\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6045",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"The Rise of Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus",title:"The Rise of Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a growing issue both within hospitals and community because of its virulence determinants and the continuing emergence of new strains resistant to antimicrobiotics. In this book, we present the state of the art of S. aureus virulence mechanisms and antibiotic-resistance profiles, providing an unprecedented and comprehensive collection of up-to-date research about the evolution, dissemination, and mechanisms of different staphylococcal antimicrobial resistance patterns alongside bacterial virulence determinants and their impact in the medical field. We include several review chapters to allow readers to better understand the mechanisms of methicillin resistance, glycopeptide resistance, and horizontal gene transfer and the effects of alterations in S. aureus membranes and cell walls on drug resistance. In addition, we include chapters dedicated to unveiling S. aureus pathogenicity with the most current research available on S. aureus exfoliative toxins, enterotoxins, surface proteins, biofilm, and defensive responses of S. aureus to antibiotic treatment.",isbn:"978-953-51-2984-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2983-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5474-7",doi:"10.5772/67546",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"the-rise-of-virulence-and-antibiotic-resistance-in-staphylococcus-aureus",numberOfPages:224,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4f24bfdcb5cd606846da63b96000bed2",bookSignature:"Shymaa Enany and Laura E. Crotty Alexander",publishedDate:"March 8th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6045.jpg",numberOfDownloads:25826,numberOfWosCitations:50,numberOfCrossrefCitations:41,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:85,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:176,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 20th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 11th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 13th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 13th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",biography:"Dr. Shymaa Enany is an Associate Professor of Microbiology, at Suez Canal University, Egypt, and is currently working at Armed Forces College of Medicine, Egypt. She received her Ph.D. from the School of Medical Sciences, Niigata University, Japan. She completed her post-doctoral studies in the United States and Japan. Dr. Enany was one of the first Arab scientists to apply bacterial proteomic techniques to reveal good markers for microbes spreading in the community. She has received many awards for her scientific contributions, including the 2021 International Science Council Award for Early Career Scientist in Africa, the 2019 Egyptian state encouragement prize for women in the field of health and pharmaceutical sciences, and the 2018 World Academy of Sciences Young Arab Scientist Prize in Medical Sciences.",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"194113",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:"Elise",surname:"Crotty Alexander",slug:"laura-crotty-alexander",fullName:"Laura Crotty Alexander",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194113/images/5205_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Laura E. Crotty Alexander is a Pulmonary Critical Care physician at the University of California, San Diego, and VA San Diego Healthcare System. As a biomedical basic science researcher, she studies host-pathogen interactions at molecular, cellular, organ, and organism levels and recently defined pro-virulent effects of inhalants such as cigarette smoke and e-cigarette vapor on Staphylococcal virulence. Dr. Crotty Alexander’s clinical interests include bacterial pneumonia and sepsis, e-cigarette effects on innate immunity, and moderate-to-severe asthma.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"901",title:"Developmental Immunology",slug:"developmental-immunology"}],chapters:[{id:"52497",title:"The Evolution and Dissemination of Methicillin Resistance Determinant in Staphylococcus aureus",doi:"10.5772/65514",slug:"the-evolution-and-dissemination-of-methicillin-resistance-determinant-in-staphylococcus-aureus",totalDownloads:1972,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is an opportunistic pathogen and is frequently associated with the antimicrobial resistance. There has been horizontal gene transfer of Staphylococcus chromosome cassette mec (SCCmec) among the staphylococcal species that colonize a similar colonization niche, which eventually results in emergence of new variant with enhanced survival ability in terms of antimicrobial resistance and virulence level in S. aureus. Evolution and dissemination of SCCmec structure resulted in the emergence of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) clones around the world covering hospital, community, and livestock settings. MRSA also has the ability to resist different antibiotic profiles known as multidrug-resistant S. aureus (MDR S. aureus).",signatures:"Abdul Rahim Abdul Rachman, Zarizal Suhaili and Mohd Nasir Mohd\nDesa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52497",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52497",authors:[{id:"189666",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mohd Nasir",surname:"Mohd Desa",slug:"mohd-nasir-mohd-desa",fullName:"Mohd Nasir Mohd Desa"},{id:"191317",title:"Ms.",name:"Zarizal",surname:"Suhaili",slug:"zarizal-suhaili",fullName:"Zarizal Suhaili"},{id:"191318",title:"Mr.",name:"Abdul Rahim",surname:"Abdul Rachman",slug:"abdul-rahim-abdul-rachman",fullName:"Abdul Rahim Abdul Rachman"}],corrections:null},{id:"52471",title:"MRSA and MSSA: The Mechanism of Methicillin Resistance and the Influence of Methicillin Resistance on Biofilm Phenotype of Staphylococcus aureus",doi:"10.5772/65452",slug:"mrsa-and-mssa-the-mechanism-of-methicillin-resistance-and-the-influence-of-methicillin-resistance-on",totalDownloads:3178,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), which is one of the most common causes of indwelling device–associated, nosocomial, and community-acquired infections, can produce biofilm as a virulence factor. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) that is resistant to β-lactam antibiotics causes life-threatening infections. Biofilm producer strains of S. aureus that causes indwelling device–associated infections resist to antimicrobials and immune system. The combination of methicillin resistance and the ability of biofilm formation of S. aureus makes treatment difficult. Methicillin resistance of S. aureus can affect biofilm phenotype of S. aureus; the mecA gene of MRSA increases biofilm production by inactivating accessory gene regulator (agr) quorum sensing regulator system, which is a two-component regulator system of virulence factor production. The aim of this review is to determine virulence factors of S. aureus, resistance mechanisms of methicillin, and the influence of methicillin resistance on biofilm phenotype of S. aureus.",signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52471",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52471",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}],corrections:null},{id:"52490",title:"Glycopeptide Resistance in S. aureus",doi:"10.5772/65471",slug:"glycopeptide-resistance-in-s-aureus",totalDownloads:1772,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The glycopeptides (particularly vancomycin) have been the recommended therapy for serious methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections. The increased incidence of MRSA has led to the frequent use of vancomycin. Unfortunately, with the increased use of vancomycin, isolates of S. aureus have been discovered with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin. Several studies suggest that reduced vancomycin susceptibility is associated with vancomycin treatment failure. Various forms of glycopeptide resistance have appeared in MRSA strains, including high‐level resistance, homogeneous and heterogeneous intermediate resistance. While vancomycin‐resistant S. aureus (VRSA) strains are limited to a handful of reported cases and vancomycin‐intermediate S. aureus (VISA) strains remain rare; heterogeneous VISA (hVISA) strains are more common. This article summarizes the current knowledge regarding the history, definition, mechanisms, detection methods, epidemiology and clinical significance of ‘glycopeptide resistance in S. aureus’ and discusses therapeutic optıons for the treatment of hVISA/VISA infections.",signatures:"Hasan Cenk