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1. Introduction
The key phrase used at the World Economic Forum (WEF)1 was the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Klaus Schwab, founder of the WEF, argued that the Fourth Industrial Revolution has already arrived. He argued that the pace, scope, and influence of social changes that follow the Fourth Industrial Revolution will be entirely different from previous revolutions.
The Fourth Industrial Revolution, or 4IR, refers to the oncoming revolutionary era in which information and communication technology (ICT) will converge. The revolution will spark new technological innovations in six areas: artificial intelligence, robotics, Internet of things (IoT), unmanned vehicles, three-dimensional printing, and nanotechnology. The 4IR will include a variety of new technologies that use big data to incorporate the physical, biological, and digital worlds in a way that will affect all sectors of life.
One example of the 4IR is online to offline, or O2O, which integrates the physical and digital worlds. O2O can use smart watches that obtain real-time information from patients and confer it to integrated computer data. Other examples of the 4IR include virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR).
4IR technologies have the potential to connect billions on the web, dramatically improve business organizational efficiency, and improve the natural environment through improved asset management.
The 4IR will become a new innovative division of life that will replace human intelligence and wisdom, combining artificial intelligence with robotic technology as a substitute for labor.
General Electric (GE) is a typical example of the 4IR occurring in the present. GE, originally a lighting company, has merged into the domains of electrical equipment, televisions, computers, home appliances, generators, and even medical equipment and aircraft engines. Already successful in previous fields, GE is now the top aerospace manufacturer as well.
Adopting the concept of the 4IR, GE created a new revenue model that surpassed the sales of all other aircraft engine manufacturers. Mounting sensors on aircraft engines was their key to success. The in-flight sensors connect to ground data centers and send more than 300 different values of real-time information to and from the aircraft. Data sent includes engine conditions, weather conditions, and fuel efficiency. These transmissions allow the ground centers to analyze the data and return an optimized flight path to the aircraft in real time, reducing fuel usage and saving an estimated two billion dollars per year. In addition, the sensors monitor the safety status of the aircraft in real time, anticipating abnormal conditions and dramatically reducing accidents and inspection costs, allowing airlines to improve security as well as operational safety.
The 4IR is developing in every sector of life, not only in telecommunications, automobiles, energy, manufacturing services, security, and bioenergy but also in the fields of medicine and robotics. The 4IR is now being commercialized in a variety of endeavors, including the Google Car, Amazon’s Drone Delivery system, and Dr. Watson: an AI doctor. One of the ways in which the 4IR is expected to approach new problems is in the field of agriculture.
National policies related to the 4IR, based on global trends, are being implemented across the planet. The following chapter foretells changes coming to agriculture and preparations required in the field of science and technology in regard to the 4IR.
2. The Fourth Industrial Revolution and agriculture
Over 200 years ago, more than 90% of Earth’s population was engaged in agriculture, but now more than 80% of the populations of OECD major countries are engaged in the service industry. The population engaged in agriculture, at present, is merely 2–3%. Not only has the population involved in agriculture been reduced, in most developed countries, the age of individuals in farming households is increasing as well. In the Republic of Korea, more than 50% of the population of farm households is over 60 years old, and over 40% is over 65. The population of workers around the globe has shifted from agriculture to manufacturing and manufacturing service industries. Thus, in the current world economy, only 5 % of the world’s population works in agriculture, yet it accounts for more than 60% of the world’s business [2].
Accepting this reality, developed countries such as the USA and Japan are trying to solve agricultural issues through mechanization, automation, and modernization. The 4IR will serve as the opportune time to accelerate the scale and commercialization of agriculture.
In response to this trend, future agriculture is expected to evolve into high-tech industries where systems are coupled with artificial intelligence2 and big data3. The systems will converge into a single unit in which farm machinery, seeding the soil, farm management, production forecasting, and irrigation are combined. Using the core technology of the 4IR, robots, big data, and AI will combine with agriculture to create a new era of superfusion. The era will evolve multifaceted economic, social, and ethical values fused with various industries and expressed in business models [3].
There are three means by which the 4IR will have a major impact on the agricultural sector. First, precise optimization will solve many current problems in agriculture. Agriculture is a representative industry in which inputs and outputs are inconsistent. In terms of worldwide food production, enough food is produced for the entire population, yet 30–50% of produced food is discarded, while many die of starvation. About 80% of the water on the planet is used for agriculture, yet only 20% of viable crop is grown, and the remaining unused surplus is discarded. In the UK, the use of nitrogen fertilizer resulted in blue disease. Each of these problems can be solved via precision agriculture. Precision agriculture,4 a method by which growth and soil conditions are calculated in order to accurately manage crops, can solve the problem by constructing an optimized agricultural system that connects production, distribution, and consumption.
Second, the reversion of rural production elements, including human resources, will have a major impact on agriculture. Capital, labor, and technological resources that left farming villages in previous generations are likely to return during the 4IR. This is because the workforce of cities will find that rural areas provide the only labor that gives time for rest and relaxation.
Third, 4IR technologies will have a significant impact on weather-related problems. Agriculture is heavily affected by the weather, and currently science has no means by which to accurately predict and control it. Hence, we say that we are fellow farmers with God. For this reason, farming is highly dependent on intelligence and wisdom, including human experience, and thus it is difficult to standardize. 4IR technology can make decisions that surpass human wisdom and experience. It will solve certain problems that cannot be solved with current technology, such as livestock odors, the cost of too much processing, and the likelihood of pest occurrence due to climate change. So, the 4IR can be seen as an “agro-friendly” revolution, unlike our current revolution. At the same time, it will lead to greater technological innovations and far-reaching changes throughout the economy, society, and life.
3. The Fourth Industrial Revolution and changes in agriculture
The agriculturally friendly Fourth Industrial Revolution will expand the scope of agriculture in various fields, such as culture, welfare, and healing in production-oriented agriculture. As shown in Figure 1, the 4IR will lead to a greater amount of communal and independent cultivation through cultural activities, such as combining agriculture with games and leisure, human welfare agriculture in the age of aging, and agricultural activities with plants and animals [4].
Figure 1.
Illustration of the future agriculture with the Fourth Industrial Revolution (source: Fourth Industrial Revolution and Agriculture, Korea institute of planning and evaluation for technology in food, agriculture and forestry, 2016) [4].
The expansion of agriculture through the 4IR is expected to vary greatly in the fields of production, distribution, and consumption.
3.1. Production of agricultural products
Changes in agricultural production in the 4IR will occur primarily in agricultural facilities with smart farming technology. In capable facilities, controlling the growth environment will add to the value of agricultural products. In Korea, three stages must be completed in order to promote smart farms in agricultural facilities. The first stage, completed prior to 2017, is the convenience improvement stage. In this stage, facilities were upgraded to allow farmers to check the growth status of agriculture via mobile devices. Thus, farmers do not need to travel to farms for menial tasks such as temperature control. The second stage, which is expected to be completed by 2020, is productivity improvement. In this stage, profits are increased through precise control and optimal prescription of agriculture. The third stage is the completion stage, in which all of the facility conditions are automated according to the growth conditions of the crop based upon the crop’s growth model. The Korea Rural Development Administration provides a platform5 for testing various sensors and technologies in smart farms, in order to help farmers quickly and efficiently move through the three stages.
As shown in Figure 2, the 4IR will also make a big difference in open-field agriculture. There are three stages in which this technology can be used: monitoring the area for crop growth, analyzing data in the decision-making stage, and carrying out variable rate application using smart farm machinery.
Figure 2.
The Fourth Industrial Revolution and changes in agricultural production [2].
Monitoring the area for crop growth conditions includes not only the health status of crops but also climatic information, environmental information, and growth information, and it is rapidly developing in both large-scale extensive agriculture,6 as in the USA, and intensive agriculture,7 as in Korea. It is possible to maximize production volume and minimize the possibility of failure due to natural disasters, system errors, and other factors by acquiring data on growth, the weather, and agricultural equipment.
