The results of simulation for BER
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4486",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cells and Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",title:"Cells and Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book serves as a good starting point for anyone interested in the application of tissue engineering. 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Presentation of Virtual Robot and Task Object Using Stereo Vision System)",slug:"construction-tele-robotic-system-with-virtual-reality-cg-presentation-of-virtual-robot-and-task-obje",signatures:"Hironao Yamada, Takuya Kawamura and Takayoshi Muto",authors:[{id:"13728",title:"Dr.",name:"Hironao",middleName:null,surname:"Yamada",fullName:"Hironao Yamada",slug:"hironao-yamada"},{id:"23687",title:"Prof.",name:"Takuya",middleName:null,surname:"Kawamura",fullName:"Takuya Kawamura",slug:"takuya-kawamura"},{id:"23688",title:"Prof.",name:"Takayoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Muto",fullName:"Takayoshi Muto",slug:"takayoshi-muto"}]},{id:"12977",title:"Navigation in a Box: Stereovision for Industry Automation",slug:"navigation-in-a-box-stereovision-for-industry-automation",signatures:"Giacomo Spampinato, Jörgen Lidholm, Fredrik Ekstrand, Carl Ahlberg, Lars Asplund and Mikael Ekström",authors:[{id:"13683",title:"Dr.",name:"Giacomo",middleName:null,surname:"Spampinato",fullName:"Giacomo 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D. Moore",authors:[{id:"13527",title:"Prof.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Moore",fullName:"Richard Moore",slug:"richard-moore"},{id:"14518",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandyam",middleName:null,surname:"Srinivasan",fullName:"Mandyam Srinivasan",slug:"mandyam-srinivasan"},{id:"23762",title:"Prof.",name:"Saul",middleName:null,surname:"Thurrowgood",fullName:"Saul Thurrowgood",slug:"saul-thurrowgood"},{id:"23763",title:"Prof.",name:"Dean",middleName:null,surname:"Soccol",fullName:"Dean Soccol",slug:"dean-soccol"},{id:"23764",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Bland",fullName:"Daniel Bland",slug:"daniel-bland"}]},{id:"12980",title:"Stereovision Algorithm to be Executed at 100Hz on a FPGA-Based Architecture",slug:"stereovision-algorithm-to-be-executed-at-100hz-on-a-fpga-based-architecture",signatures:"Michel Devy, Jean-Louis Boizard, Diego Botero Galeano, Henry Carrillo Lindado, Mario Ibarra Manzano, Zohir Irki, Abdelelah Naoulou, Pierre Lacroix, Philippe Fillatreau, Jean-Yves Fourniols, Carlos Parra",authors:[{id:"16600",title:"Dr.",name:"Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Devy",fullName:"Michel Devy",slug:"michel-devy"},{id:"16605",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario-Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Ibarra-Manzano",fullName:"Mario-Alberto Ibarra-Manzano",slug:"mario-alberto-ibarra-manzano"},{id:"16606",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Louis",middleName:null,surname:"Boizard",fullName:"Jean-Louis Boizard",slug:"jean-louis-boizard"},{id:"16608",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Parra",fullName:"Carlos Parra",slug:"carlos-parra"},{id:"16610",title:"Dr.",name:"Henry",middleName:null,surname:"Carrillo Lindado",fullName:"Henry Carrillo Lindado",slug:"henry-carrillo-lindado"},{id:"16611",title:"PhD.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Botero Galeano",fullName:"Diego Botero Galeano",slug:"diego-botero-galeano"},{id:"16612",title:"Dr.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Lacroix",fullName:"Pierre Lacroix",slug:"pierre-lacroix"},{id:"131475",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Yves",middleName:null,surname:"Fourniols",fullName:"Jean-Yves Fourniols",slug:"jean-yves-fourniols"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"4814",title:"Stereo Vision",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d18cf7b9c13e7bcd89bc9121d71f5fc",slug:"stereo_vision",bookSignature:"Asim Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4814.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"81500",title:"Advance in Keyless Cryptography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104429",slug:"advance-in-keyless-cryptography",body:'The term keyless cryptography dates back many years ago. See for example the paper [1]. One author of this chapter used also before this term many times, for example in the papers [2, 3, 4]. This term is commonly used in two senses: either in the scenarios where information transmission security is provided by special channel properties without execution of key sharing protocol in advance, or in the second scenarios where specific channel properties are used on the stage of secret key sharing between users, whereas later are executed ordinary key-based cryptography. An approach to a providing of security at the cost of channel properties was termed as physical layer security [5]. As a rule, it means that communication channel plays the role of some randomizer due to their specific stochastic properties. However, sometimes such randomization is provided by the use of artificial noises by the communicating users.