Mirza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52490",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52490",authors:[{id:"189799",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan Cenk",surname:"Mirza",slug:"hasan-cenk-mirza",fullName:"Hasan Cenk Mirza"}],corrections:null},{id:"53224",title:"Mechanisms of Horizontal Gene Transfer",doi:"10.5772/65967",slug:"mechanisms-of-horizontal-gene-transfer",totalDownloads:2140,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Horizontal gene transfer plays important roles in the evolution of S. aureus, and indeed, a variety of virulence factors and antibiotic resistance genes are embedded in a series of mobile genetic elements. In this chapter, we review the mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer, including recent findings on the natural genetic competence. Then, we consider the transfer of two important antibiotic resistance genes: the methicillin resistance gene, mecA (in Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome) and the linezolid resistance gene, cfr (in plasmid). In either case, distinct mechanisms driving the gene dissemination support the prominent evolutionary ability of this important human pathogen.",signatures:"Fabio Cafini, Veronica Medrano Romero and Kazuya Morikawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53224",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53224",authors:[{id:"190494",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuya",surname:"Morikawa",slug:"kazuya-morikawa",fullName:"Kazuya Morikawa"},{id:"196517",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Cafini",slug:"fabio-cafini",fullName:"Fabio Cafini"},{id:"196518",title:"Ms.",name:"Veronica",surname:"Medrano Romero",slug:"veronica-medrano-romero",fullName:"Veronica Medrano Romero"}],corrections:null},{id:"53612",title:"Effects of Alterations in Staphylococcus aureus Cell Membrane and Cell Wall in Antimicrobial Resistance",doi:"10.5772/66954",slug:"effects-of-alterations-in-staphylococcus-aureus-cell-membrane-and-cell-wall-in-antimicrobial-resista",totalDownloads:1596,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most successful opportunistic pathogen able to cause serious infections due to its ability to produce virulence factors and acquire antimicrobial resistance. Recent reports indicate that the phenotypic changes in the cell wall and cell membrane are essential mechanisms related to the resistance to several antibacterial drugs (such as daptomycin and vancomycin). These alterations involve changes in cell wall composition and chemical modifications of some components (point mutation leading to modification in phosphatidylglycerol molecule, in the production of the aberrations in peptidoglycan structure and decrease in autolytic activity of the components of the cell envelope), leading to changes in electric charge of the cell surface, cell membrane fluidity and cell morphology. In fact, S. aureus develops several multifactorial and strain-specific adaptive mechanisms to survival in host. The study of such mechanisms is very important. The aim of this chapter is to review the phenotypic mechanisms related to drug resistance in S. aureus.",signatures:"Andrea de Souza Monteiro, Wallace Ribeiro Nunes Neto, Aleff\nRicardo Santos Mendes, Bruna Lorrana dos Santos Pinto, Luís\nCláudio Nascimento da Silva and Gabriella Freitas Ferreira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53612",authors:[{id:"139215",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"andrea-monteiro",fullName:"Andrea Monteiro"},{id:"189830",title:"Prof.",name:"Luís Cláudio",surname:"Nascimento Da Silva",slug:"luis-claudio-nascimento-da-silva",fullName:"Luís Cláudio Nascimento Da Silva"},{id:"195589",title:"Mr.",name:"Aleff",surname:"Mendes",slug:"aleff-mendes",fullName:"Aleff Mendes"},{id:"195590",title:"Ms.",name:"Bruna",surname:"Pinto",slug:"bruna-pinto",fullName:"Bruna Pinto"},{id:"195591",title:"Mrs.",name:"Wallace",surname:"Neto",slug:"wallace-neto",fullName:"Wallace Neto"},{id:"195592",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriella",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"gabriella-ferreira",fullName:"Gabriella Ferreira"}],corrections:null},{id:"53038",title:"SOS Response and Staphylococcus aureus: Implications for Drug Development",doi:"10.5772/65960",slug:"sos-response-and-staphylococcus-aureus-implications-for-drug-development",totalDownloads:1888,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Damage in genetic material is induced through the action of several drugs (directly or indirectly). Specially, antimicrobials from quinolone class (such as ciprofloxacin) induce DNA damage that promotes the formation of the RecA filament leading to auto-cleavage of LexA and allows the expression of SOS genes, including the error-prone polymerase (like umuC). The SOS pathway plays a critical role in the acquisition of mutations that lead to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and the spread of virulence factors. This chapter provides a comprehensive review about the SOS response of Staphylococcus aureus and the modulatory effects of new compounds (natural or synthetics) on this pathway. The effects of some SOS inhibitors are highlighted such as baicalein and aminocoumarins. Compounds able to prevent SOS response are extremely important to develop new combinatory approaches to inhibit S. aureus mutagenesis. The study of new SOS inductors could reveal new insights into the pathways used by S. aureus to acquire drug resistance; examples of these compounds are the lysine-peptoid hybrid LP5, cyclic peptide inhibitors, etc. These studies can impact the development of new drugs. In conclusion, we hope to provide essential information about the effects of compounds on SOS response from S. aureus.",signatures:"Luís Cláudio Nascimento da Silva, Roseane Costa Diniz, Isana Maria\nde Souza Feitosa Lima, Camilla Itapary dos Santos, Matheus Silva\nAlves, Larissa Isabela Oliveira de Souza and Andrea de Souza\nMonteiro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53038",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53038",authors:[{id:"139215",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"andrea-monteiro",fullName:"Andrea Monteiro"},{id:"189830",title:"Prof.",name:"Luís Cláudio",surname:"Nascimento Da Silva",slug:"luis-claudio-nascimento-da-silva",fullName:"Luís Cláudio Nascimento Da Silva"},{id:"195569",title:"Dr.",name:"Roseane Costa",surname:"Diniz",slug:"roseane-costa-diniz",fullName:"Roseane Costa Diniz"},{id:"195570",title:"BSc.",name:"Isana Maria De Souza Feitosa",surname:"Lima",slug:"isana-maria-de-souza-feitosa-lima",fullName:"Isana Maria De Souza Feitosa Lima"},{id:"195571",title:"BSc.",name:"Camila Itapary Dos",surname:"Santos",slug:"camila-itapary-dos-santos",fullName:"Camila Itapary Dos Santos"},{id:"195573",title:"BSc.",name:"Matheus Silva",surname:"Alves",slug:"matheus-silva-alves",fullName:"Matheus Silva Alves"},{id:"195575",title:"MSc.",name:"Larissa Isabela Oliveira De",surname:"Souza",slug:"larissa-isabela-oliveira-de-souza",fullName:"Larissa Isabela Oliveira De Souza"}],corrections:null},{id:"53022",title:"Antimicrobial Activity of Chitosan Membranes Against Staphylococcus Aureus of Clinical Origin",doi:"10.5772/65980",slug:"antimicrobial-activity-of-chitosan-membranes-against-staphylococcus-aureus-of-clinical-origin",totalDownloads:2256,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Healthy human skin has beneficial microflora and many pathogens causing infections. Staphylococcus aureus is the most prevalent and can have multiresistance to antibiotics. Chitosan is a polysaccharide composed of glucosamine and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, which is biodegradable and has antimicrobial activity. As part of a national scientific research project for the development and application of biomaterials, we decided to study the effect of different membranes based on chitosan against strains of S. aureus isolated from infected ulcers. The study found that seven of nine strains of S. aureus are sensitive to rifampin and the least eight of nine strains were multiresistant to more than ten antibiotics. All chitosan-based membranes confirm its antimicrobial effect on direct contact with an increase in its diameter. The contact area of the membranes is increased according to the concentration of chitosan. The highest average area increase was the chitosan membranes with honey and glycerin, 88.32%. Chitosan membranes have shown their effectiveness against S. aureus strains of clinical origin. Thus, these materials can be applied for the treatment of chronic ulcers without toxic hazards and resistance caused by antibiotics.",signatures:"Ana A. Escárcega-Galaz, Jaime López-Cervantes, Dalia I. Sánchez-\nMachado, Olga R. Brito-Zurita and Olga N. Campas-Baypoli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53022",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53022",authors:[{id:"190199",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia I.",surname:"Sánchez-Machado",slug:"dalia-i.