Analyzing data in the decision-making stage involves analyzing data from the monitoring stage and determining agricultural work required. In this stage, collected data is accumulated, processed, and analyzed as big data. Then, efficient and precise decisions about the data are made in a way that surpasses human intelligence, wisdom, and experience.
Furthermore, it is possible to collect environmental data on cultivation through an agricultural service platform using big data. The information can be used to evaluate market sale trends according to market preference analysis, and then the data (the cultivation environment, pest information, climate and weather information, soil fertility, topographical relevance, etc.) can be fed back to farmers to optimize production environments. In recent years, big data and artificial intelligence have been used to greatly expand the fields of genetic engineering with respect to agriculture and livestock. Within the premise of resolving laws, regulations, and ethical issues, it will be possible to cultivate edible crops and biota crops that grow in extreme climates or droughts. It will also be possible to transform animals’ genes in order to make them more economical and suitable for local environments.
Variable Rate Application8 using smart farm machinery is the third stage of this process. In the previous stage, the optimal decision was chosen for each location. In this stage, it is necessary to input the prescribed farm material suitable for the location. In extensive agriculture, several tractors will be able to accomplish the same tasks (i.e., herbicide spraying) at different positions (i.e., variable rate application) by following certain intervals.
At night, when the farmer is asleep, a robot could be guided via FPS and electronic maps, enter the field, finish any necessary agricultural work, and return to the house before down. This dream will be a reality in the near future. It will be brought on by the Fourth Industrial Revolution.
3.2. Agricultural product distribution
Agricultural distribution is another field in which 4IR technologies will cause innovations. In each previous industrial revolution, the consumption pattern of agricultural products changed greatly. Prior to the First Industrial Revolution, 90% of the world’s population was engaged in agriculture, so the distinction between producer and consumer was unclear. The First Industrial Revolution was an era of self-sufficiency in which the producers soon became the consumers. Raw materials were quickly consumed, and only very little raw materials were processed.
Through the Second Industrial Revolution, surplus products began to emerge so processing and storage technologies were developed. During this period, the agricultural production population shifted to manufacturing and service industries. The separation between rural producers and urban consumers became clear, thus increasing the necessity and importance of distribution.
During the Tertiary Industrial Revolution, the surplus product increased, and the central value of consumption moved from quantity to quality. Thanks to the increasing number of consumers, selective consumption has become more prevalent, and distribution functions have become more important.
The introduction of a customized agricultural product ordering system that takes into consideration the aging population and the expansion of single-person households in the agriculture and rural areas, including the control of shipment volume through the big data and the consumer’s dietary style, suggests that the Fourth Industrial Revolution could revolutionize agricultural distribution.
Information such as the prices of agricultural production, crops, and distribution include the basic data necessary to manage supply and demand. By applying 4IR technology, comprehensive data, including agricultural production, climate information, population structure, and consumer data, are analyzed comprehensively. In this way, it is possible to produce customized products to optimize supply and demand autonomously. At the same time, the government can adjust timing and output in order to stabilize prices.
3.3. Agricultural consumption
During the Fourth Industrial Revolution, consumption is expected to be once again distinguished from previous revolutions. When consumer and producer information are linked in real time, it will be common to choose that best match both. 4IR technologies will also provide trade information through cyber and mobile production history and quality information. AI linked with big data will be able to stabilize transactions by connecting production information and transaction information.
For example, intelligent refrigerators will be able to automatically refresh its stocks in real time, based upon consumption. A refrigerator like this could also be linked to a system that manages family nutrition and health information. It could even cook food for family members based upon the nutritional needs of the individuals in the family.
Furthermore, 3D printing will allow people to be individually and creatively involved in the self-production of food, farm materials, agricultural machinery parts, and tools. Three-dimensional printers can even be used to make healthy functional foods for children and the elderly, including soft processed food that are easy to chew.
3.4. Influence on the rural environment and rural life
The Fourth Industrial Revolution will change production, distribution, and consumption as well as the rural environment and rural life.
At the same time, it will continue to develop agricultural systems by overcoming difficult problems that have yet to be solved by existing technology. It is expected that these techniques will be applied to actual farming sites, so they will require preparation and time for rooting.
4IR technologies can expand the agricultural industry diversely, from simple production-oriented agriculture to urban agriculture, healing agriculture, material agriculture, and industrial convergence. Examples of this include IoT, CPS9, cloud-based agriculture experience and tourism materialization, aged farmer health information using wearable IoT, rehabilitation applied to animal and plant healing models, IoT and cloud, and urban agriculture using mobile technology. In addition, 4IR technologies are expected to find solutions to ongoing problems and malignant diseases that cannot be solved with existing technologies, such as animal odor, avian influenza, and foot-and-mouth disease. Above all, the 4IR will create new jobs by combining diverse technologies such as industrial convergence and hybrid technology. In addition, major changes will occur in risk management, bio-industrialization, and unmanned intelligence.
4. Preparing for the Fourth Industrial Revolution
In the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, new technologies and new businesses that cannot be defined by existing laws and systems will be developed. The positive regulation method of controlling gene expressions in gene therapy is currently illegal. In order to use positive regulation, businesses waiting to use new technologies and services will have to wait for laws to be enacted, which allow the use of positive regulation.
In order for the 4IR to be rooted in agriculture, it is necessary to promote the safety of agricultural work and rural life and to create a convenient environment for cyber technology and cloud infrastructures. This will prevent medical and cultural inconveniences in rural areas.
Wearable IoT and mobile devices are concrete methods in which we can implement agricultural work safety, cyber physics systems (CPS), remote medical, cyber cultural life, and aged farmer’s life safety and health information big dataization.
4.1. Agricultural robots
A robot is a machine that moves independently, imitates humans, recognizes the external environment, and makes independent judgments about how to handle different situations. Agricultural robots will operate in every area of the agricultural process, including production, processing, distribution, and consumption. They will recognize the service environment and autonomously provide intelligent work or services. Agricultural robots can be defined as “intelligent agricultural production systems that can minimize human intervention, control themselves, and maximize efficiency.” Traditional farming machines and unmanned aerial vehicles can be utilized by robots in the fields of agricultural product selection, automated distribution systems, facility horticulture, and automated livestock care.
Robot usage can be divided into three fields, depending on where they are used. These fields include open-field agriculture robots, facility agriculture robots, and livestock robots. These fields will aim to improve productivity through automation, unmanned farming, and the promotion of eco-friendly farming.
The global robot market10 is expected to grow at a CAGR11 of 17% from $ 71 billion in 2015 to $ 135.4 billion in 2019. The robotics market for agriculture and fisheries12 is estimated to be $ 900 million in 2013 and is expected to increase rapidly to $ 19.1 billion by 2020. The target is expected to be a weed control and harvesting robot (see Table 1) [4].
Division
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Agricultural robot market
956
1386
2329
4634
8110
11,760
15,288
19,109
Growth rate (%)
34
45
68
99
75
45
30
25
Milking and livestock facilities
879
1203
1615
1918
2004
1735
1798
1611
High value-added crop
29
55
116
275
568
941
1376
1911
Cereal crops such as wheat, rice, corn, etc.
11
28
186
695
2109
2940
3669
4395
Grape pruning and harvesting
6
6
137
941
1272
1570
1413
969
Seedling management
14
42
116
292
616
1047
1682
2389
Grass management (lawn care)
14
43
140
371
811
1411
2410
3058
Unmanned aerial management
3
7
19
139
730
2117
3210
4777
Table 1.
The global robot market scale in agriculture and fisheries (Unit: million $).
(Source: World Robotics 2012. IFR).