A natural question arises—why it is not sufficiently to execute algorithms of the so-called
PKC are based on some cryptographic assumptions (integer factoring, discrete log computation, error correction by random liner codes [6]). Unfortunately, the most of such hard computational problems can be solved in polynomial time by quantum computers (QC) [8]. Although a practical implementation of such QC’s is still highly conjectural [9], it would be a hazardous to ignore such attacks in the future.
The use of PKC is needed in an assistance of certificated center that would be guaranty an authenticity of public keys in order to prevent impersonation attack where an attacker camouflages itself by authorized user and could share with legitimate user falsified keys.
The third shortcoming is in a complexity of encryption/decryption algorithms because it requires performing operations with large integer values. It is especially important for mobile hardware devices.
One more way out to provide secure key sharing is an implementation of quantum cryptography [10]. But unfortunately such approach requires the use of very specific quantum devices.
The objections mentioned above give the reason to turn to keyless cryptography which is what we do in this chapter. In Section 2 we investigate Shamir’s protocol for secure communication over public channels but without any key sharing in advance. This protocol corresponds to the first scenario. Section 3 presents Dean and Goldsmith cryptosystem that performs channel transmission like a randomizer in the first scenario. We turn out under which restrictions on the channel such protocol is in fact secure. In Section 4 the second scenario (with key sharing) is considered and it is shown that on the contrary to author’s claims [11], such
Shamir’s protocol was described in the book [6]. This protocol can be executed for any cryptosystem (both symmetric and asymmetric) if they satisfy the following condition:
where
Protocol based on relation
If the relation (1) is valid, then we get:
On the next step user B decrypts
Since exponentiation by modulo
On the one hand RSA system is self-sufficient one but on the other hand there may be situations where its public key
Let us consider as next public key cryptosystem, Rabin’s one, that is determined by the following parameters [7]:
It is easy to make sure that (4) is not satisfied, generally speaking. In fact, let us consider an example:
In order to find out the reason of that fact, let us present both sides of (4) as the following values, respectively:
where
where
where “
It is easy to see that the values in the right sides of (8) and (9) are, generally speaking, unequal one to another owing at least different vectors
where
that is valid trivially. The use of stream ciphers as CE in protocol shown in Figure 1 was looking as it is presented in Figure 2.
Protocol of secret message transmission based on stream ciphers.