-sanchez-machado",fullName:"Dalia I. Sánchez-Machado"},{id:"194979",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana A.",surname:"Escárcega-Galaz",slug:"ana-a.-escarcega-galaz",fullName:"Ana A. Escárcega-Galaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"53644",title:"Exfoliative Toxins of Staphylococcus aureus",doi:"10.5772/66528",slug:"exfoliative-toxins-of-staphylococcus-aureus",totalDownloads:2394,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Virulent strains of Staphylococcus aureus secrete exfoliative toxins (ETs) that cause the loss of cell‐cell adhesion in the superficial epidermis. S. aureus ETs are serine proteases, which exhibit exquisite substrate specificity, and their mechanisms of action are extremely complex. To date, four different serotypes of ETs have been identified and three of them (ETA, ETB and ETD) are associated with toxin‐mediated staphylococcal syndromes related to human infections leading to diseases of medical and veterinary importance.",signatures:"Ricardo B. Mariutti, Natayme R. Tartaglia, Núbia Seyffert, Thiago\nLuiz de Paula Castro, Raghuvir K. Arni, Vasco A. Azevedo, Yves Le\nLoir and Koji Nishifuji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53644",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53644",authors:[{id:"192121",title:"Ms.",name:"Natayme",surname:"Tartaglia",slug:"natayme-tartaglia",fullName:"Natayme Tartaglia"},{id:"192122",title:"Dr.",name:"Núbia",surname:"Seyffert",slug:"nubia-seyffert",fullName:"Núbia Seyffert"},{id:"192124",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",surname:"Castro",slug:"thiago-castro",fullName:"Thiago Castro"},{id:"192125",title:"Dr.",name:"Koji",surname:"Nishifuji",slug:"koji-nishifuji",fullName:"Koji Nishifuji"},{id:"192126",title:"Dr.",name:"Yves",surname:"Le Loir",slug:"yves-le-loir",fullName:"Yves Le Loir"},{id:"192129",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Mariutti",slug:"ricardo-mariutti",fullName:"Ricardo Mariutti"},{id:"192131",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghuvir",surname:"Arni",slug:"raghuvir-arni",fullName:"Raghuvir Arni"},{id:"192132",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasco",surname:"Ariston de Carvalho Azevedo",slug:"vasco-ariston-de-carvalho-azevedo",fullName:"Vasco Ariston de Carvalho Azevedo"}],corrections:null},{id:"53494",title:"Staphylococcus aureus Enterotoxin Production in Relation to Environmental Factors",doi:"10.5772/66736",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-enterotoxin-production-in-relation-to-environmental-factors",totalDownloads:2330,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) and SE-like toxins (SEls) are the most notable virulence factors associated with Staphylococcus aureus. They are involved in food poisoning, toxic shock syndrome and staphylococcal infectious diseases in human. In dairy practise, the initial numbers of S. aureus play an important role especially at the beginning of the milk fermentation within the first 6 h or in 24-h-old cheese. As we presented in our previous works, one of the most effective tools to inhibit S. aureus growth is by adding a sufficient amount of active dairy starters, which are able to produce lactic acid very rapidly. Thus, by inhibiting the growth of S. aureus the production of SEs may be reached. Based on this study focusing on the effect of temperature, pH, water activity and initial numbers of lactic acid bacteria on the growth and the ability of S. aureus 14733 to produce SED, we consider it as a strong SED producer. The SED production was not limited with the incubation temperatures and the NaCl addition related to traditional cheese manufacture. As this isolate comes originally from such an artisanal cheese production, we can expect that other strong SE producer could be present in milk or environment. Besides strict prerequisites approach in production hygiene, it is necessary to add the starters ensuring the initial dominance of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and supporting the growth of the natural LAB present in raw milk.",signatures:"Alžbeta Medved’ová, Adriana Havlíková and Ľubomír Valík",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53494",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53494",authors:[{id:"139980",title:"Prof.",name:"Ľubomír",surname:"Valík",slug:"lubomir-valik",fullName:"Ľubomír Valík"},{id:"143466",title:"Dr.",name:"Alžbeta",surname:"Medveďová",slug:"alzbeta-medvedova",fullName:"Alžbeta Medveďová"},{id:"191311",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Havlíková",slug:"adriana-havlikova",fullName:"Adriana Havlíková"}],corrections:null},{id:"53157",title:"Surface Proteins of Staphylococcus aureus",doi:"10.5772/65976",slug:"surface-proteins-of-staphylococcus-aureus",totalDownloads:2485,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is a commensal bacterium that causes infections such as sepsis, endocarditis, and pneumonia. S. aureus can express a variety of virulence factors, including surface proteins. Surface proteins are characterized by presence of a Sec‐dependent signal sequence at the amino terminal, and the sorting signal domain. Surface proteins are covalently attached to peptidoglycan and they are commonly known as cell wall–anchored (CWA) proteins. CWA proteins have many functions and participate in the pathogenesis of S. aureus. Furthermore, these proteins have been proposed as therapeutic targets for the generation of vaccines. In this chapter, different topics related to CWA proteins of S. aureus are addressed. The molecular structure of CWA proteins and their role as virulence factors of S. aureus are described. Furthermore, the involvement of CWA proteins in the processes of adhesion, invasion of host cells and tissues, evasion of the immune response, and the formation of biofilm is discussed. In addition, the role of CWA proteins in skin infection and the proposal to use them as potential vaccine antigens are described. The information contained in this chapter will help the readers to understand the biology of CWA proteins and to recognize the importance of surface molecules of S. aureus.",signatures:"Janet Jan-Roblero, Elizabeth García-Gómez, Sandra Rodríguez-\nMartínez, Mario E. Cancino-Diaz and Juan C. Cancino-Diaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53157",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53157",authors:[{id:"181148",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan C.",surname:"Cancino-Diaz",slug:"juan-c.-cancino-diaz",fullName:"Juan C. 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Cancino-Diaz"},{id:"194929",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",surname:"García-Gómez",slug:"elizabeth-garcia-gomez",fullName:"Elizabeth García-Gómez"}],corrections:null},{id:"53240",title:"Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms and their Impact on the Medical Field",doi:"10.5772/66380",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-biofilms-and-their-impact-on-the-medical-field",totalDownloads:3815,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:34,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Despite the discovery of antibiotics, the battle against bacteria is so far in their favor, specifically because bugs are able to develop a superstructure named biofilm, to resist and to survive in the environment. Nosocomial infections, a major health problem, are due at 80% to biofilm‐associated infection, and Staphylococcus aureus is the leading bacteria species in this domain. Moreover, the antimicrobial resistance of this bacterial community is accentuated when it is formed by superbugs such as methicillin‐resistant S. aureus (MRSA). In this chapter, the mechanism and the physiology of S. aureus biofilm as well as their consequences in the clinical domains are described. To complete the vision on S. aureus biofilms, some “anti‐biofilm” strategies will be highlighted.",signatures:"Fany Reffuveille, Jérôme Josse, Quentin Vallé, Céline Mongaret and\nSophie C. Gangloff",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53240",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53240",authors:[{id:"54351",title:"Prof.",name:"Sophie C.",surname:"Gangloff",slug:"sophie-c.-gangloff",fullName:"Sophie C. 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\r\n\tThis book will aim to be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, psychologists, social workers, mentors, motivational speakers, life coaches, students, and other scientists. The contents of the book are intended to be written by multiple authors and experts from different related fields of psychology, philosophy, education, public health, human resource, and other human social sciences.