4.2. Precision agriculture
Environmental problems continue to plague the Earth, yet the production of safe agricultural products is emerging. Interest in precision agriculture is increasing, in order to minimize environmental pollution and maximize the production of agricultural products. Scientists as well as those involved in agriculture are showing interest in this research. In fact, many are interested in precision agriculture because it does not belong to any one field; all fields contribute in a joint effort to solve the problems facing precision agriculture. Breakthroughs in agricultural machinery are of utmost importance; thus emphasis is being placed on engineering in the field. As the world’s population continues to increase, there is an urgent need for an increase in food production. This need is hindered by industrial pollution and difficulty producing safe agricultural products due to harmful pesticides and fertilizers. Precision agriculture has emerged as a solution to this need, as it can increase the production of agricultural products while reducing the amount of harmful chemicals applied to the environment. Every crop field has different characteristics that can be measured in quality and quantity. Some examples of these characteristics include soil, nutrients, flow of irrigation water, and pest resistance. These differentiations of characteristics can all exist within a single crop field, so we have found that if we understand the different characteristics of each part of a field, and if site-specific processing is done for each location, the most profit from the least investment can be achieved. Therefore, precision agriculture follows the concept of variable rate agriculture. Yet it is prescription agriculture as well, as optimal profit is obtained based on past information. It has the ability to regulate future field conditions and yield through site-specific management. Precision agriculture is a concept that meets the needs of an advanced society that requires environmental preservation.
As shown in Figure 3, the concept of precision agriculture is one in which agriculture work is not actually made more precise, but instead the agricultural system as a whole moves from a statistical approach to a quantitative approach. Therefore, it is not an exaggeration to say that the scope of precision agriculture is the entire agricultural system. As a system of agriculture, three divisions of technology must be utilized in order to fully develop precision agriculture.
Figure 3.
Crop production environment through biometrics and artificial intelligence (source: Convergence of agriculture R&D and Fourth Industrial Revolution, 28p) [5].
The first division is the acquisition of information related to the environment where crops will be grown, such as crop growth status, soil fertility, and climate by location. The means of obtaining such information is via sensors placed at each location, which can monitor different conditions including the yield of crops, moisture content of the soil, soil nutrients, moisture stress, and the occurrence of pests or weeds. These sensors do not collect information to be later analyzed in a laboratory; they are capable of instantly processing and storing information in real time.
The second division is the distribution of necessary, measured agricultural material into the crops. Based upon outcomes determined in decision-making and crop management, machinery will release seeds, nutrients, and chemicals to the crops.
The third division is the processing of computerized geographical information and databases along with the farmers’ prescribed inputs in order to drive the control systems of various farm machineries. Even if the first two divisions are well developed, it is difficult to carry out precision agriculture if the third decision-making process is lacking (see Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Artificial intelligence autonomous driving and unmanned agricultural farm machinery (source: Convergence of agriculture R&D and Fourth Industrial Revolution, 37p) [5].
As one sector of agriculture changes and one farmer’s agriculture becomes technologically advanced in this way, it does not mean that precision agriculture has been established. That is, precision agriculture does not change farm by farm. Precision agriculture is not a word referring to a single technology, but an overall concept of new changes in agriculture.
5. Conclusion
Just as the first, second, and third industrial revolutions did, the emergence of new technologies achieved via revolution always begins with the destruction of an existing order. Breaking the existing order creates a gap in which opportunities can emerge. The Fourth Industrial Revolution technology presents a chance to increase agricultural competitiveness and an opportunity to overcome the structural weaknesses of our current agricultural system and the limits of intensive agriculture. There are three steps that we must take in order to lead the change.
First, we must analyze the impact of the 4IR on our agricultural ecosystem. It is necessary to analyze the impacts on all fronts of agriculture, the effects on rural and agricultural life, and the effects on agricultural structure and work.
Second, we must consider data management and its effects. In the future, data will be a resource, and data quality will be competitive. Data should be standardized so that quality agricultural data can be continuously produced and managed.
Third, we must facilitate the construction of an infrastructure that supports technology-based agriculture. The fifth-generation (5G) communication network, the Internet network infrastructure, and the Cloud Service System must maintain support for these technologies in order to allow them to integrate easily into the agricultural industry.
If research and development supports the fusion between heterogeneous technologies and heterogeneous industries and the agricultural industrial ecosystem allows creative talents to freely exercise their capabilities, the Fourth Industrial Revolution can occur. In this way, agricultural technology will grow to new heights and leap to new opportunities.
\n',keywords:"Fourth Industrial Revolution, precision agriculture, sensing",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/57703.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/57703.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57703",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57703",totalDownloads:3021,totalViews:1702,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:20,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:6,impactScorePercentile:94,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 2nd 2017",dateReviewed:"October 10th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 14th 2018",dateFinished:"November 17th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The Fourth Industrial Revolution will see the convergence of artificial intelligence and data technology as a new solution to address industrial and social problems across the globe, by integrating cyber and physical fields. The Fourth Industrial Revolution will send a ripple effect of far-reaching repercussions throughout the labor-intensive field of agriculture. Combining artificial intelligence and big data will evolve into a high-tech industry that operates itself. These technologies allow for precision agriculture, such as yield monitoring, diagnosing insect pests, measuring soil moisture, diagnosing harvest time, and monitoring crop health status. In particular, the Internet of things (IoT) will measure the temperature, humidity, and amount of sunlight in production farms, making it possible for remote control via mobile devices. It will not only boost the production of the farms but also add to their value.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/57703",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/57703",book:{id:"6265",slug:"automation-in-agriculture-securing-food-supplies-for-future-generations"},signatures:"Jehoon Sung",authors:[{id:"210240",title:"Dr.",name:"Jehoon",middleName:null,surname:"Sung",fullName:"Jehoon Sung",slug:"jehoon-sung",email:"jhsung@korea.kr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The Fourth Industrial Revolution and agriculture",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The Fourth Industrial Revolution and changes in agriculture",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Production of agricultural products",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Agricultural product distribution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Agricultural consumption",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4. Influence on the rural environment and rural life",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Preparing for the Fourth Industrial Revolution",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1. Agricultural robots",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2. Precision agriculture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'[Internet]. Available from: www.wikipedia.org [Accessed: July 13, 2017]'},{id:"B2",body:'Lee JR. The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Future Agriculture. Rep. of Korea: Science and Technology Policy Institute; 2017; 200 ed'},{id:"B3",body:'Lee HJ. The Fourth Industrial Revolution and the Future of Agriculture. Smart Farm and Shared Economy. Rep. of Korea: Science and Technology Policy Institute; 2017; 200 ed'},{id:"B4",body:'The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Agriculture. Rep. of Korea: Korea Institute of Planning and Evaluation for Technology in Food, Agriculture and Forestry; 2016'},{id:"B5",body:'Lee YB, editor. Convergence of agriculture R&D and 4th Industrial Revolution. 1st ed. Jeonju, Rep. of Korea: SY Ra; 2017. 117 p'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"The World Economic Forum, better known as the Davos Forum, is a Swiss nonprofit foundation, based in Cologny, Geneva. Recognized by the Swiss authorities as an international body, its mission is cited as “committed to improving the state of the world by engaging business, political, academic, and other leaders of society to shape global, regional, and industry agendas.” The Forum is best known for its annual meeting at the end of January in Davos, a mountain resort in Graubünden, in the eastern Alps region of Switzerland (from Wikipedia, accessed July 30, 2017) [1]."