assessment of the general movements (GMs) is quick, nonintrusive, and easy to acquire.",book:{id:"7072",slug:"cerebral-palsy-clinical-and-therapeutic-aspects",title:"Cerebral Palsy",fullTitle:"Cerebral Palsy - Clinical and Therapeutic Aspects"},signatures:"Ali A. Al-Mayahi",authors:[{id:"252661",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Mayahi",slug:"ali-al-mayahi",fullName:"Ali Al-Mayahi"}]},{id:"64318",title:"Hip Surgery in Cerebral Palsy",slug:"hip-surgery-in-cerebral-palsy",totalDownloads:1230,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Hip pathology is one of the main orthopedic concerns in cerebral palsy (CP) patients. It has been demonstrated that correctly applied hip screening programs could significantly diminish the incidence of hip pathology. Unfortunately, in several countries, hip dislocation is significantly prevalent and is still a major concern in these patients. Depending on the age, the disability grade, the rehabilitation support, and the surgical strategies, results of hip treatment are variable. The ideal outcome of a stable, reduced, and long-lasting pain-free hip are not always achieved. In this chapter, we discuss theoretical and practical strategies used to treat specific CP hip dislocation. In younger children, simple femoral reorientation procedures (tenotomies with or without femoral osteotomies) promote correct acetabular remodeling. Later, surgical hip reduction can be an option even in late adolescents, and the use of capsuloplasty can lead to greater hip stability, in spite of eventual pelvis obliquity caused by associated spine pathology. Several technical tips for hip surgery are presented. It is essential that patients with CP hip problems receive proper follow-up, including rehabilitation medicine, physiotherapy, anti-spastic medication, on-time orthosis availability, and real teamwork concerned with this kind of pathology.",book:{id:"7072",slug:"cerebral-palsy-clinical-and-therapeutic-aspects",title:"Cerebral Palsy",fullTitle:"Cerebral Palsy - Clinical and Therapeutic Aspects"},signatures:"João Lameiras-Campagnolo",authors:[{id:"251869",title:"Mr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Lameiras-Campagnolo",slug:"joao-lameiras-campagnolo",fullName:"João Lameiras-Campagnolo"}]},{id:"50957",title:"In Vitro Models of Spinal Cord Injury",slug:"in-vitro-models-of-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:2651,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Living organisms are extremely complex functional systems. At present, there are many in vivo models of spinal cord injury (SCI) that allow the modeling of any type of central nervous system (CNS) injury, however, with some disadvantages. The production of injury models can be a highly invasive and time‐consuming process and requires high technical requirements, and costly financial issues should also be taken into account. Of course, a large number of animals have been used to obtain the relevant data of statistical significance. All of these aspects can be reduced by carrying out experiments in in vitro conditions. The primary advantage of in vitro method is that it simplifies the system under study. There are two major groups of in vitro model in use: cell culture and organotypic slice (OTS) culture. OTS is an intermediate system of the screening of in vitro cell culture and animal models and represents the in vitro system preserving the basic tissue architecture that able to closely mimic the cellular and physiological characteristics in vivo. In vitro models are the preferred methods for the study of acute or subacute pathophysiology after a trauma stimulus, enabling precise control on the extracellular environment, easy and repeatable access to the cells.",book:{id:"5203",slug:"recovery-of-motor-function-following-spinal-cord-injury",title:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury",fullTitle:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury"},signatures:"Lucia Slovinska, Juraj Blasko, Miriam Nagyova, Eva Szekiova and\nDasa Cizkova",authors:[{id:"83943",title:"Dr.",name:"Dasa",middleName:null,surname:"Cizkova",slug:"dasa-cizkova",fullName:"Dasa Cizkova"},{id:"90290",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Slovinska",slug:"lucia-slovinska",fullName:"Lucia Slovinska"},{id:"185974",title:"Dr.",name:"Juraj",middleName:null,surname:"Blasko",slug:"juraj-blasko",fullName:"Juraj Blasko"},{id:"189135",title:"Dr.",name:"Miriam",middleName:null,surname:"Nagyova",slug:"miriam-nagyova",fullName:"Miriam Nagyova"},{id:"189136",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",middleName:null,surname:"Szekiova",slug:"eva-szekiova",fullName:"Eva Szekiova"}]},{id:"63097",title:"Survival, Mortality, and Life Expectancy",slug:"survival-mortality-and-life-expectancy",totalDownloads:1318,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Cerebral palsy (CP) is a heterogenous condition, with level of disability ranging from immaterial to profound. In concert with the continuum of level of severity of disability/independent functioning, health care needs, therapies, medications, surgical interventions, costs of care, daily demands on parents and other family members, and expectations for the future in terms of education, employment, and other milestones of life all vary widely. Similarly, life expectancy in CP follows a continuum, from far lower than to potentially as high as general population life expectancy, that parallels the continuum of levels of disability. Here we review the literature documenting this, and examine the specific factors that are known to be strongly associated with mortality and longevity in CP. We also examine the evidence regarding causes of death in CP, and present some new findings related to this. Finally, we outline important methodological considerations for future research in this area.",book:{id:"7072",slug:"cerebral-palsy-clinical-and-therapeutic-aspects",title:"Cerebral Palsy",fullTitle:"Cerebral Palsy - Clinical and Therapeutic Aspects"},signatures:"Steven M. Day and Robert J. Reynolds",authors:[{id:"220737",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"J. Reynolds",slug:"robert-j.-reynolds",fullName:"Robert J. Reynolds"},{id:"220748",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"M. Day",slug:"steven-m.-day",fullName:"Steven M. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11405,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{id:"81975",title:"Self-Sustained Communities: Food Security in Times of Crisis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104425",signatures:"Kriengsak Chareonwongsak",slug:"self-sustained-communities-food-security-in-times-of-crisis",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81920",title:"Rethinking an Approach for Sustainable Globalization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105141",signatures:"Parakram Pyakurel",slug:"rethinking-an-approach-for-sustainable-globalization",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81297",title:"Legumes Cropping and Nitrogen Fixation under Mediterranean Climate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104473",signatures:"Fernando Teixeira",slug:"legumes-cropping-and-nitrogen-fixation-under-mediterranean-climate",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81493",title:"Rust Disease Classification Using Deep Learning Based Algorithm: The Case of Wheat",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104426",signatures:"Shivani Sood, Harjeet Singh and Suruchi Jindal",slug:"rust-disease-classification-using-deep-learning-based-algorithm-the-case-of-wheat",totalDownloads:43,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"11449",title:"Telehealth / Telemedicine – The Far-Reaching Medicine for Everyone and Everywhere",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11449.jpg",hash:"71545975025beddf27aa2931e0af5408",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"April 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"201262",title:"Dr.",name:"Tang-Chuan",surname:"Wang",slug:"tang-chuan-wang",fullName:"Tang-Chuan Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11451",title:"Molecular Docking - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",hash:"8c918a1973786c7059752b28601f1329",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 4th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11452",title:"Cryopreservation - Applications and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11452.jpg",hash:"a6c3fd4384ff7deeab32fc82722c60e0",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"300385",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",surname:"Quain",slug:"marian-quain",fullName:"Marian Quain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11453",title:"Biomimetics - Bridging the Gap",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11453.jpg",hash:"173e62fa4d7bf5508cec3bdd8e3cb32d",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 16th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"222709",title:"Prof.",name:"Ziyad S.",surname:"Haidar",slug:"ziyad-s.-haidar",fullName:"Ziyad S. 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Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:249,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. 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This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. 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