\r\n\r\n\tCombining Motivation and Success as a book title demonstrates that these are complementary goods. When two goods are complements, they experience join demand. Meaning that the demand for one good is linked to the demand for another good. Indeed, our esteemed authors will aim to put together their scholarly work to showcase the importance of motivation leading to success and vice versa. Defined as a drive or a need, motivation is a driving force inside an individual to pursue a designated goal. While success is a state of meeting a targeted goal. This simply implies that motivated individuals are most successful and this is the core theme of the book.
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He also works as an editor, internal and external examiner, and principal project investigator.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"202046",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon George",middleName:null,surname:"Taukeni",slug:"simon-george-taukeni",fullName:"Simon George Taukeni",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202046/images/system/202046.jpg",biography:"Simon George Taukeni is an author, editor, and academic. He has been working at the University of Namibia since 2011. He is also a part-time tutor at Namibia University of Science and Technology (NUST). He is a former post-doctoral research fellow at the University of Fort Hare, South Africa.\n\nDr. Taukeni has a Ph.D., MPH, MEd, and BEd, as well as a specialized postgraduate diploma in Behavioral and Emotional Disorders. \n\nHe has collaborated with many local and international researchers and scholars in his capacity as an editor, internal and external examiner, and principal project investigator.",institutionString:"University of Namibia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Namibia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Namibia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466998",firstName:"Dragan",lastName:"Miljak",middleName:"Anton",title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466998/images/21564_n.jpg",email:"dragan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103075",slug:"deep-learning-algorithms-for-efficient-analysis-of-ecg-signals-to-detect-heart-disorders",body:'Cardiac problems are one of the most important problems across the globe. According to autopsy studies, heart disease has increased since the 1960s due to a rise in the frequency of coronary atherosclerosis with resultant coronary heart disease. The number of CVD deaths in India each year is anticipated to increase from 2.26 to 4.77 million between the years 1990 and 2020. The coronary heart disease frequency rates in India have fluctuated from 1.6 to 7.4% in rural populations whereas from 1 to 13.2% in urban populations during the last several decades [1]. Heart disease claims the lives of about 17 lakh individuals in India each year, and the number is estimated to rise to 2.3 crores by 2030. This rise is linked to an increase in smoking and dietary changes, resulting in higher blood cholesterol levels. The symptoms like angina, chest pain, difficulty breathing, edema, fatigue, and lightheadedness may indicate a heart problem or heart attack. Heart attack can lead to cardiac arrest, which occurs when the heart’s rhythm is disrupted, or the heart stops beating, and the body can no longer function [2].
Any disorder that affects the cardiovascular system is alluded to as heart disease [3]. Heart disease comes in various forms, each of which affects the heart and blood arteries in distinct ways. The most typical kinds of heart disease are coronary artery disease, arrhythmia, heart valve disease, and heart failure [4]. Coronary artery disease is the most noticeable type of heart disease. It happens when plaque accumulates in the arteries that deliver blood to the heart. It can cause a reduction in blood flow to your heart muscle, preventing it from receiving the oxygen it requires. Atherosclerosis, often known as artery hardening, is the most common cause of the illness. Arrhythmia refers to an improper beating of the heart [5]. It happens when the electrical impulses that regulate the heartbeat do not even function properly. As a result, the heart may beat excessively fast, too slowly, or in an irregular pattern. Heart valve disease occurs when a heart valve is damaged [6]. Infectious diseases such as rheumatic fever, congenital heart disease, excessive blood pressure, coronary artery disease are all causes of heart valve disorders. Heart failure does not imply that the heart has ceased to beat. A condition in which the heart is not pumping blood as efficiently as it should be to satisfy the body’s demands. There are some more heart diseases like pericardial disease, myocardial infarction [7], cardiomyopathy, mitral valve regurgitation, congenital heart disease, etc.
Over the last several decades, the rapid advancement of cardiology has profoundly changed the natural course of cardiac patients. Cardiac care has evolved, with technology playing an increasingly significant role. With the appropriate technology and artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, cardiac care providers have been motivated to improve treatment methods [8]. Then there’s remote care that enables electrocardiogram (ECG) diagnosis [9], which uses cloud technology and Bluetooth-enabled cardiac devices to test the parameters and send them back to healthcare practitioners without attending the clinic. Some emerging technologies used every day in cardiology are transcatheter mitral and tricuspid valve interventions, artificial intelligence, wearable devices, big data, structured reporting, robots in the cath lab, virtual and augmented reality, FFR technologies, holographic procedural navigation in the Cath Lab, etc. [10].
There are many cardiac implantable electronic devices like pacemakers, implanted cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs), biventricular pacemakers, and cardiac loop recorders, which are used to control or monitor irregular heartbeats in persons with specific heart rhythm problems and heart failure. An implanted cardioverter-defibrillator is a device that can do cardioversion, defibrillation, and cardiac pacing. ICD is capable of rectifying the majority of life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias. A pacemaker is a device that is implanted beneath the skin and communicates with the heart through electrical leads. Pacemakers are used to treat bradycardia, a condition where the heart beats too slowly (less than 60 times per minute). The pacemaker sends electrical pulses to the heart to maintain it beating normally. A biventricular pacemaker is a compact, battery-operated device and light. This gadget aids with the proper pumping of your heart. It also protects from harmful cardiac arrhythmias. An implantable loop recorder is a heart-monitoring device implanted beneath the chest skin. It has a variety of applications. Searching for reasons of fainting, palpitations, very rapid or slow heartbeats, and hidden rhythms that might cause strokes are among the most prevalent. Computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) [11] refers to software that helps clinicians understand medical images. The radiologist or other medical expert must assess and evaluate a large amount of data in a short amount of time using imaging modalities such as X-ray, MRI, and ultrasound diagnostics. The Kurt Rossmann Laboratories for Radiologic Image Research in the Department of Radiology at the University of Chicago began large-scale systematic research and development of several CAD methods in the early 1980s. The idea of computer-aided design was established in 1966 and has been completely implemented since 1980.
Nowadays, computer-aided diagnosis has become a contentious research topic in medical imaging and diagnostic radiology research. CAD technology aids in the improvement of the performance of radiologists in increasing productivity by cost-effectively enhancing sensitivity rate. CAD can improve image diagnostic accuracy by detecting illnesses that are too premature to be detected by naked eyes. It enables early detection, which can lead to better treatment results. Computer-aided detection is a relatively new advancement in the area of breast imaging that aims to increase the throughput of radiologists to identify diseases like breast cancer [12] even at an early stage. In recent times, computer-aided diagnosis is used to diagnose acute lymphoblastic leukemia, which suggested a solution to the flaws in manual diagnosis techniques. Even ECG-based computer-aided diagnosis [13] is also used for cardiovascular diseases which have the potential to improve diagnosis accuracy while also lowering costs.
Medical images nowadays play a crucial role in the identification and diagnosis of awide range of disorders. To aid in the interpretation of medical images, a variety of computer-aided detection and diagnosis technologies have recently been developed in order to achieve a more reliable and accurate diagnosis. CT, MR imaging, digital radiography, biomagnetism, and optical range sensing are examples of imaging systems that take advantage of sophisticated computer technology.