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence exhibited by machines. In computer science, the field of AI research defines itself as the study of “intelligent agents”: any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of success at some goal. Colloquially, the term “artificial intelligence” is applied when a machine mimics “cognitive” functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as “learning” and “problem solving.” As machines become increasingly capable, mental facilities once thought to require intelligence are removed from the definition (from Wikipedia, accessed 30-07-2017)."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"Big data is a term for data sets that are so large or complex that traditional data processing application software is inadequate to deal with them. Big data challenges include capturing data, data storage, data analysis, search, sharing, transfer, visualization, querying, updating, and information privacy. Lately, the term “big data” tends to refer to the use of predictive analytics, user behavior analytics, or certain other advanced data analytics methods that extract value from data and seldom to a particular size of data set (from Wikipedia, accessed 30-07-2017)."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"Precision agriculture (PA) or satellite farming or site-specific crop management (SSCM) or precision agriculture is a farming management concept based on observing, measuring, and responding to inter and intra-field variability in crops. The goal of precision agriculture research is to define a decision support system (DSS) for whole farm management with the goal of optimizing returns on inputs while preserving resources (from Wikipedia, accessed July 30, 2017)."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"Platform: In a dictionary sense, it means a flat place that is installed above the ground by the railway so that passengers can get on and off at the station. In the information age, the meaning is expanded to mean the hardware or software on which the computer system is based and the computer system that forms the basis on which the application program can be executed. In the first connection society like the Fourth Industrial Revolution, it is a place where people and information gather to create a new business. This is where the needs of suppliers and producers are exchanged, so that as more people participate, network effects occur and maximize value (e.g., Facebook, users communicate with their acquaintances, and providers connect with their ads)."},{id:"fn6",explanation:"Extensive agriculture: used in relative terms with intensive agriculture. Use pesticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc. to reduce labor and capital inputs, and use machines in sowing, cultivating, and harvesting. Because yields are small per unit area, large crops are needed to earn revenue."},{id:"fn7",explanation:"Intensive agriculture: used in relative terms with extensive agriculture. Agriculture that maximizes economic efficiency by appropriately using tools and machines with the input of labor and capital"},{id:"fn8",explanation:"Variable rate application (VRA): When there is a need to distribute the amount of farming material differently by location, the amount is changed mechanically. For example, when spraying herbicides, apply herbicides only in the presence of weeds, but increase the application rate in places where there are many weeds."},{id:"fn9",explanation:"Cyber-physical system (CPS): robots, medical devices, and real-time integration of software and environment in cyberspace."},{id:"fn10",explanation:"The International Data Corporation (IDC) selected six technologies that were highly likely to grow: Internet of things (IoT), cognitive (recognition) systems, next-generation security, AR-VR, robot and 3D printing, and the market for each technology (2015.10.)."},{id:"fn11",explanation:"Compound annual growth rate."},{id:"fn12",explanation:"International Federation of Robotics (IFR) 2014 Wintergreen Research report."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jehoon Sung",address:null,affiliation:'
Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea
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1. Introduction
Dyes are colored entities that are chemically attached to the matrix fiber and accumulate during the drying period, providing color through the systematic absorption of light and increasing the speed of the fiber dyeing process [1]. There are two types of dyes which are natural or organic dyes and chemically synthesized dyes. In this chapter we are going to deal with organic dyes.
1.1 Organic dye
Natural dyes are derived from natural resources and, are typically categorized as plant, animal, mineral and microbial dyes, though plants are the key sources of natural dyes [2]. Examples of natural and organic coloring dyes are blue dye which derived from plant leaves, while red dye, Madder and Morinda from roots. Brazil Wood an old-world dye comes from wood of plant. Safflower and saffron dye made from their flowers, however, rhizomes of turmeric use to make dye. On the other hand yellow dye derived from roots, leaves, stems and flowers [2]. The organic dyes are colored as they appear in the visible light spectrum (400–700 nm) comprising of one chromosphere, a conjugate framework with a dual bond alternating arrangement with a single bond and an electron resonance that stabilizes in organic compounds [3]. Based on the chemical structure and characteristics properties, dyes are classified as Azo dyes, Anthraquinone dyes, Nitro dyes, Diphenlmethane dyes, Triphenylmethane dyes, Xanthene dyes, Phthaleins dyes, Indigoid and Thionidigoid dyes [4]. These organic coloring powders are smaller, thicker, finely fragmented crystalline solids, which are water soluble, whereas they are insoluble in application media such as ink or paint for the use of optical media, image sensors [1], photosensitizer and coloration [5]. Improved color functionality has been studied in recent times by adding functional properties such as antimicrobial, UV protection, insect repellent, etc. [6]. In addition, organic coloring is a major supplier for floral, dried flowers, pesticides, ice-melt, deicing, reservoir, lake, water tracing, leak detection, greenhouse, livestock, seed treatment, crop protection, fertilizer staining, food, cosmetic and environmental issues [7]. The multitude application of organic dyes has enable to use them for coloring, detection, biosensor, tracking in the test samples. One of the best examples of tracking dye is dichlorofluorescein (DCF).
1.2 Dichlorofluoresceine (DCF)
Fluorescein based titrations shows effective results at 0.005 N concentrations of chloride and if the formulation has neutral alkaline conditions [8]. 2′,7’-Dichloro- and 2′,7′-difluorofluoresceins are superior alternatives to underivatized fluorescein. Quadrupole ion trap mass spectrometer for the analysis of the gas phase properties of three charge states of fluorescein, indicating that dianions and cations do not emit detectable fluorescence in the gas phase. Monoanions, on the other hand, do fluorescence and are useful for experiments [9]. Dichlorofluorescein (DFC) is a natural, crystalline organic, coloring agent that substitutes for chloride at 2 and 7 positions and originated in the fluorescein family. Figure 1 illustrates the molecular structure of dichlorofluorescein. The molecular weight of dichlorofluorescein (PubChem SID: 24894041) is 401.20 g/mol, a melting point of 280 °C and it is used as an indicator which is not prone to soluble, absorbs, disintegrates or infuses silver or halide ion, but changes color at the end of precipitate due to absorption phenomena [8]. It was therefore used as a quantitative agentometry titrant indicator, consisting of a known concentration of silver nitrate, to estimate the molarity of chloride in the sample as specified in the Fajans method [11].
Figure 1.
Demonstrates the molecular structure of Dichlorofluorescein with empirical formula as C20H10cl205 [10].
1.2.1 Dichlorofluorescein (DCF) applications
Organic Dichlorofluorescein (DCF) applications are even less documented, however it has demonstrated application as an indicator for halide titration argentometry, gaseous dianion studies, targeting it as a probe for imaging, heamotherapy and histological applications [8, 10, 12]. Generally, non fluorescent 2′ 7’ Dichlorodihydrofluorscein diacetate is used in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells to monitor the oxidation of 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescin-diacetate (DCF-DA) to an extremely fluorescent 2′,7′ dichlorofluorescein (DCF) compound due to the presence of reactive oxygen species using a fluorometric microplate assay [13]. And thereby, 2′,7′ dichlorofluorescein (DCF) may be very significant in the assessment of the human organ culture model. In the same way, organic dyes can be used to research the tracing of in the host body of insects, plants and animals [12]. DCF can be the reducing agent for metallic salt (iron, copper, zinc, silver, gold, etc.) for the formation of metallic nanoparticles for various agriculture applications.
1.3 Silver nitrate (AgNO3)
Silver nitrate (AgNO3) is an inorganic compound that appears to have a colorless, white crystalline composition with molecular weight of 169.873 g/mol. In its solid state, it has a density of 4.35 grams per cubic centimeter and its density in the liquid state at a temperature is 210 °C corresponds to 3.97 g/cm3. The melting and boiling points of silver nitrate are 414 °F and 824 °F respectively. In 1800s, silver nitrate was used for the treatment of ulcerations and infected wounds and stomach ulcers [14, 15]. Silver nitrate is a chemical with a wide range of applications including antiseptic, suturing, eye disease disinfectant, burned wounds, wart and granulation tissue reduction, ulceration, dental cavity retention, etc. [16]. Other noteworthy medical applications of silver include wire or coated suture topical therapy for osteocutaneous fistulae, and foil coverings for burn wounds [14]. Silver nitrate compound is a productive source of creation for many other silver compounds used for the medical, biotechnological, nanotechnological, pharmaceutical as well as several other industries. Figure 2 shows the silver nitrate molecular structure. Silver nitrate is frequently used chemical in several areas in agriculture including control growth, flowering development, dormancy and by spraying it on the growth tip of plants [17].