However we can see from Figure 2 that eavesdropper receiving
Cryptosystem proposed by Dean and Goldsmith in [12] belongs also to the class of keyless cryptography because it may provide a security of message transmission without a secret key sharing in advance. The main difference in the knowledge of legitimate users and eavesdroppers is only their different locations in space. But such cryptosystems can be used not in all possible scenarios but only in those ones where messages are transmitted over fading channels and with the use of a
For brevity, we denote such cryptosystem by abbreviation DGC. First, we consider the model with the main steps of its implementation for the particular case where the number of legal user receiving antennas
Legitimate channel between Alice (A) and Bob (B) is described by equation:
where
where
channel matrices
matrix
matrices
It is worth to note that the model described above is more or less valid in practice for fading channels based on
where
where
where
where
where
where
where
But let us consider suboptimal decoding method after some transform, assuming that matrix
Thus suboptimal decoding method can be implemented as follows:
where
We can see from (21) that complexity of suboptimal decoding procedure is linear on the number
No | System parameters | n | Symbol error probability for legitimate users ( | Symbol error probabilities for Eavesdropper ( |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 100 | 0.02 | 0.2 | |
2 | 100 | 0.037 | 0.3 | |
3 | 100 | 0.02 | 0.42 | |
4 | 1000 | 0.3 | ||
5 | 1000 | 0.01 | 0.33 |
The results of simulation for BER
We can see from Table 1 that for all five set of system parameters, DGC is looking as acceptable one because the case
In Table 2 are presented the values of channel capacity calculated by (22) for different values
0.1 | 0.11 | 0.15 | 0.18 | 0.19 | |
2.65 | 2.5 | 1.95 | 1.6 | 1.5 | |
0.2 | 0.25 | 0.3 | 0.35 | 0.4 | |
1.39 | 0.94 | 0.59 | 0.33 | 0.15 | |
0.41 | 0.42 | 0.43 | 0.44 | 0.45 | |
0.12 | 0.093 | 0.071 | 0.052 | 0.036 | |
0.46 | 0.47 | 0.48 | 0.49 | 0.5 | |
0.023 | 0.013 | 0.0058 | 0.0014 | 0 |
The values of channel capacity
It is well known that entropy
100 | 101 | 102 | 103 | 105 | 107 | |
0.31 | 0.22 | 0.16 | 0.12 | 0.07 | 0.048 | |
108 | 109 | 110 | 120 | 150 | ||
0.039 | 0.03 | 0.024 | 0.003 |
Results of BER
We can see from Table 3 that even small increasing of
Thus for the symbol correct probability we get the following lower bound:
where
where
From relation (25) we get the lower bound for correct symbol probability:
where
Taking into account that
where
In order to compute theoretically the average value of symbol correct probabilities, it would be necessary to average relations (24) and (29) on the probability distribution of singular values
100 | 101 | 102 | 103 | 104 | 105 | |
0.95 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.95 | |
0.71 | 0.75 | 0.8 | 0.87 | 0.9 | 0.95 | |
106 | 107 | 108 | 109 | 110 | ||
0.95 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.95 | ||
0.96 | 0.97 | 0.98 | 0.985 | 0.99 |
We can see from this Table that an increasing of the eavesdropper’s antennas even till
However in the case of such precoding we face with a growing of the transmitter power. In Table 5 are presented the results of the average transmitter power calculated for the case of precoding with matrix
Session numbers | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Session numbers | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
Average transmitter power
We can see from Table 5 that the use of
There is one more problem with practical implementation of DGC. It is a correct estimation of the channel matrix
1 | 0.1 | 0.01 | 0.001 | 0 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2 | 3 | 0.1677 | 0.0587 | 0.0271 | 0.0208 | 0.02 |
3 | 8 | 0.1332 | 0.053 | 0.0383 | 0.0378 | 0.037 |
50 | 4 | 0.0364 | 0.0126 | 0.0093 | 0.0088 | 0.0084 |
Results of symbol error probabilities for legitimate users under the incorrect estimation of channel elements with variance
Concluding the Section 3 we may say that theoretically would be interesting to develop further DGC in the direction of improving precoding algorithm. But according to our opinion, practical implementation of such approach is very sensitive to channel and system parameters (SNR for eavesdropper and their antenna numbers). It is worth to note also that it is not so dangerous to face with unfavorable parameters for DGC implementation as the fact that these parameters cannot be controlled by legitimate users and hence they are unable to match with parameters of DGC. In the Section 5 we consider protocol that is completely invariant to channel parameters.
In this Section we consider the second scenarios of keyless cryptography the purpose of which is to share secret keys between legitimate users communicating with each other over channels and next to execute the shared key for ordinary key-based cryptography. In the current section we consider key sharing protocol proposed by G. Qin and Z. Ding in the paper [11], called
The KSP corresponding to EVSkey scheme.