The real-life problem with manual experimentation is that manual diagnostic procedures are time-consuming, less accurate, and prone to mistakes due to different human variables such as stress, exhaustion, fatigue, and so forth. As a result, many automated techniques have been developed to combat the flaws in manual diagnostic approaches. When compared to manual diagnosis procedures, these computer-aided technologies are faster, more dependable, more efficient, more standardization and more accurate. Computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) aids in the calculation of computational and statistical features that people cannot gather visually or intuitively. Computer-assisted diagnosis also reduces the reliance on the operator in ultrasonic imaging and makes the diagnosis procedure reproducible. Interference testing and 3D animations are simple to accomplish in computer-aided diagnosis [14].
Machine learning has been applied in a variety of fields all over the world and the health industry is no exception. On the other hand, deep learning is part of the family of machine learning algorithms relying on representation and artificial neural networks are being utilized for the analysis of medical data. For quite some time, these algorithms were used to assess patients’ status with respect to the image or non-image-based medical data acquired using new generation medical equipment. These developments are attributable to the emergence of new CAD systems known as knowledge-based systems, including expertise or knowledge. As a result, the modern CAD systems include some intelligence [15]. The major job of the software related to these systems nowadays is to automate the analytical phases. To ensure that components and assemblies achieve design standards, CAD software is used to make computer modeling, fit them together, and simulate their performance. Because design reviews, conducted by specialists, evaluate if changes should be made, the analytical phases of the design process are repeated (design synthesis). Design synthesis may be done immediately with AI-based technologies without the need for a separate design review, and they are correctly implemented.
Based on the recent advancements, computer-aided diagnosis is used to diagnose heart abnormalities such as arrhythmias and heart blockages using electrocardiogram (ECG) signal analysis [16]. Although electrocardiography (ECG) is affordable and commonly available, ECG abnormalities are not specific for the diagnosis of congestive heart failure (CHF) which is the inability of the heart to efficiently circulate blood throughout the body without a rise in intracardiac pressure. Based on the ECG, a well-designed computer-aided detection (CAD) system for CHF might possibly eliminate subjectivity and give a quantitative evaluation for better decision-making.
Cardiologists and medical practitioners frequently utilize ECG to assess heart health. The difficulty in identifying and classifying distinct waveforms and morphologies in ECG signals is the major issue with manual analysis. This task is both time-consuming and error-prone for a human. Cardiovascular illnesses are the leading cause of mortality worldwide, accounting for around one-third of all fatalities. Millions of individuals, for example, suffer from irregular heartbeats, which can be fatal in some circumstances. As a result, precise and low-cost arrhythmic heartbeat diagnosis is extremely desirable.
Many research in the literature investigated the utilization of machine learning approaches to reliably detect abnormalities in ECG data to solve the drawbacks present in human analysis. Pre-processing, like passing through bandpass or high pass filter, is used in most of these methods to prepare the signal to be compatible for machine-based analysis. The handcrafted features, which are typically statistical summarizations of signal windows, are then retrieved from these signals and employed in subsequent processing. For the last categorization task, conduct an analysis.
In terms of the conclusion, for ECG, traditional machine learning algorithms [2] like support vector machines, multi-layer perceptrons, decision trees, and other methods of analysis were used previously. Automated feature extraction and representation approaches have been shown to be more scalable and capable of producing more accurate predictions, according to current machine learning research. In this study, we are going to elaborate on a few of the new emerging and compatible technologies and their applications.
The rest of the article has been organized in the following manner. First, Section 2 provides a brief theoretical and mathematical background related to this domain of study which is followed by the problem statement in Section 3. Next, Section 4 discusses about the significance of noise removal with stages of data processing. Section 5 gives a brief survey about the recent state-of-the-art techniques related to automated signal processing of ECG signals that is followed by the promising experimental results reported in the recent literature. Finally, Section 7 concludes this chapter.
In signal processing [17], several mathematical methods like sampling frequency, Nyquist filtering, Fourier analysis series and transform,
The reduction of a continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal is known as sampling and the sampling frequency represents the number of samples per second collected from a continuous signal to create a discrete or digital signal. There are few applications of the sampling process. The sampling process is utilized in music recordings to ensure sound quality. The sampling technique is also used to convert analog to discrete data. It is also used in speech recognition systems, radar and radio navigation, sensor data evaluation, modulation and demodulation, and pattern recognition systems.
The sampling frequency [18] or sampling rate
If a continuous-time signal has no frequency components greater than a sampling rate of
A Nyquist filter is an electrical filter that equalizes the visual characteristics of TV receivers. In receivers, a Nyquist filter is utilized to equalize the low and high-frequency components of the VF signal. It plays an essential role in the creation of n bandlimited pulses in wired and wireless communication systems to ensure minimal inter symbol interference. Its principal application is as a pulse-shaping filter. Nyquist filters are a form of multi-rate finite impulse response filter that is also known as
The following equation indicates the impulse response of a Nyquist filter
where,
The following equation satisfies the
where,
The frequency responses of all
The Fourier series is a periodic function made up of harmonically compatible sinusoids that are integrated together using a weighted summation. The Fourier series is an infinite series that can be used to solve several forms of differential equations. It’s mainly composed of an infinite sum of sines and cosines, and it’s valuable for evaluating periodic functions since it’s periodic. The Fourier series is widely utilized in telecommunications systems for voice signal modulation and demodulation.
The Fourier transform is a technique for transforming time-domain signals to frequency-domain signals. The Fourier transform is a useful image processing method for decomposing an image into sine and cosine components. The image in the Fourier or frequency domain is represented by the output of the transformation, whereas the spatial domain equivalent is represented by the input image. It’s utilized in electrical circuit design, solving differential equations, signal processing, signal analysis, image processing, and filtering, among other things.
The Fourier transform is a mathematical approach for converting a time function,
The Fourier transform of a sequence is represented as:
where
It can also be written as:
As
The analysis equation of forward Fourier transform is:
On the other hand, the synthesis equation of inverse Fourier transform is:
The bilateral
The unilateral
Fourier transform and
A system’s Fourier transform and
The pole-zero plot is a valuable tool for relating a system’s Frequency domain and
Pole-zero plot can be expressed as the following equation:
where the numerator and denominator are both polynomials in
The electrocardiogram (ECG) signal is a representation of the electrical impulses of the heart that can be seen from the strategic points of the human body. It can be visually depicted by a quasi-periodic voltage signal. ECG refers to a 12-lead ECG recorded while laying down and electrodes or sticky patches are put on the body surface and often over the chest and limbs to record a standard surface ECG. These electrode wires are linked to a 12-lead ECG machine which records data from 12 distinct locations on the body’s surface. The aggregate amplitude of the heart’s electrical potential is then monitored and recorded over a period of time from those distinct angles (“leads”).
The graphical representation of the heart’s electrical activity is formed by analyzing numerous electrodes in Figure 1(a). There are three types of leads: limb augmented limb, and precordial or chest. Three limb leads and three augmented limb leads are organized in the coronal plane like the spokes of a wheel, and six precordial leads or chest leads are organized in the perpendicular transverse plane. In three-dimensional space, each of the 12 ECG leads represents a distinct direction of cardiac activation. The conventional ECG leads are denoted as lead I, II, III, aVF, aVR, aVL, V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, and V6. The limb leads are I, II, III, aVR, aVL, and aVF whereas the precordial leads are V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, and V6.