Figure 2.
Shows the molecular structure of silver nitrate [16].
Silver nitrate has a long use in nanotechnology for acting as a protective layer in stabilizing nanoparticles from further agglomeration. During the reduction of metal salt formation narrow size of nanoparticles are obtained. It absorbs on the surface of particle provide stabilization & diffusion barrier in the growth of particle [18]. Therefore, this silver salt are the best source for silver nanoparticles synthesis.
1.4 Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) range from 1 to 100 nm in size, which are fundamentally synthesized by physical, chemical and biological approaches. Silver nanoparticles were being used as antimicrobial agents in a wide variety of applications, which include disinfecting medical instruments and home appliances to water treatment [19]. Even though the other biological properties of silver nanoparticles such as antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and anti-angiogenesis [20] already have enabled them to be extensively used in the fields of medicine and dentistry, diagnostics, therapeutic, medical care, health and food applications [21]. The other medical applications, including wound repair, bone healing, dental applications, vaccine adjuvant, antidiabetic agent, and biosensing [22]. The techniques of synthesis of metal silver nanoparticles have certain benefits as well as drawbacks. Therefore, depending on the application, the selection of the procedure is presumed and therefore, depending upon the application the selection of the methodology is considered. A well recorded manuscript available in the literature on the physical, chemical and biological preparation of silver nanoparticles. Nanoparticles have proved to be efficient agrochemical agents in order to improve the crop productivity, reducing the pests, increasing the nutrient uptake, inhibiting the pathogens and act as ‘magic bullets’ serving as herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers etc. [23, 24]. The biological activity of AgNPs depends on factors including surface chemistry, size, size distribution, shape, particle morphology, particle composition, coating/capping, agglomeration, and dissolution rate, particle reactivity in solution, efficiency of ion release, and cell type, and the type of reducing agents used for the synthesis of AgNPs are a crucial factor for the determination of cytotoxicity [20]. The physicochemical properties of nanoparticles enhance the bioavailability of therapeutic agents after both systemic and local administration and other hand it can affect cellular uptake, biological distribution, penetration into biological barriers, and resultant therapeutic effects [20]. There are several methods for creating nanoparticles, including co precipitation, hydrothermal synthesis, inert gas condensation, ion sputtering scattering, micro emulsion, microwave, pulse laser ablation, sol–gel, sono chemical, spark discharge, template synthesis, and biological synthesis. We shall now briefly look into the methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles [25].
1.5 Synthesis of silver nanoparticles
There are large number of mrthods for bthe synthesis of silver nanoparticles. While in the present study we will discuss using microorganisms, plant extract and we proposed to use DCF for silver nanoparticles synthesis.
1.5.1 Silver nanoparticles synthesis using microorganism
There are various microorganism that have been explored for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles due to their advantage of reliable and ecofriendly process. The microorganisms used for reducing and capping the silver salts produces the various size, shape and morphology of silver nanoparticles. Novel Nocardiopsis species, Brevibac teriumfrigoritolerans strain, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas jessinii are some of the examples of micro organisms used for silver nanoparticles synthesis [26]. Besides, the production of silver nanoparticles form Bacillus clausii cultured form Enterogermina is explored [27]. The aqueous extract of cynobacterial Oscillatoria limnetica fresh biomass was used for the green synthesis of AgNPs and it takes about 30–60 hours for the reduction and stabilizing the synthesize of metallic nanoparticles that ranges from 3.30–17.97 nm in size [28].
1.5.2 Silver nanoparticles synthesis using plants
The plants part being organic and eco friendly are extensively used for synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). The plant are the hot spots for the phytochemicals and secondary metabolites that are used constantly for various medicinal purposes including antimicrobial, antifungal, anti inflammatory, wound healing, antidiabatic etc. The plant sources such as leaves, stem, roots, flowers possessing the medicinal properties are used for the formulation of silver nanoparticles which carries the specific medicinal compound to reduce and capped the silver salt and present at the outer layer of silver to make them stable [29]. Therefore, the plant based silver nanoparticles possess the duel properties from silver and one from capped compounds from plants. The different plant leaf extracts for examples pine, ginkgo, magnolia, mango, neem, oscimum scantum, are used for their extracellular synthesis of silver nanoparticles. The biological silver nanoparticles production has the faster synthesis rates than the chemical methods and potentially be used in various foods, agriculture, chemical and medical application. The aqueous peel extract of Annona squamosa has been used successfully for synthesis of silver nanoparticles of irregular spherical in shape with the average particle size of 35 nm, at room temperature [30]. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles by different plant extracts are described in Table 1. There are some of the synthesis methods that are constantly used for nanoparticles synthesis such as high temperature, pressure, sunlight condition, in autoclave [29]. In contrast, there are other publication that performed the synthesis process at room temperature.
Sr no
Plants
Size (nm)
Plant’s part
Shape
1.
Abutilon indicum
7–17
Leaves
Spherical
2.
Acalyphaindica
0.5
Leaves
—
3.
Acalyphaindica
20–30
Leaves
Spherical
4.
Acorus calamus
31.83
Rhizome
Spherical
5.
Allium sativum
4–22
Leaves
Spherical
6.
Aloe vera
50–350
Leaves
Spherical,
7.
Alternanthera dentate
50–100
Leaves
Spherical
8.
Argyreia nervosa
20–50
Seeds
—
9.
Boerhaaviadiusa
25
Whole plant
Spherical
10.
Brassica rapa
16.4
Leaves
—
11.
Calotropis procera
19–45
Plant
Spherical
12.
Carica papaya
25–50
Leaves
circular,
13.
Centellaasiatica
30–50
Leaves
Spherical
14.
Citrus sinensis
10–35
Peel
Spherical
15.
Cocciniaindica
10–20
Leaves
—
16.
Cocous nucifera
22
Inflorescence
Spherical
17.
Cymbopogancitratus
32
Leaves
—
18.
Datura metel
16–40
Leaves
Quasilinear
19.
Eclipta prostrate
35–60
Leaves
pentagons,
20.
Eucalyptus hybrid
50–150
Peel
spherical
21.
Ficuscarica
13
Leaves
—
22.
Garcinia mangostana
35
Leaves
—
23.
Melia dubia
35
Leaves
Spherical
24.
Memecylonedule
20–50
Leaves
hexagonal
25.
Moringa oleifera
57
Leaves
—
26.
Musa paradisiacal
20
Peel
—
27.
Nelumbo nucifera
25–80
Leaves
triangular
28.
Nelumbo nucifera
25–80
Leaves
triangular
29.
Passiflora foetida
—
Leaves
Coral
30.
Pistaciaatlantica
10–50
Seeds
Spherical
31.
Pogostemonbenghalensis
>80
Leaves
—
32.
Portulaca oleracea
<60
Leaves
—
33.
Premnaherbacea
10–30
Leaves
Spherical
34.
Psoraleacorylifolia
100–110
Seeds
—
35.
Swieteniamahogani
50
Leaves
—
36.
Tea extract
20–90
Leaves
Spherical
37.
Thevetia peruviana
10–30
Latex
Spherical
38.
Trachyspermumammi
87, 99.8
Seeds
—
39.
Tribulus terrestris
16–28
Fruit
Spherical
40.
Vitex negundo
5 & 10–30
Leaves
Spherical
41.
Vitis vinifera
30–40
Fruit
circular,
42.
