The application of MSCs in selected clinical trials.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThey are hypersensitive to chemical pollution, habitat degradation, a variation of river and groundwater quality, climate change and even the sun's ultraviolet radiation, amphibians are among the vertebrate groups most endangered by human activity, and their abundance in wetlands is always one of the best indicators of good environmental conservation.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tIn this book, we have considered all aspects of amphibians biology, diversity, conservation and potential use of amphibians as environmental indicators.
Regenerative medicine represents a new interdisciplinary field of clinical science focused on the development and implementation of novel strategies to enhance the process of regeneration of impaired cells, tissues and organs as well as replacing damaged cells with new, fully functional cells of the required phenotype [1, 2].
\nTo improve the effectiveness of such regeneration processes, one of the potential approaches is application of stem cell (SC)‐based therapy. In addition, the combination of stem cells with biocompatible materials that may constitute a scaffold for the seeded cells may lead to enforcement of biological activity of stem cells and as such accelerate the process of regeneration or restoration of impaired tissue [3, 4].
\nStem cells (SCs) are a unique type of cells characterized by the ability to (i) self‐renewal through unlimited cell divisions and (ii) differentiate into other types of specialized cells, including epithelial, muscle, neuronal cells and others [5, 6].
\nBased on the origin and source of isolation, SCs may be included in two main groups: (i) embryonic SCs (ESCs)—derived from embryos at different stages of development and (ii) adult SCs (ASCs)—isolated from several postnatal and adult tissue sources, including the umbilical cord, cord blood, bone marrow, adipose tissue, central nervous system, retina, skeletal muscle and other mature tissues [7, 8]. The differentiation capacity of embryonic SCs allows them to form any individual organs and fully differentiated cells of the whole body, which corresponds to pluripotency of these SCs. In opposite, most of adult SCs are multipotent and lineage‐restricted (monopotent) and generally give rise to certain cell types of one germ layer or cell lineage. They residue in several niches, including bone marrow, liver, muscle, brain and others, where they may be activate towards tissue‐ or organ‐specific cells under certain physiologic or experimental conditions. Moreover, it has been shown that adult SCs may provide efficient regeneration of impaired organs in both preclinical and clinical conditions [7].
\nBased on the differentiation capacity, SCs populations belong to the following types [5, 9–11]:
\nTotipotent SCs (TSCs)—The most developmentally primitive and potent SCs are capable to differentiate into any cell type from three germ layers (mesoderm, ectoderm and endoderm) forming whole organism as well as into extra‐embryonic tissues such as placenta; the best examples of TSCs are zygote and first blastomeres [10–13].
Pluripotent SCs (PSCs)—The cells sustaining the capacity to differentiate into all cell types from three germ layers, but they are not able to give rise to placenta; PSCs are naturally present in developing embryo in stage of morula, in inner cell mass (ICM) of developing blastocyst and in the epiblast of gastrula and in limited number may also be found in adult tissues as remnants from embryonic development [9, 14]; PSCs may also be de novo created via genetic reprogramming of somatic cells and are called ‘induced PSCs’ (iPS cells) [11, 15].
Multipotent SCs—The SCs typically capable to give rise to all cell types within one germ layer; the best described examples are mesenchymal SCs (MSCs) isolated from several adult and postnatal tissues [10, 16–18];
Unipotent SCs (progenitors)—The cells capable to differentiate into one or two particular types of specialized cell present in particular tissue type; this group includes several population of tissue‐committed progenitors such as endothelial progenitor cells, cardiac SCs, satellite cells of skeletal muscles, neural progenitors and others [5, 9, 10].
Recently, more attention has been directed to potential utilization of SCs in clinical applications in patients. Due to the legal and ethical restrictions, the employment of embryonic SCs, which possess the largest spectrum of differentiation capacity, is controversial and prohibited in many countries. Moreover, SCs with pluripotent characteristics may lead to adverse side effects following their injection including teratoma formation [19, 20]. Therefore, the therapies employing adult SCs play a major role in human treatment as safe and effective approaches. Transplantations of autologous SCs isolated from mobilized peripheral blood or bone marrow are currently widely used in haematological patients with malignancies such as leukaemia and lymphoma [21]. Moreover, haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) residing predominantly in adult bone marrow are widely used for bone marrow reconstitution in patients suffering from several genetic and autoimmune diseases, blood cancers and haematopoietic defects [5, 7].