12 leads ECG. a) Signals from 12 Leads ECG [
The 12-lead ECG is typically made up of 10 electrodes linked to the body, each monitoring a distinct electrical potential difference. The 10 electrodes in a 12-lead ECG are RA, RL, LA, LL, V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, and V6. Each of the 10 electrodes has a different placement as shown in Figure 1(b). RA is used to place on the right arm and similarly, LA is used to place on the left arm. RL is located in the lower end of the inner portion of the calf muscle on the right leg, similarly, LL is placed in the same standard position but on the left leg. V1 is placed in the fourth intercostal space (between ribs 4 and 5) immediate right of the sternum. V2 is placed in the fourth intercostal space (between ribs 4 and 5) immediate left of the sternum. V3 is placed between leads V2 and V4 where V4 is placed in the fifth intercostal space (between ribs 5 and 6) in the midclavicular line. On the other hand, V5 and V6 are placed in the left anterior axillary line and midaxillary line, respectively. The electrodes which are located on the limbs are called limb leads which are leads I, II, and III. Lead I refer to the voltage difference between LA and RA, that is, Lead I = LA-RA. Similarly, Lead II denotes the voltage difference between LL and RA, that is, Lead II = LL-RA. And Lead III denotes the voltage between LL and LA, that is, Lead III = LL-LA.
Lastly, a PQRST complex is part of an ECG complex which is shown in Figure 2. The P wave is produced by the sinoatrial node which is the heart’s pacemaker and implies atrial depolarization in an ECG complex. The atrioventricular node generates the QRS wave. Ventricular depolarization is represented by the QRS, while ventricular repolarization is indicated by the T wave.
PQRST waveform [
In biology, neural networks develop the structure of animal brains, where the phrase “artificial neural networks” comes from. It is widely used in deep learning algorithms. An artificial neural network (ANN) [23] generally consists of three layers, namely, the input layer, hidden layer, and output layer. The hidden layers are present in-between input and output layers. It executes all the calculations to find hidden features and patterns. A shallow neural network consists of only one hidden layer and a deep neural network consists of multiple hidden layers. Generally, each node in one layer is linked to every other node in the next layer. By increasing the number of hidden layers, the network becomes deeper. This architecture is demonstrated in Figure 3.
Architecture of a general ANN [
Based on the concept of ANNs, a convolutional neural network (CNN) [25] was formulated which is a deep learning method that can take an image as input and learn some filters that can be used to extract essential features from those images. The brain is the source of inspiration for convolutional neural networks. CNN performs a linear mathematical procedure known as a convolution in the several hidden layers between an input and output layer. The general mathematical expression of convolution operation is provided in the following equation:
where
CNN’s have the benefit of being able to construct an internal demonstration of a two-dimensional image. This enables the model to learn position and scale in different data formats, which is essential when working with images.
A recurrent neural network (RNN) [26] is a form of artificial neural network which is designed to operate with time series, analyzing temporal and sequential data. It’s one of the algorithms responsible for the incredible advances in deep learning over the last few years. RNN can handle inputs/outputs of varying lengths. The idea of “memory” in RNNs is used to store the states or information of earlier inputs in order to generate the sequence’s next output. It has the ability to store or memorize historical information.
Long short term memory (LSTM) [27] is a type of recurrent neural network and LSTM networks are well-suited to categorize, processing, and generating predictions based on time series data as there might be delays of undetermined duration between critical occurrences in a time series. LSTMs were designed to explode gradients and solve the problem of vanishing gradients that can occur while training standard RNNs.
LSTM uses the concept of gates. It has three gates which are input gate, forget gate, and output gate. The input gate determines what new information will be stored in the cell state. The forget gate determines what information to throw away from the cell state whereas the output gate is used to activate the LSTM block’s final output. In LSTM, output of the gates are operated with sigmoid activation functions, which calculates a value between 0 and 1, which is usually rounded to either 0 or 1 depending upon a predetermined threshold. “0” indicates that the gates are blocking everything and “1” denotes gates that enable everything to pass through it. The LSTM gates have the following equations:
where,
The cell state, candidate cell state, and final output equations are given as follows:
where,
The architecture of LSTM at any timestamp
Graphical representation of LSTM unit [
Bidirectional LSTMs [29] are a kind of LSTM that can be used to increase model performance on sequence classification issues. Bidirectional long-short term memory is the process of allowing any neural network to store sequence information in both backward (future to past) and forward (forward to future) directions. BI-LSTM is typically used when sequence to sequence activities are required. Text classification, speech recognition, and forecasting models can all benefit from using this type of network. Figure 5 shows the architecture of a BI-LSTM.
Graphical representation of bi-directional LSTM unit [
Before the invention of CAD, diagnosis used to be done manually and manual diagnostic procedures were time-consuming, less accurate. In the manual diagnostic procedures, there might be errors in the calculation of computational and statistical features. To counteract the faults in manual diagnostic procedures, deep learning has been introduced to diagnosis. CAD application has heightened the diagnostic performance of non-expert radiologists. Regardless of radiologist expertise, the fundamental benefit of CAD is the minimum false-negative rate and enhanced sensitivity. CAD technologies are faster, more dependable, more accurate and also help to improve in the calculation of computational and statistical features [31]. In this regard, this study focuses on speculating about some of the valuable technologies and trying to approach a conventional solution.
Noise is an undesirable signal which disrupts the original message signal and causes the message signal’s parameters to be altered. Noise distorts the message and hinders it from being understood in an intended manner. When there is loud, distracting noise that disrupts the communication assimilation process, comprehension suffers.
There is no signal without noise. The signal strength may be affected or aided by noise. Noise can cause signal distortion, which is most noticeable in agitated receivers. Both analog and digital systems suffer from noise, which diminishes their performance. Noise degrades the quality of the received signal in analog systems. Noise reduces the overall performance of a digital system because it necessitates retransmission of data packets or additional coding to recover data in the event of an error. The most prevalent and evident issue produced by signal noise is the distortion of the processed signal, which causes inaccurate interpretation or display of a process state by the equipment. Unusual signal noise can cause an apparent signal loss. Noise filtering is incorporated into most current electrical devices. However, in excessively loud circumstances, this filter may not be sufficient, resulting in the device getting no signal and no connection.
The presence of noise can make it difficult or impossible to identify a representative ECG signal. Noises in the ECG signal can lead to incorrect interpretation. In the ECG signal, there are primarily two kinds of noise. Electromyogram noise, additive white Gaussian noise, and power line interference are examples of high-frequency noises. Power line interference distorts the amplitude, duration, and shape of low-amplitude local waves of the ECG signal. Baseline wandering is an example of low-frequency noise. Baseline wandering alters the ECG signal’s ST-segment and LF components.
Noise can be reduced by keeping the signal wires as short as possible or by keeping the wires away from electrical machinery. By using differential inputs, noise can be reduced from both wires. Noise also can be reduced by filtering the signal or by using an integrating A-D converter to reduce mains frequency interference.
There are various ECG denoising techniques [32] that are being used to reduce the noise from signals. Some ECG denoising techniques are EMD-based models, deep-learning-based models, wavelet-based models, sparsity-based models, Bayesian-filter-based models, hybrid models, discrete wavelet transform, etc.
The discrete wavelet transform is a digital processing computational technique that allows for electrical noise with a higher signal-to-noise ratio than lock-in amplifier equipment. A discrete wavelet transform decomposes a signal into a number of sets, each set including a time series of coefficients that describe the signal’s time evolution in the associated frequency band.