Let us introduce the following matrices:
It is well known [13] that square matrices of the same size
Thus from (30) we conclude that the legitimate users A and B are able to extract the same CP after a completion of four-steps KSP through noiseless channels although matrices
It was claimed in [11] that EVSkey Scheme is secure against interception of key bits by eavesdropper E. Let us show that, in fact, such KSP is insecure because eavesdropper E is able to intercept the key bits if she intercepts simultaneously the following signals:
where
where
where
The last relation means that matrix Y is
The statement 2 has been proved for the case of noiseless E’s channels. But our simulation shows that even for noisy channels, if Eva be following to algorithm (32), she extracts the key bits with BER very close to those that have legitimate users. This fact proves finally that EVSkey Scheme is in fact
Let us introduce novel KSP designed for its use in constant, public and noiseless communication channels. This protocol has the following distinctions in comparison with other KSP’s:
it executes over public, constant parameter, noiseless channels (like internet),
no cryptographic assumptions are needed in order to provide its security and quantum computers cannot break it,
this KSP provides tradeoff between key reliability and security for given size of key strings,
security of protocol is estimated in terms of Shannon information leaking to eavesdropper,
a good key bits statistics can be provided due to their generation by hardware devices,
the size of traffic for execution of protocol is acceptable for ordinary users,
the number of protocol steps is minimized and equal to 2.
In Figure 4 it is presented KSP protocol for execution in public constant noiseless channels that we call
Two-step KSP-PCN protocol.
At first step, these matrices are transmitted over constant public noiseless channel to opposite party. Next, each of users A and B calculates
At the same time eavesdropper E also intercepts
In order to provide a repetition of bit’s blocks and to improve key bit statistics, it was proposed to use the scheme of key bit generation shown in Figure 5.
Additional key-transformed protocol.
We can see from Figure 5 that user B generates
where
where
sizes of matrices
number of bit repetitions
variances of additive artificial noises
It is worth to note that in the proposed KSP (see Figure 4), unlike the earlier presented protocols (see [5]), all parameters are
Although the formulas (33) and (34) of BER for both legitimate users and eavesdropper have been already proved they have to be specified by simulation because our assumption regarding statistical independence of errors is valid only partly. In Tables 7–9 are presented the results of simulation for BER’s
s | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | ||
1 | 0.296 | 0.343 | 0.37 | 0.387 | |
0.222 | 0.269 | 0.299 | 0.316 | ||
3 | 0.0523 | 0.0703 | 0.0974 | 0.113 | |
0.0407 | 0.0643 | 0.0863 | 0.103 | ||
5 | 0.00727 | 0.0122 | 0.0174 | 0.0224 | |
0.00638 | 0.0125 | 0.0189 | 0.0268 | ||
7 | 0.00124 | 0.00209 | 0.0039 | 0.00673 | |
0.00133 | 0.00332 | 0.00571 | 0.0119 |
The results of simulation for BER
s | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | ||
1 | 0.26 | 0.294 | 0.309 | 0.317 | |
0.212 | 0.252 | 0.271 | 0.279 | ||
3 | 0.031 | 0.0428 | 0.0477 | 0.051 | |
0.0333 | 0.0427 | 0.0562 | 0.0604 | ||
5 | 0.00293 | 0.00443 | 0.0048 | 0.00535 | |
0.00528 | 0.00822 | 0.0106 | 0.0118 | ||
7 | 0.000182 | 0.000464 | 0.00061 | 0.000644 | |
0.00108 | 0.000195 | 0.000308 | 0.00358 |
The results of simulation for BER
s | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | ||
1 | 0.0816 | 0.0851 | 0.0859 | 0.0963 | |
0.0922 | 0.117 | 0.140 | 0.154 | ||
3 | 0.00362 | 0.00402 | 0.00407 | 0.00396 | |
0.0185 | 0.0439 | 0.0673 | 0.0822 | ||
5 | 0.000193 | 0.000294 | 0.000258 | 0.000226 | |
0.00875 | 0.0314 | 0.053 | 0.0699 | ||
7 | 1.44∙10−5 | 3∙10−5 | 1.79∙10−5 | 1.68∙10−5 | |
0.00529 | 0.0256 | 0.0455 | 0.059 |
The results of simulation for BER
We can see from these Tables that a choice of matrix size
In fact, the probability
Therefore, it is necessary first of all to correct errors in legitimate channel, suppose, using error correcting codes and next to amplify security of the shared bit string against eavesdropping. Let us apply so called enhance of privacy amplification procedure described in [16]. We recall that
where
where
Let us adopt the following parameters from Table 9:
Substituting the corresponding parameters chosen for KSP, we get that
As it can be seen from a description of proposed KSP, the generators of random numbers are needed for its implementation. Moreover it is impossible to use standard program-oriented generator (like MT19937) because it can be vulnerable to sequence prediction attack. Thus it is necessary to use
View of random number generator Crypton USB-DRN.