Ziziphoratenuior
8–40
Leaves
Spherical
Table 1.
Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles by different researchers using plant extracts [31].
Diversity of compounds, polymers, exopolysaccharides, proteins, lipids and other compounds such as natural dyes could be a good source for reducing metal salts to form stable stained nanoparticles which can have various applications such as pesticides, nutrients, hormones delivery for sustainable agriculture. In the light of the above addressed interesting information on dichlorofluorescein, silver nitrate, silver nanoparticles, it is evident that silver nanoparticles have an enormous application in various fields. It was noticed that none of the papers reported the synthesis of silver nanoparticles using any dye. The direct use of dichlorofluorescein (DCF) for the reduction of silver salt can also produce silver nanoparticles and could be used for the study of absorption and biotransformation in seeds and plants. The aim of this research is therefore to conduct the synthesis and characterization of dichlorofluorescein induced dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) under boiling method to evaluate their effects on the seed germination of Vigna radiata and to propose that they would be used for real-time transformation in the living plant using confocal microscopy.
2. Materials and methods
The materials and the methodology adopted for the synthesis of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP), characterization and application are described below. Material required: Requirement specification for the formulation of silver nanoparticles utilize dichlorofluorescein, NaOH, distilled water, AgNO3 (1 mm), conical flask, beaker, aluminum foil, volumetric flask, etc. Silver nitrate (AgNO3): silver nitrate was used for the synthesis of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) and was then used with the seed germination assay. Instruments for study: The following instruments such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Zeta Potential (ZP) and Nanoparticles tracking analysis (NTA) were used for characterization of synthesized dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) [32].
2.1 Preparation of dichlorofluorescein (DCF) solution
Dichlorofluorescein (DCF) solution is prepared using 10 mg concentrate in 100 ml of distilled water. The solution is entirely blended until it becomes a greenish liquid. A 2.5 mL of the prepared dichlorofluorescein (DCF) solution was used for the preparation of 100 mL silver nanoparticles.
2.2 Synthesis of silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution
The silver nitrate solution is prepared by using 1.698 g silver nitrate powder in 100 ml of distilled water to form 100 mM concentration. From his prepared 100 ml of silver nitrate solution; 1 ml is used for preparation of 1 mM silver nitrate solution for silver nanoparticles synthesis. The complete process is performed under absence of light.
2.3 Synthesis of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles
The dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) is prepared by mixing 97.5 ml of AgNO3 (1 mm) and 2.5 ml of dichlorofluorescein in conical flask at constant stirring. The complete reaction process is carried out under boiling condition for 1–2 min, the pH of the mixture is adjusted to 12 and the reaction completes after 24 hours. The chemical constituents or the functional group that are presents in the Dichlorofluoresceine (DCF) structure reduced the silver salt to form the silver nanoparticles called as dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs). The complete process of synthesis of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) using AgNO3 and dichlorofluorescein at 0 hr., 2 hr. and 24 hr. and observed changes in color from light green to dark brown, confirming the synthesis of silver nanoparticles synthesis is given in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Displays the synthesis of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP) employing AgNO3 and dichlorofluorescein under heating conditions. The change in color of the reaction mixture was noticed from light green to dark brown, demonstrating the formation of silver nanoparticles.
3. Characterization of DCF-SNP
Various instruments are used to characterize the synthesized dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles. These are some of the techniques which we used in our investigations, such as FTIR analysis, that are used to classify a functional group that has a reducing and stabilizing properties. Finally, zeta potential and nanoparticles tracking analysis are used to track the surface charge and the size of the silver nanoparticles.
3.1 Fourier transform infra red (FTIR)
Dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) are used in the FTIR analysis to recognize the main functional groups involved in the reduction and capping of silver salt for the development of stable dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs). In the FTIR instrument, the radiation falls on the sample and causes changes in the vibration and rotational motion of the molecules at a wavelength of 4000–440 cm − 1 consisting of near and far infrared frequencies and the FTIR spectrum of the formulation was recorded.
3.2 Nanoparticles tracking analysis (NTA)
The size of the synthesized dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) is calculated using Nanosight (LM-20, UK) at the Department of Biotechnology, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, India. Dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP) were diluted in 0.5 ml nuclease-free water and injected into the sample chamber. The instrument parameters are calibrated as specified and the device is analyzed nanoparticles samples to calculate the size of the nanoparticles. The data are summarized on the computer screen and are retrieved in PDF format for analysis.
3.3 Zeta-potential analysis (ZP)
The zeta potential characterization of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) was tested by the Department of Biotechnology, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Maharashtra, India. A zeta potential is used to assess the potential surface charge of Dichlorofluorescein Silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP) using a zetasizer (nano ZS, malvern instrument Ltd., UK). In particular, the liquid samples of the dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles DCF-SNP (5 ml) were diluted with double distilled water (50 ml) using NaCl as an electrolyte suspension solution 2 M NaCl). In addition, the samples are injected into the sample slot of Zeta potential instrument and the good and important results data are reported in PDF formats. In each case, an average of three different measurements made while the values of the zeta potential ranged from +30 mV to-30 mV.
3.4 Effect of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) on seeds germination of Vigna radiata
Dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP) was used to investigate its effect on the germination of Mung Bean (Vigna radiata) seeds. Mung bean seeds were purchased from the market and stored in a dry place under room temperature in the dark. Here, four separate concentrations of 25 per cent, 50 per cent, 75 per cent and 100 per cent (v/v) of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) dispersion were prepared in distilled water. The Whatman no.3 filter paper is layered on the sterile Petri dishes of 12 cm diameter and germination test analysis was carried out. In this test, the seeds were surface sterilized with 0.1% Hgcl2 solution and rinsed three times with distilled water In total, 10 seeds of Mung Bean (V. radiata) were placed in the respective Petri dishes. The solution of each concentration was transferred to each Petri dish and the treatment was administered daily at only enough doses to hydrate the seeds. The petri dish was then placed in a dark seed germinator and held at 25 °C. Seed with root tip 1 mm and above was considered germinated. Percent germination and root and shoot length (in mm) were recorded every 24 hours up to 72 hours. The root length was determined from the region under the hypocotylis to the end of the root cap. The length of the shoot was measured to the nearest millimeter of the root hypocotyl transission zone to the middle of the cotyledon. The length of the shoot and root was calculated with the aid of a string and a scale [33].
4. Results and discussions
Dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) are used by different analytical methods to characterize them at the nanoscale level. The technique used for characterization were fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), zeta potential (ZP) analysis and nanoparticles tracking analysis (NTA) using NanoSight LM-20. In addition, the synthesized dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) was used to successfully test its effect on the germination of Mung Bean (V. radiata) seeds. Essentially, the characterization of the synthesized dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP) was primarily carried out by observing the change in color of the reaction mixture from light green to dark brown. In addition different nanoparticles characterization techniques are used to chemically characterize nanoparticles. In the UV–visible spectrum analysis a single, strong, and broad surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peak was observed at 419 nm that confirmed the synthesis of Dichlorofluoresceine Silver nanoparticles. In same way, [34] UV–vis results displayed that the SPRs becomes sharper and shifts towards lower wavelength (Escherichia hermannii = 438 nm, Citrobacter sedlakii = 441 nm), shows that the particle size of AgNPs decreased. The work of [35] suggested that the green synthesis of gallic acid-coated silver nanoparticles UV–vis absorption spectrum shows typical and narrow absorption peak at approximately 400 nm.
4.1 Visualization of (DCF-SNPs)
Dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP) were successfully fabricated using AgNO3 (1 mM) and DCF (2.5 per cent) by boiling the reactants at 12 pH. The reaction is observed for color shift and is found to be dark brown in color after 24 hours. The synthesized dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles DCF-SNP before and after the reaction and color shift are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Visual observation of color change during the dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) nucleation stage.