The process of converting raw data into a comprehensible format is known as data preprocessing. Dealing with raw data is not suitable, thus this is a key stage in data mining. Before using machine learning or data mining methods, make sure the data is of high quality. In every brain-computer interface-based application, preprocessing data is a necessary and significant step. It checks the accuracy, completeness, believability, consistency, interpretability, timeliness of the data. It assists with the removal of undesirable artifacts from the data and prepares it for subsequent processing.
Peimankar et al. [33] proposed a deep learning model for real-time segmentation of heartbeats which might be utilized in real-time telehealth diagnostic systems. The proposed technique integrates a CNN and an LSTM model to predict and analyze the onset, peak, and offset of various heartbeat waveforms such as the P-wave, QRS complex, T-wave, and no wave. The proposed model is also known as DENS-ECG model. Using 5-fold cross-validation, this model is trained and evaluated on a dataset of 105 ECGs with a length of 15 min each. It attains an average sensitivity and accuracy of 97.95 and 95.68%, respectively. In addition, the method is calibrated on an unknown dataset to assess how robust it is at detecting QRS with a sensitivity of 99.61% and accuracy of 99.52%. This model illustrates the combined CNN-LSTM model’s adaptability and accuracy in delineating ECG signals. The accuracy of the proposed DENS-ECG model in recognizing ECG waveforms leaves the door open for cardiologists to apply this algorithm in-house to evaluate ECG recordings and diagnose cardiac arrhythmias. This model is provided in Figure 6.
Flowchart of the proposed DENS-ECG model [
In Figure 6, noise reduction refers to the filtering of the ECG signals to reduce noise and remove baseline wanders. In the segmentation, the ECG signals are divided into 1000-sample chunks and sent into the model as input. Then the segmented ECG signals are split into two sets to separate the testing set from a non-testing set. This model used a 5-fold cross-validation technique to provide a more trustworthy performance in terms of interpretability. The model consists of eight layers, including an input layer, three 1D convolution layers, two BiLSTM layers, and a dropout layer. And the Adam optimization algorithm is used to validate the algorithm, which is radically different from the steepest gradient descent (SGD) optimization technique and achieved higher performance on the validation. The trained model is tested on 26 unseen test records from the QTDB dataset to assess the classifier’s performance. Furthermore, the model is evaluated for QRS detection on the unexplored MITDB dataset.
Jambukia et al. [34] represented an overview of ECG classification into arrhythmia categories and stated that classification of electrocardiogram (ECG) signals plays a crucial role in the monitoring heart diseases as early and precise diagnosis of arrhythmia types is essential for monitoring cardiac disorders and selecting the best treatment option for a patient. The survey outlines the challenges of ECG classification and provides a comprehensive overview of preprocessing approaches, ECG databases, feature extraction techniques, ANN-based classifiers, and performance measures for evaluating the classifiers’ accuracy. According to the survey, many researchers have worked on ECG signal classification. They have used different pre-processing techniques, various feature extraction techniques, and classifiers. For ECG categorization, the majority of the researchers used the MIT-BIH arrhythmia database. A. Dallali et al. used DWT to extract the RR interval and then used Z score to normalize it. They classified ECG beats using FCM. They achieved a 99.05% accuracy rate. RR interval and R point position are two characteristics retrieved using DWT. FCM was used for pre-classification, while 3-layer MLPNN was used for final classification. They were able to reach a 99.99% accuracy rate.
Saadatnejad et al. [35] proposed an ECG classification model, which was suggested for continuous cardiac detection on wearable devices with limited processing resources. This model is demonstrated in Figure 7 in detail. The model works in such a way that the incoming computerized ECG data were first split into heartbeats and their RR interval while wavelet characteristics were extracted. The ECG signal as well as the extracted characteristics were then put into two RNN-based models that categorized every heartbeat. After that, the two outputs were combined to create the final categorization for every pulse. The suggested method fits the temporal criteria for continuous and real-time execution on wearable devices. Unlike many compute-intensive deep-learning-based techniques, the proposed methodology is accurate and lightweight, allowing wearable devices to have continuous monitoring with accurate LSTM-based ECG categorization having negligible computing expenses while running indefinitely on wearable devices with modest processing capability.
The proposed algorithm of LSTM-based ECG classification model [
Ribeiro et al. [36] had proposed an end-to-end DNN competent of accurately identifying six ECG abnormalities in S12L-ECG examinations, with diagnostic performance comparable to that of medical residents and students. This DNN model trained on data from the Clinical Outcomes in Digital Electrocardiology research which included over 2 million labeled tests analyzed by the Telehealth Network of Minas Gerais. The DNN surpassed cardiology resident medical practitioners in detecting six different types of abnormalities in 12-lead ECG recordings with F1 scores over 80% and specificity exceeding 95%. These results suggest that DNN-based ECG analysis, which was previously tested in a single-lead scenario, generalizes well to 12-lead examinations, bringing the technology closer to practical use. This model has the potential to lead to more accurate automated diagnosis and better clinical practice. Even professional assessment of complex and borderline cases appears to be essential in this future scenario, the implementation of such automatic interpretation by a DNN algorithm may increase the population’s access to this fundamental and valuable diagnostic test. Figure 8 shows the deep learning model used in this work.
The DNN architecture used for ECG classification [
In Figure 8, the Conv, BN, and dense imply the convolution, batch normalization, and the fully connected layers whereas the ReLU and
Figure 9a and b demonstrate the DENS-ECG model’s confusion matrices for the 5-fold CV and test set, respectively. The no wave class has the majority of incorrect cases in all three classes which are P-wave, QRS, and T-wave or it can be said that the model does not make significant errors in classifying the three major classes (P-wave, QRS, and T-wave). The minimal discrepancy between the 5-fold CV and test outcomes indicates that the model has been effectively trained and does not have an overfitting problem.
Confusion matrix [
As demonstrated in Figure 10 the performance plot, the DENS-ECG model performs similarly to other models in QRS detection with 99.61% of sensitivity and 99.52% of precision. The wavelet-based model proposed by Martinez et al. has the best performance in terms of sensitivity and accuracy of 99.8 and 99.86%, respectively followed by Kim and Shin’s proposed model. The postulated DENS-ECG model performed similarly to the well-known Pan and Tompkins’s QRS detection model but it outperformed the QRS detection methods proposed by Poll et al.
Comparison of DENS-ECG and various deep model architectures’ classification performance on the test set [
In [35], the classification ECG signals from heartbeat were classified into both 7 and 5 arrhythmia classes, respectively. For 5-classification problems, the heartbeats are divided into five categories by the Association for Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI). normal (N), supraventricular (S) ectopic, ventricular (V) ectopic, fusion (F), and unknown (Q) beats are the four types of an ectopic heartbeat. Further, the class N is divided into three more classes in the 7-classification to improve resolution by isolating the two conduction anomalies known as left bundle branch block (L) and right bundle branch block (R). Figure 11 represent the confusion matrix of 7 and 5-class classification problem, respectively where the former model is capable of effectively distinguishing L and R from N.
Confusion matrix [
As shown in Figure 12, Ribeiro et al. [36] has compared DNN’s performance indexes to the average performance of 4th-year cardiology residents, 3rd-year emergency residents, and 5th-year medical students. The performance of the DNN on the test set is demonstrated in the above accuracy plot. The above-shown figure shows that the performance of DNN which exceeds human performance. In most cases, the accuracy of DNN on the data set is more than 95%.