\nCurrent growing expectations for further advancements in regenerative medicine are highly focused on mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) belonging to adult SCs isolated from several tissue types [16, 18, 22, 23]. MSCs are multipotent, non‐haematopoietic cells, which can be isolated from various sources including bone marrow, adipose tissue, cord blood, umbilical cord, Wharton’s jelly and other tissues of the adult organism [22, 24]. Isolation of this type of cells does not raise any ethical concerns and is a relatively easy procedure. Moreover, MSCs are characterized by low immunogenicity with simultaneous immunomodulatory effect, and after transplantation, teratoma formation does not occur in the recipient organism [16, 18, 22, 23, 25]. Furthermore, potential regenerative applicability of MSCs is also enhanced by their paracrine activity related to several molecules released to their environment that may impact on other neighbouring cells affecting their functions [22, 25]. MSCs produce and release bioactive molecules, including multitude growth factors (e.g. TGF‐β1, bFGF, BMP‐4), anti‐inflammatory factors (e.g. IL‐10, PGE2, HGF) and cytoprotective agents (e.g. IL‐6, MCP‐1, IGF‐1), which promote resident cells to divide and remodel the damaged tissue [26]. All these listed features make MSCs as promising tool for biomedical research.
\nMSCs possess a robust proliferation capacity as well as a potential to differentiate into several lineages of mesodermal origin, including bone, cartilage and adipose tissue [23]. Moreover, they have been also shown to give rise to other cell types, such as endothelial, cardiac or liver cells, which may also be utilized in tissue regeneration [16, 27]. These unique biological values may be utilized for the development of personalized treatment strategy for several diseases and provide the progress in establishing modern cell‐based therapy. Cell‐based therapy represents a promising perspective of treatment directed at the regeneration of damaged tissues or organs using stem cells or progenitor cells both in the autologous and allogeneic system [16, 28–30].
\nAccording to the current U.S. National Institutes of Health database including clinical trials conducted worldwide, there are currently more than 240 clinical trials being conducted in the world employing MSCs in patients [31]. Examples of the application of MSCs isolated from different sources in the treatment of selected diseases are shown in \nTable 1\n.
\nType of MSCs | \nCondition | \nClinicalTrials.gov identifier | \n
---|---|---|
Umbilical cord‐derived MSCs | \nHepatic cirrhosis | \nNCT02652351 | \n
Aplastic anaemia | \nNCT03055078 | \n|
Stroke | \nNCT02580019 | \n|
Pneumoconiosis | \nNCT02668068 | \n|
Rheumatoid arthritis | \nNCT02643823 | \n|
Sweat gland diseases | \nNCT02304562 | \n|
Bone marrow‐derived MSCs | \nAcute myocardial infarction | \nNCT01652209 | \n
Chronic myocardial ischaemia | \nNCT02460770 | \n|
Acute respiratory distress syndrome | \nNCT02097641 | \n|
Middle cerebral artery infarction | \nNCT01461720 | \n|
Prostate cancer | \nNCT01983709 | \n|
Stroke | \nNCT02564328 | \n|
Adipose‐derived MSCs | \nInfantile spinal muscular atrophy | \nNCT02855112 | \n
Multiple sclerosis | \nNCT02326935 | \n|
Hair restoration | \nNCT02865421 | \n
One of the great new opportunities in medical science is the possibility of obtaining the induced pluripotent SCs (iPS cells) by genetic reprogramming of mature cells into the stage of pluripotency [15]. Due to the discovery of this phenomenon, professor Shinya Yamanaka was honoured with the Nobel Prize in medicine and physiology in 2012. Since then, iPS cells constitute an excellent model for
Thus, despite the fact that several new rising SCs types are being examined and optimized for future applications, the most commonly applicable SCs in cell therapies of distinct human diseases are adult stem cells including predominantly MSCs derived from bone marrow, adipose tissue and umbilical cord as well as HSCs harvested from bone marrow, mobilized peripheral blood and cord blood [16, 18, 28–30].
\nImmunomodulatory properties of SCs are important features involved in tissue repair, which are directly related to their paracrine activity. Despite the directly released molecules, mammalian cells, including SCs, are able to produce extracellular vesicles (EVs) carrying bioactive factors, which may additionally be involved in the modulation of the repair process of damaged tissues [35]. EVs represent heterogeneous population of small, circular structures surrounded with the protein‐lipid membrane that are released by cells including SCs. Importantly, the size and molecular composition of EVs are different and unique depending on the cell type of origin and the mechanism of their biogenesis. Depending on the size of EVs, they may be distinguished in apoptotic bodies (1–5 µm), microparticles (100 nm–1 µm) and exosomes (30–100 nm) fractions [36, 37].