The silver nanoparticles have been synthesized successfully using DCF has been synthesized by mixing 97.5 ml of AgNO3 (1 mM) and 2.5 ml of dichlorofluoresceine in conical flask. It takes 75 sec to boil and the color changes from orangish to greenish color. However, [34] uses silver nitrate (AgNO3) of 10–3 M concentration to the reaction vessels containing the bacterial isolate supernatants and reaction completes after 24 hours.
The FTIR measurement were carried out in order to identify the involvement of different functional groups present in dichlorofluorescein compound solution responsible for the bioreduction of Ag + and the capping of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs). The observed FTIR intense bands for Dichlorofluorescein compound solution were compared with the standard IR band ranges and this enables to identify the functional group at 1042.809 cm−1, 1074.148 cm−1, 1153.629 cm−1, 1262.412 cm−1, 1373.712 cm−1, 1472.978 cm−1, 1634.676 cm−1, 1997.814 cm−1, 2113.782 cm−1, 2204.477 cm−1, 2261.689 cm−1, 2300.828 cm−1 and 3262.457 cm−1 for possibly capped the dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles. The FTIR spectrum of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) is shown in Figure 5 and the details in terms of wave number, bond and intensity are given in (Table 2). Table 3 illustrates a rather more specific FTIR spectrum of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) including that of the area covered, peak height from left to right edge and centre.
Figure 5.
Shows the FTIR spectrum of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) which has been reduced via dichlorofluorescein (DCF) solution.
Sr. No.
Wavenumber (cm−1)
Bond
Functional group
Intensity
1.
1042.809
C-N stretching
Amine
Medium
2.
1074.148
C-N stretching
Amine
Strong
3.
1153.629
C-O stretching
Tertiary alcohol
Strong
4.
1262.412
C-O stretching
Aromatic easter
Strong
5.
1373.712
O-H bonding
Alcohol
Medium
6.
1472.978
C-H bonding
Alkane
Variable
7.
1634.676
C-C stretching
Conjugated alkene
Medium
8.
1997.814
C=C=C stretching
Allene
Medium
9.
2113.782
C C stretching
Alkyne
Weak
10.
2204.477
C C stretching
Alkyne
Weak
11.
22161.689
N=C=O stretching
Strong, broad
Isocynate
12.
2300.828
—
—
—
13.
3262.457
O-H stretching
Strong, broad
Alcohol
Table 2.
Shows the specifics of the FTIR spectrum of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) in terms of wave number (cm−1), bond, functional group and bonding strength.
Peak Name
Area
Height
Left Edge
Right Edge
Center
Peakr1
−37.159
1.234
1052.004
1010.969
1042.809
Peak2
−30.857
1.572
1104.232
1066.927
1074.148
Peak3
−10.283
0.895
1160.189
1141.537
1153.629
Peak4
−35.279
1.485
1279.566
1234.800
1262.412
Peak5
−11.528
0.547
1384.020
1335.523
1373.712
Peak6
−17.379
0.721
1481.013
1451.169
1472.978
Peak7
−2365.076
25.540
1764.532
1563.085
1634.576
Peak8
−8.886
0.502
2014.477
1984.633
1997.814
Peak9
−151.214
2.514
2137.584
2070.434
2113.782
Peak10
−6.076
0.452
2215.924
2197.272
2204.477
Peak11
−1.151
0.104
2268.151
2245.768
2261.689
Peak12
−8.086
0.027
2365.145
2297.996
2300.828
Peak13
1341.449
4.760
3290.312
2932.183
3262.457
Table 3.
Shows the more specific FTIR spectrum of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) including the area covered, peak height from left to right edge and Centre.
The fourier transform infrared spectroscopy results confirms that absorption bands at 1042.809 cm−1, 1074.148 cm−1, 1153.629 cm−1, 1262.412 cm−1, 1373.712 cm−1, 1472.978 cm−1, 1634.676 cm−1, 1997.814 cm−1, 2113.782 cm−1, 2204.477 cm−1, 2261.689 cm−1, 2300.828 cm−1 and 3262.457 cm−1 as the wave numbers for the functional groups amine, tertiary alcohol, aromatic ester, alkane, conjugated alkene, alkyne and isocynate that have taken part reducing the silver salt to form dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP). Similarly, [36] showed single aldehyde, OH stretching and aldehyde, amide, carbonyl, ethylene, methoxy compounds present in Cannonball Leaves extract and involved in the reduction of silver salt for the creation of silver nanoparticles using the FTIR spectrum.
4.3 Nanoparticles tracking (NTA) analysis
Nanoparticles tracking and analysis (NTA) was carried out using NanoSight LM-20 to determine the dispersion characteristics, i. e. size and distribution of silver nanoparticles of dichlorofluoresceine (DCF-SNPs). The nanoparticles tracking and analysis measure the size of individual nanoparticles in a suspension by their brownian motions from which the intensity of particle size distribution are obtained. The size of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) from nanoparticles tracking and analysis was found to be less than 293 nm. The size distribution histogram of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles using nanoparticles tracking and analysis (NTA) is represented in Figure 6 and the 3-D plot of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles size distribution intensity can be seen in Figure 7.
Figure 6.
Shows the size distribution histogram of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles using nanoparticles tracking and analysis (NTA).
Figure 7.
Shows the 3-D plot for size distribution intensity of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs).
It could be seen extremely obviously from the histogram that the synthesized dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) ranged from 66 nm to 293 nm in size. The very few dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) are 112 nm, 159 nm, 215 nm and 293 nm in size. However the substantial majority of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP) are 159 nm wide.
The synthesized dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) intensity of their size distribution in nanoscale clearly demonstrates that most dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) are similar in diameter (159 nm) and few are clustered in scales above 300 nm. The synthesized dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) are therefore stabled formulated which could be used for chemical analysis in agriculture.
4.4 Zeta potential (ZP) analysis
The synthesized dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) has a zeta potential value of-9.35 mV implying that the dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP) have a high negative surface load. The zeta variance efficiency was found to be 6.10 and 0.0196, reflecting that the zeta potential synthesized dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles are significant and could be used to associate other materials or molecules to achieve secondary effects. Figure 8 displays the zeta potential graph for dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP).
Figure 8.
Shows the zeta potential graph for surface charge on the dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs).
The dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCFs) are in ranged between 40–293 nm size in diameter confirmed by analyzing nanoparticles tracking and analysis (NTA). The size distribution and zeta potential of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles were determined by DLS and it is confirmed that the dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles obtained are colloidal in nature, with average diameter approximately 159 nm and the corresponding average zeta potential for dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles as −9.35 mV. In contrast, the work of Saeb et al. (2014) obtained silver nanoparticles using bacterial isolates gave the highest value of zeta potential of −30 mV, which indicates a good stability. However, unexpectedly, this zeta potential value was drastically decreased to −18.3 mV and − 9.5 mV after 30 and 90 days respectively.
4.5 Effect of DCF-SNPs on seeds germination of Vigna radiata
The effect of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) on seed germination of Mung bean (V. radiata) was conducted and the root and shoot lengths were recorded every 24 hours. In the present experiment, the production of radicals exceeding 1 cm is interpreted to be positive growth otherwise indicated as negative. The effect of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) on seed germination of Mung bean is shown in the Figure 9.
Figure 9.
Shows the time dependent toxicity effect of varying concentrations of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) on mung beans.
From the Figure 9 it is noted that as the concentration of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles increases the root and shoot length decreases as compared to controls once. After 96 hrs, the Mung beans treated with 25% of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) shows growth in root and shoot length when compared with the positive control. However, the concentration of DCF-SNPs increases from 50% to 100%, there was inhibition of growth observed when compared to 25% of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (Figure 10).
Figure 10.