Comparison of performance indexes of DNN and the average performance of cardiology students on the test set [
Finally, the work of Jambukia et al. [34] presents a survey on the performance of various works present in the literature which are based on ECG signal categorization utilizing different pre-processing approaches, feature extraction techniques, and classifiers. Figure 13 presents the plot of the accuracy of different ECG classification techniques which have used the MIT-BIH arrhythmia database over time.
Comparison of the accuracy of the different ECG classification techniques [
Health issues in the human race are increasing day by day and cardiac issues are one of the most common diseases which has been noticed in the past few decades. Therefore, many technologies have been introduced and CAD is the most emerging technology to diagnose cardiac issues or solve heart-related diseases. Furthermore, deep learning has played an important role in the area of computer-aided diagnosis (CAD). From the above discussion, it can be observed that various algorithms or methods have performed pretty well in the field of cardiovascular disease detection. This indicates that deep learning in cardiac signal processing has an unbounded scope in the research field for enhancing CAD and getting more accurate and cost-effective and fast output.
The authors declare no conflict of interest or delete this entire section.
ECG | electrocardiogram |
CVD | cardiovascular disease |
AI | artificial intelligence |
ICD | International Classification of Diseases |
CAD | computer-aided design |
CT | computed tomography |
CHF | congestive heart failure |
ANN | artificial neural network |
CNN | convolutional neural network |
RNN | recurrent neural network |
LSTM | long short-term memory |
BI-LSTM | bi-directional long short-term memory |
DNN | deep neural networks |
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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This chapter will discuss an innovation in seaweed cultivation of the genus Eucheuma, which is the prime marine commodity in the tropical regions of the world. Research conducted during 2015-2017 and 2019 in Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia, provided an overview of the use of floating cage that showed very significant growth results. The research result showed that the growth rates of Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii in floating cage seemed faster and resulted in better thallus morphology. Daily production of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii that were cultivated in floating cage was higher than daily production of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated on longline. Specific growth rate (SGR) of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated by using floating cage method was also higher than E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated by using longline method. Moreover, the cultivation by using floating cages produces good growth rates with no effect of herbivore attacks.",book:{id:"8928",slug:"emerging-technologies-environment-and-research-for-sustainable-aquaculture",title:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture"},signatures:"Ma’ruf Kasim, Abdul Muis Balubi, Ahmad Mustafa, Rahman Nurdin, Rahmad Sofyan Patadjai and Wardha Jalil",authors:[{id:"309893",title:"Prof.",name:"Maruf",middleName:null,surname:"Kasim",slug:"maruf-kasim",fullName:"Maruf Kasim"},{id:"313040",title:"MSc.",name:"Abdul Muis",middleName:null,surname:"Balubi",slug:"abdul-muis-balubi",fullName:"Abdul Muis Balubi"},{id:"313041",title:"MSc.",name:"Wardha",middleName:null,surname:"Jalil",slug:"wardha-jalil",fullName:"Wardha Jalil"},{id:"313042",title:"MSc.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Mustafa",slug:"ahmad-mustafa",fullName:"Ahmad Mustafa"},{id:"313043",title:"MSc.",name:"Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Nurdin",slug:"rahman-nurdin",fullName:"Rahman Nurdin"},{id:"313044",title:"MSc.",name:"Rahmat Sofyan",middleName:null,surname:"Patadjai",slug:"rahmat-sofyan-patadjai",fullName:"Rahmat Sofyan Patadjai"}]},{id:"62842",title:"Integrated Rice and Aquaculture Farming",slug:"integrated-rice-and-aquaculture-farming",totalDownloads:1889,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The burning problems like scarcity of food for ever-growing human population in the present world are addressed by adapting various methods for production of protein, carbohydrate, oils and other food materials. One of the methods to produce high amount of food is integrated farming including rice-aquaculture farming, which produces protein and carbohydrate as major components besides others. Rice-aquaculture farming produces grain (carbohydrate) and animal protein without affecting the quality and quantity of rice yield on the same piece of land and renders additional financial gain besides main crop (rice) like conventional monoculture. The aquatic species grown in the integrated culture are mainly distinct types of fishes, selected crustaceans and other selected species. Profitable rice-aquaculture integrated farming is popular in Asian countries than in Western countries. However, the integrated rice-aquaculture farming has its own limitations. The type of methods, culture species, influencing factors, and pros and cons of rice-aquaculture integrated farming are discussed in the present chapter.",book:{id:"7229",slug:"aquaculture-plants-and-invertebrates",title:"Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Aquaculture - Plants and Invertebrates"},signatures:"Pamuru Ramachandra Reddy and Battina Kishori",authors:[{id:"242524",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramachandra Reddy",middleName:null,surname:"Pamuru",slug:"ramachandra-reddy-pamuru",fullName:"Ramachandra Reddy Pamuru"},{id:"255022",title:"Dr.",name:"Kishori",middleName:null,surname:"Battina",slug:"kishori-battina",fullName:"Kishori Battina"}]},{id:"24074",title:"Embryonic and Larval Development of Freshwater Fish",slug:"embryonic-and-larval-development-of-freshwater-fish",totalDownloads:7448,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"612",slug:"recent-advances-in-fish-farms",title:"Recent Advances in Fish Farms",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Fish Farms"},signatures:"Faruk Aral, Erdinç Şahınöz and Zafer Doğu",authors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"},{id:"29132",title:"Dr.",name:"Zafer",middleName:null,surname:"Dogu",slug:"zafer-dogu",fullName:"Zafer Dogu"},{id:"39952",title:"Dr.",name:"Erdinc",middleName:null,surname:"Sahinoz",slug:"erdinc-sahinoz",fullName:"Erdinc Sahinoz"}]},{id:"68966",title:"Novel Biofloc Technology (BFT) for Ammonia Assimilation and Reuse in Aquaculture In Situ",slug:"novel-biofloc-technology-bft-for-ammonia-assimilation-and-reuse-in-aquaculture-in-situ",totalDownloads:1926,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Ammonia is one of the most harmful risks for success of fish and shrimp culture. There is no effective solution for harmlessness of ammonia in traditional aquaculture operations except exchanging water, which would bring negative effects on environment, or fixing expensive equipment. Biofloc technology (BFT) that appeared in recent years supplies a novel solution for this issue without exchanging huge water and fixing equipment. This technology could assimilate ammonia almost in real time with many other supplemental benefits. Because of the very high nutritional value for fish and shrimp, bioflocs, the by-product of BFT, could also be reused as a complemented food in situ or a gradient for feedstuff to replace expensive fishmeal or be processed to pellet diet to feed fish and shrimp directly. However, some aspects with regard to the effective use of biofloc as a food source for fish and shrimp, such as high lipid content, productivity, and palatability, need to be further researched in detail.",book:{id:"8928",slug:"emerging-technologies-environment-and-research-for-sustainable-aquaculture",title:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture"},signatures:"Hai-Hong Huang",authors:[{id:"305215",title:"Dr.",name:"Hai-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"hai-hong-huang",fullName:"Hai-Hong Huang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"32",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:6,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. 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Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, México. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 270 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 4 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"428313",title:"Dr.",name:"Sambangi",middleName:null,surname:"Pratyusha",slug:"sambangi-pratyusha",fullName:"Sambangi Pratyusha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"CGIAR",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"15",type:"subseries",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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