\nSeveral recent scientific reports indicate that EVs express surface markers characterizing the cells from which they are released, along with EV‐specific antigens including tetraspanins (CD9, CD63 and CD81), endosome or membrane‐binding proteins (TG101), signal transduction or scaffolding proteins (syntenin) [36, 37]. Importantly, EVs may also include various types of bioactive components (e.g. mRNA, miRNA and enzymes), as well as receptors, adhesion or signalling proteins [38, 39]. Importantly, the contents of EVs can be effectively transferred to the target cells, change their function and impact in the regeneration of impaired tissues. Moreover, the presence of protein‐lipid membrane on the surface of EVs can protect their bioactive content from extracellular enzymes and therefore the cargo may be delivered in a fully functional form into targeted cells [38, 40]. Thus, EVs are recognized as mediators of intercellular communication and constitute an alternative or reinforcement of a standard cell‐based therapy.
\nThe biological relevance of EVs has been established in different experimental settings. Depending on the origin and content of EVs, they may enhance immune system, endorse anti‐tumour responses and thus may provide important tools for novel anti‐tumour therapies, such as melanoma treatment [41]. EVs may also be utilized as drug delivery vehicles [42], in regenerative medicine [43] and immune therapy [44]. Recently, our study also indicated that SC‐derived EVs may be utilized as a novel tool for regenerative therapies of ischemic tissue including in heart repair [38, 40].
\nHowever, further studies are required for comprehensive analysis of the mechanisms of EVs action and potential clinical applications of these promising SC derivatives.
\nBiomaterial by definition is a ‘substance (other than a drug), synthetic or natural, that can be used as a system or part of a system that treats, augments, or replaces any tissue, organ, or function of the body’ [45]. Thus, according to the definition biomaterials are progressively used in tissue engineering. They may be utilized for the construction of implants to replace lost or damaged organs or tissues and may also constitute a scaffold for enhanced stem cells to reconstruct not fully functional tissue [45, 46].
\nDue to the wide range of potential applications of biomaterials in regenerative medicine, their physical and chemical properties may be different [45, 47]. However, in order to use a biomaterial in medical application, it should follow relevant requirements such as biocompatibility and biofunctionality [45, 47]:
\nBiocompatibility is the ability to integrate with the recipient’s cells in a safe manner and without adverse side effects.
Biofunctionality is the ability to perform a specific biological function, based on the relevant parameters of the physical and mechanical properties.
Other important properties of biomaterials, which are affecting the potential application in medicine, include [45, 48, 49] the following:
\nBiodegradation—Decomposition of the material in a natural way, when degradation products remain in the human body but without adverse side effects.
Bioresorbability—Decomposition of the material in a natural way at a certain period of time after implantation. Non‐toxic‐degraded products are removed from the body
Non‐toxicity—From the surface or porous of the material does not elute any toxic components, such as surfactants, stabilizers, catalysts, pigments and UV absorbents, which were used during production and that are incompatible with living organisms.
Mechanical properties—Biomaterial should possess particular mechanical properties consistent with the anatomical site into which it will be implanted.
Several biomaterials useful for distinct applications in medical sciences, including in tissue repair and organ reconstruction, have already been developed over the last few decades [45, 47]. The biomaterial sciences are currently one of the highly advancing fields, which also closely cooperate with biotechnological and medical studies. Recent advancement in regenerative medicine strongly requires such strong support from biomaterial sciences, which may provide novel solutions for tissue repair [4, 49].
\nAmong the biomaterials recognized and developed for potential medical purposes, here are multitude materials commonly present in natural sources or
Natural materials commonly present in nature such as agarose, collagen, alginate, chitosan, hyaluronate or fibrin fully cooperate with living tissues of the recipient and possess low cytotoxicity [47, 48]. Moreover, they may exhibit specific protein‐binding sites that improve integration with cells after transplantation [48]. Thus, they are considered predominantly interesting for tissue engineering applications.
\nOne of the most common natural biomaterials is collagen—an important component of connective tissue, including bones, tendons, ligaments and skin [46, 50]. Collagen is simply absorbed into the body, is non‐toxic and exhibits a low immune response and as such is a perfect biocompatible material with an adequate mechanical strength and flexibility for several applications. Moreover, collagen enhances cell adhesion to such surface, stimulates also biological interactions between cells and facilitates restoration of the natural microenvironment of cell niche and thereby may support the reconstruction of several damaged tissues [46, 48, 50].
\nCollagen may be employed for tissue engineering in the form of sponges, gels, hydrogels and sheets. It may also be chemically crosslinked in order to enhance or alter the rate of degradation of the fibres [51]. Currently, collagen preparations are used predominantly in wound healing and cartilage regeneration. Injectable form of collagen is used for cosmetic and aesthetic medicine as a tissue filler. In addition, collagen‐based membranes are used in the periodontal treatment as a barrier preventing the migration of epithelial cells. It also forms a favourable microenvironment for stem cells to facilitate reconstruction of the damaged area [50, 51].