Shows the dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles effect on a: Root length and B: Shoot length of mung beans (V. radiata) seed after 24 hr., 48 hr., 72 hr.
The effect of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles on seed germination of the Mung bean (V. radiata) was carried out and the size of root and shoot lengths were recorded after every 24 hour. Percentage of seed germination were substantially influenced by the addition of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs). The 25% concentration of DCF-SNPs treated Mung seeds indicates an excellent growth at 72 hours. In specific, the seed germination rate increases from 75% to 95%. While, as the concentration increases from 50% to 100%, the growth rate get varies or unpredicted. Our results are similar to the work of the [33] found that the as the concentration of ZnO NPs increased there was decrease in germination of seeds. Control showed statistically significant difference and could not improve shoot length. Besides, There was an increase in germination significantly with zinc oxide nano particles treated seeds at different concentrations viz., 20 mg shown 100%, 40 mg-95%, 60 mg-90%, 80 mg-90% and 100 mg of ZnO NPs shown 85% germination in Mung bean seeds [33].
The [37] study the effect of silver nanoparticles on the seed germination and plant growth and found that the highest germination rate for corn seeds, was 6.5 seeds/day, which was observed after exposure to 1.5 mg/ml of silver nanoparticles and the highest germination percentage (73.33%) and highest germination rate (1.59 seeds/day) for watermelon were recorded at 2 mg/ml silver nanoparticles.
Due to interactions of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles, the percentage of germination and length of root and shoot has indeed been affected. The average length of root are measure after 24 hrs, 48 hrs and 72 hrs and found to be 6.6 mm, 22.2 mm and 41.7 mm respectively. Similarly, the average length of shoot are measure after 48 hrs and 72 hrs and found to be 2.4 mm and 9 mm respectively. The experiment showed the average length of root and shoot at 72 hours was highest which is 41.7 mm and 9 mm respectively (Table 4).
Sr. no
Conc. of DCF-SNPs
Average root length
Average shoot length
24 hrs
48 hrs
72 hrs
24 hrs
48 hrs
72 hrs
1.
0%
7 mm
16.1 mm
49.8 mm
—
4 mm
17.5 mm
2.
25%
7.1 mm
24.1 mm
50.2 mm
—
2 mm
16.3 mm
3.
50%
6 mm
22.3 mm
34.5 mm
—
—
2.5 mm
4.
75%
7.1 mm
27.4 mm
42.2 mm
—
1.3 mm
3.7 mm
5.
100%
6 mm
21.4 mm
32 mm
—
—
5.3 mm
6.
Total Avg.
6.6 mm
22.2 mm
41.7 mm
2.4 mm
9 mm
Table 4.
Indicates the average percentage of the observed root and shoot length of germinated mung bean after 24 hrs, 48 hrs, 72 hrs.
In the present study, the dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles showed unpredicted effects on root and shoot length when treated with the various concentrations of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs). The higher concentration of nanoparticles may be attributed to toxic level of nanoparticles which has been seen in present experimentation that above certain level of concentration the seedlings respond in different way and causes subsequent declines in growth. The work of [33] evidence the same results their study stating that at low concentrations the ZnO nanoparticles shows good effect on root and shoot was more prominent.
Therefore, the 25% concentration of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) though show positive effects on the seed germinations of mung beans it could have an advantage of using as the tracking the bio active compound, fertilizers, pesticides, hormone, minerals transfer into the plant system. As the dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) is a organic dye it could be coupled with the non toxic materials or polymer that could have avoid harmless to plants and at the same time assist to deliver bio active essential compound in plants. This bio uptake, biotransformation, and bioaccumulation of Fluorescent dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP) could be studied using the Confocal Laser-Scanning Microscopy. A study done by [38] already used Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), Leica TCS SP2 microscope (Leica Inc., Buffalo Grove, IL) to visualize the fluorescent Zein nanoparticles translocation in sugar cane.
5. Conclusion
In the current study, the synthesized dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) were synthesized successfully by boiling method. In addition, dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) were characterized by different techniques for measuring the particles size, morphology, functional group and surface charge. Moreover, the different concentrations of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) effects on germination of mung beans (V. radiata) and the length of root and shoot were studied. The synthesized dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) are less than 159 nm size that interact and activates growth related gene. Therefore, 25% concentration of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP) is tested positive for shoot and root growth as compare to control. The 25% concentration of dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) is good dye for conjugation with other bioactive compounds and useful for tracking the bio active compounds, bio uptake, biotransformation and bioaccumulation into the plant system using confocal laser scanning microscopy.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Rajiv Gandhi Biotechnology Centre, Rashtrasant Tukdoji Maharaj Nagpur University, L.I.T. Premises, Nagpur-440033 (M.S.), India, for providing research space and laboratory facility for experimentations.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
The FTIR analysis of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) were done at the Narsamma Hirayya Arts Commerce & Science college, Amravati, Maharashtra, India.
Thanks
Author would like to thank the Principal and Dr. Khandekar, of Narsamma Hirayya Arts Commerce & Science college, Kiran Nagar Near Farshi Stop, Amravati, Maharashtra, India, for FTIR analysis. In addition, authors thanks Dr. Aniket Gade, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, MS, India for the zeta potential and Nanoparticles tracking and analysis (NTA) characterization of formulated dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP).
\n',keywords:"dichlorofluoresceine (DCF), Vigna radiata, dichlorofluoresceine silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNP), Zeta potential, confocal microscopy studies",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75747.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75747.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75747",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75747",totalDownloads:255,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 4th 2020",dateReviewed:"February 21st 2021",datePrePublished:"March 16th 2021",datePublished:"September 15th 2021",dateFinished:"March 16th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The main objective of this study was to investigate whether dichlorofluorescein (DCF) is adequate for the formulation of stable dichlorofluorescein-induced silver nanoparticles under the boiling method to analyze their effects on the seed germination of Mung seeds (Vigna radiata). Preliminary dichlorofluoresceine nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) synthesis evidence by noticing the solution color transformed from a light green color to a dark brown color. The 2.5 ml of dichlorofluoresceine (DCF) solution was found sufficient for the formulation of dichlorofluoresceine induced silver nanoparticles at boiling conditions. Purified dichlorofluoresceine nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) measure an average diameter of 293 nm where the majority of nanoparticles were around 159 nm in size with the surface load of-9.35 mV zeta potential value. The impact of dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) on the germination percentage of V. radiata has shown that, the 25% concentration of DCF-SNPs is excellent for the growth of Mung seeds (V. radiata). Overall, the dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles may be constructive for improving the percentage of seed germination at 25% of its concentration and may also be useful for fluorescent measurement using the confocal microscopy technique. Hence, dichlorofluorescein silver nanoparticles (DCF-SNPs) are proposed as an efficient detection system for nanoparticles in agrochemicals for plants.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75747",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75747",signatures:"Bipin Deochand Lade, Arti Sanjay Shanware and Ruchika M. 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Green synthesis of gallic acid-coated silver nanoparticles with high antimicrobial activity and low cytotoxicity to normal cells. Process Biochemistry. 2015; 50(3): DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2015.01.002.'},{id:"B36",body:'Devraj P, Kumari P, Chirom A and Renganathan A. Synthesis and Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles Using Cannonball Leaves and Their Cytotoxic Activity against MCF-7 Cell Line. Journal of Nanocomposites. 2013;1-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/598328.'},{id:"B37",body:'Almutairi Z and Alharbi A. Effect of Silver Nanoparticles on Seed Germination of Crop Plants. International Journal of Nuclear and Quantum Engineering. 2016;9:594-598.'},{id:"B38",body:'Alisha Prasad, Carlos E. Astete, Andreea E. Bodoki, McKenzie Windham, Ede Bodoki, and Cristina M. Sabliov. 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Rajiv Gandhi Biotechnology Centre, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, L.I.T. Premises, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
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Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. 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His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. 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