For our KSP is required (as for any such protocol) to perform authentication procedure—otherwise the adversary could impersonate legitimate users and eventually share with them a common key. It is possible to use different authentication methods: short key, the Needham-Schroder protocol [20] or pairing procedure during the face to face device meeting [21].
In the current chapter we have presented four different systems related with keyless cryptography. The first two of them consider such systems that do not require any key distribution in advance. The first one is based on protocol with feedback that uses public key cryptosystems but it does not require any key distribution in advance, even public one. It executes commutative cryptography but, unfortunately, it is a poor choice. It would be very interesting to find at least one of symmetric strong block cipher or post-quantum public cryptosystems that belong to commutative ones (or may be to prove that such cryptosystem does not exist at all). The second example in our “gallery” of keyless cryptography was Dean-Goldsmith one. It is based on physical layer properties and has unquestionable theoretical interest. But unfortunately it is impractical because requires from eavesdroppers unrealistic conditions. The third example is related with key sharing without some short subkeys sharing in advance. Unfortunately authors’ claiming that such system is secure, occurs wrong. But their scheme can be significantly modified (see version four) to be in fact secure. According to our opinion, the fourth key sharing protocol is the first attempt to distribute keys by secret manner executing over such very popular channel as internet (or over any other public and noiseless channel). It provides easy way for a confidential communication between ordinary internet users. In the future it will be interesting to investigate exchange by integers (but not matrices) that results in, for sure, to a decreasing of channel traffic. Elaboration of reliable authentication system is also interesting both for theory and practice.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
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\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
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Pen, Joeri. L. Aerts, Thérèse Liechtenstein, David Escors and\nKarine Breckpot",authors:[{id:"28137",title:"Prof.",name:"Karine",middleName:null,surname:"Breckpot",slug:"karine-breckpot",fullName:"Karine Breckpot"},{id:"362469",title:"Dr.",name:"Joeri J.",middleName:null,surname:"Pen",slug:"joeri-j.-pen",fullName:"Joeri J. Pen"},{id:"362470",title:"Dr.",name:"Joeri. L.",middleName:null,surname:"Aerts",slug:"joeri.-l.-aerts",fullName:"Joeri. L. Aerts"},{id:"362471",title:"Dr.",name:"Thérèse",middleName:null,surname:"Liechtenstein",slug:"therese-liechtenstein",fullName:"Thérèse Liechtenstein"},{id:"362472",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Escors",slug:"david-escors",fullName:"David Escors"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"54412",title:"Myasthenia Gravis: Clinical and Immunological Aspects",slug:"myasthenia-gravis-clinical-and-immunological-aspects",totalDownloads:1678,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Autoimmune diseases such as myasthenia gravis (MG) result from an altered balance between the processes of activation and regulation of immune response. MG is the most common autoimmune disorder characterized by failure of transmission at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). Autoantibodies in MG target the acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) as well as non-AChR components like muscle-specific tyrosine kinase (MuSK). Autoantibodies against AChRs are produced by B cells in the germinal centres (GCs), formed in the medulla of MG thymus and circulated to the post-synaptic side of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) leading to complement-mediated destruction of the post-synaptic folds of NMJ and internalization of AChRs. The incidence and prevalence of MG have increased particularly in elderly, but clinical presentations vary substantially and recognition depends on classic disease phenotype. This chapter focuses on clinical and immunological aspects of MG and its subgroups based on its characterization of the antigenic targets.",book:{id:"5467",slug:"immunopathogenesis-and-immune-based-therapy-for-selected-autoimmune-disorders",title:"Immunopathogenesis and Immune-based Therapy for Selected Autoimmune Disorders",fullTitle:"Immunopathogenesis and Immune-based Therapy for Selected Autoimmune Disorders"},signatures:"Kokil Tandon",authors:[{id:"190398",title:"Ms.",name:"Kokil",middleName:null,surname:"Tandon",slug:"kokil-tandon",fullName:"Kokil Tandon"}]},{id:"73850",title:"Pathogenic Role of iNOs+ M1 Effector Macrophages in Fibromyalgia",slug:"pathogenic-role-of-inos-m1-effector-macrophages-in-fibromyalgia",totalDownloads:783,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Fibromyalgia (FM) or Fibromyalgia Syndrome (FMS) is a neurodegenerative disorder causing musculoskeletal pain, tenderness, stiffness, fatigue, and sleep disorder in the body. It is one of the most common chronic pain conditions, affecting about 6% of the world population. Being refractory, till date, no specific treatment of this disease is available. Accumulating evidences over the last few decades indicate that proinflammatory macrophages, cytokines, & chemokines as the key players in this disease. Recent findings suggest activation of Microglial cells and associated pro-inflammatory signals as one of the major causes of chronic pain in patients suffering from fibromyalgia. Increased density of iNOs/CD68+ M1 effector macrophages has been associated with neuropathic pain models. In light of this, depletion of these pro-inflammatory macrophages has been shown to reduce sensitivity to neuropathic pain. On the other hand, modulating pattern of AGEs (Advanced Glycation End-Products) can also contribute to inactivation of macrophages. These findings strongly suggest that macrophages are critical in both inflammatory and neuropathic pain. Therefore, this chapter highlights the impact of macrophage plasticity in various immunopathological aspects of fibromyalgia.",book:{id:"9671",slug:"macrophages",title:"Macrophages",fullTitle:"Macrophages"},signatures:"Vishwas Tripathi, Amaresh Mishra, Yamini Pathak, Aklank Jain and Hridayesh Prakash",authors:[{id:"287184",title:"Prof.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"},{id:"329322",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vishwas",middleName:null,surname:"Tripathi",slug:"vishwas-tripathi",fullName:"Vishwas Tripathi"},{id:"329323",title:"Dr.",name:"Aklank",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"aklank-jain",fullName:"Aklank Jain"},{id:"329335",title:"Mr.",name:"Amaresh",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"amaresh-mishra",fullName:"Amaresh Mishra"},{id:"329336",title:"Dr.",name:"Yamini",middleName:null,surname:"Pathak",slug:"yamini-pathak",fullName:"Yamini Pathak"}]},{id:"53634",title:"Immunotherapy in Autoimmune Diabetes",slug:"immunotherapy-in-autoimmune-diabetes",totalDownloads:1398,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Autoimmune diabetes is a chronic autoimmune disease caused by the loss or selective destruction of the insulin-producing cells, called pancreatic beta cells. Damage to beta cells results in an absence or insufficient production of insulin produced by the body. Most cases of autoimmune diabetes have an autoimmune basis, and the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys beta cells. The immune system plays a critical role in controlling the development of autoimmune diabetes. Over the past years there have been significant progress and an accumulation of scientific evidence for the concept of immunotherapy. Immunotherapy for the prevention and treatment of autoimmune diabetes has become the main focus of the research community. Three regimens of immunotherapy have been investigated: (1) Antigen-specific vaccines: Insulin-related molecules have attracted great interest in vaccine development, including the whole recombinant human GAD65 (rhGAD65) and the DiaPep277 peptide of HSP60. (2) Systemic immunomodulators: A large number of non–antigen-specific immunomodulators have been studied, including monoclonal anti-CD3 antibody, anti–CTLA-4 Ig, TNF-a, IFN-a, IL-1R antagonist, regulatory T cells, and dendritic cells. (3) Combination treatments: Combination therapies have the ability to enhance efficacy and will become the standard of care for autoimmune diabetes. Development of safe and efficient prevention of autoimmune diabetes is a general public health object in modern countries now. Although large numbers of preventive modalities including immunotherapy have been accomplished in animal models of autoimmune diabetes, prevention of human autoimmune diabetes remains indefinable. Genetic and environmental factors that control the relapsing-remitting course of β-cell destruction, terminating in complete insulin addiction are being determined. In the long run, initial prevention of islet autoimmunity will likely be the optimal approach to the prevention of autoimmune diabetes. However, environmental causes of islet autoimmunity need to be well stated. Modest predictive assessment of the existing genetic screening tools also means that the number of children requiring intervention will stay great, concerning the number of autoimmune diabetes cases prohibited. Nevertheless, combination treatments are more likely to be used for autoimmune diabetes. Primary systemic immunosuppression followed by antigen-specific induction of tolerance or islet regeneration is a sound approach.",book:{id:"5467",slug:"immunopathogenesis-and-immune-based-therapy-for-selected-autoimmune-disorders",title:"Immunopathogenesis and Immune-based Therapy for Selected Autoimmune Disorders",fullTitle:"Immunopathogenesis and Immune-based Therapy for Selected Autoimmune Disorders"},signatures:"Mohammad Haque, Praneet Sandhu, Swetha Ravi, Sravya Kurapati\nand Jianxun Song",authors:[{id:"155256",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianxun",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"jianxun-song",fullName:"Jianxun Song"},{id:"185414",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Haque",slug:"mohammad-haque",fullName:"Mohammad Haque"},{id:"185415",title:"Ms.",name:"Praneet",middleName:null,surname:"Sandhu",slug:"praneet-sandhu",fullName:"Praneet Sandhu"},{id:"200565",title:"Dr.",name:"Swetha",middleName:null,surname:"Ravi",slug:"swetha-ravi",fullName:"Swetha Ravi"},{id:"200566",title:"Dr.",name:"Sravya",middleName:null,surname:"Kurapati",slug:"sravya-kurapati",fullName:"Sravya Kurapati"}]},{id:"76057",title:"The Association of HLA-DQ2 with Celiac Disease",slug:"the-association-of-hla-dq2-with-celiac-disease",totalDownloads:445,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"DQ2 is a surface receptor of class II MHC exposed on APC immune-competent cells. Its function is to recognize non-self-antigens and present them to CD4+ T-helper lymphocytes, which activate cytokine <21> production and control antibody production and cell response. The activation of T lymphocytes by peptides derived from gluten proteins and the production of antibodies directed against tTG in tissues where it is localized is the basis of the etiopathogenesis of celiac disease (CD). CD is frequently associated with the presence of specific HLA system genes encoding heterodimers DQ2 and DQ8, identifiable by the DQA1*0501/DQB1*0201 or DQA1*0501/DQB1*0202 and DQB1*0302 alleles. DQ2 is also associated with genetic, endocrinological and neurological diseases such as: type 1 diabetes, thyroiditis, pancreatitis and multiple sclerosis. Interactions between DQ2 and T lymphoma have also been demonstrated. The correlation between autoimmune diseases in patients with CD and therefore DQ2 is much more frequent than in healthy subjects.",book:{id:"9481",slug:"celiac-disease",title:"Celiac Disease",fullTitle:"Celiac Disease"},signatures:"Federica Gualandris, Laura Castellani and Anna Falanga",authors:[{id:"334871",title:"Dr.",name:"Federica",middleName:null,surname:"Gualandris",slug:"federica-gualandris",fullName:"Federica Gualandris"},{id:"344836",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Castellani",slug:"laura-castellani",fullName:"Laura Castellani"},{id:"345600",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Falanga",slug:"anna-falanga",fullName:"Anna Falanga"}]},{id:"54266",title:"Introductory Chapter: Immune System Dysfunction and Autoimmune Diseases",slug:"introductory-chapter-immune-system-dysfunction-and-autoimmune-diseases",totalDownloads:2060,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"5467",slug:"immunopathogenesis-and-immune-based-therapy-for-selected-autoimmune-disorders",title:"Immunopathogenesis and Immune-based Therapy for Selected Autoimmune Disorders",fullTitle:"Immunopathogenesis and Immune-based Therapy for Selected Autoimmune Disorders"},signatures:"Mourad Aribi",authors:[{id:"40046",title:"Prof.",name:"Mourad",middleName:null,surname:"Aribi",slug:"mourad-aribi",fullName:"Mourad Aribi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"903",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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