\nSynthetic materials are considered as an alternative to natural materials. Due to their defined chemical composition and the ability to control the mechanical and physical properties, they are extensively used in therapeutic applications and basic biological studies [48, 52–55].
\nDue to distinct variants of polymerization reaction and formation of co‐polymers, multiple synthetic polymers with wide range of physical and chemical properties may be achieved in chemical laboratories. Moreover, novel technologies in the synthesis and formation of more complex structures allow for the production of advanced composites [54]. Synthetic polymers, such as poly(ethylene) (PE), polyurethanes (PUR), polylactides (PLA) and poly(glycolide) (PGA), are widely employed as implants and components of medical devices [56]. Moreover, polymers may constitute suitable scaffold for cell propagation and enhance their biological activity, including neural stem cells, retinal progenitor cells or smooth muscle cells [55, 57, 58]. Thus, this group of biomaterials is currently in a special focus of scientists working on combined approaches using biocompatible scaffolds and stem cells for tissue repair [55, 57, 58].
\nBiodegradable polymers, including polyhydroxycarboxylic acids, such as PGA, PLA, poly(3‐hydroxybutyrate), poly(4‐hydroxybutyrate) and poly(∈‐caprolactone) (PCL) are of wide interest in the development of novel technologies [56]. One of their potential applications is utilization in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Our recent studies have shown the positive impact of both PCL and PLA scaffolds on proliferation, migration and proangiogenic potential of mesenchymal SCs derived from umbilical cord tissue
Synthetic polymers may also be used in biodegradable stents implanted after a heart attack and greatly contribute to patient recovery [56]. Importantly, the material should have suitable decomposition kinetics. Too long decomposition time (i.e. in the case of PLA or PGA) may lead to late stent thrombosis or blockages [56, 60]. One of a possible solution of this problem is to use rapidly biodegradable polymer stents coated with SCs to help rebuild damaged tissue and additionally stimulate resident cells to grow.
\nOther types of common synthetic materials useful for biomedical applications are ceramics. It has been well described that ceramic scaffolds, such as, for example, hydroxyapatite (HA) and tri‐calcium phosphate (TCP), are characterized by biocompatibility, high mechanical stiffness (Young’s modulus), very low elasticity and a hard brittle surface [49]. Due to their chemical and structural similarity to the mineral phase of native bone, these materials may enhance osteoblast proliferation and therefore they are widely utilized in bone regeneration [61, 62]. Moreover, ceramics may be exploited in dental and orthopaedic procedures to fill bone defects or as a bioactive coating material for implants to increase their integration after transplantation [63, 64]. However, their clinical applications are still limited due to the difficulties with the ability to change the shape of the material dedicated for transplantation and controlling time of their degradation rate [49, 65].
\nSimilarly, titanium (Ti)‐based metallic materials have been widely optimized for bone repair due to their mechanical properties and resistance to corrosion following the transplantation [66–68]. It has been shown that titanium scaffolds are effectively colonized by osteoblasts responsible for bone formation and this process may be enhanced
Importantly, graphene in its different forms is currently being considered as a potential new promising material for biomedical applications including tissue repair [73, 74]. This 2D carbon biocompatible material exhibits great electrical, conductive and physical properties, which make it interesting for potential applications for drug delivery and scaffold coating in regenerative therapies [74, 75]. It has been shown that graphene may enhance osteogenic differentiation of SCs [72, 73]. Moreover, our recent data also suggest the beneficial impact of graphene oxide (GO) on proliferative capacity, viability and differentiation potential of umbilical cord tissue‐derived MSCs, which confirms the possibility of future graphene employment in tissue repair [76].
\nHydrogels are frequently used biomaterials in the biomedical applications and represent systems consisting of two or more compartments comprising a three‐dimensional (3D) network of polymer chains and water that fills the spaces between the macromolecules [77, 78]. The main characteristics of hydrogels include the biocompatibility and ability to swell in solution until they reach a state of equilibrium. These allow them to be injected into the body in a non‐invasive manner [77, 78].
\nHydrogels demonstrate transparency and bioadhesive properties and they are widely used in the pharmaceutical and dermatological industries by local administration or filling the defects caused by injury [77]. They may also be utilized as an injectable material for bone and cartilage tissue engineering, which may be combined with appropriate cell injection [53, 78, 79]. It has been shown that
Smart materials represent a new generation of biomaterials, exceeding the functionality of the currently widely used construction materials. Smart materials are characterized by the ability to alter their physical characteristics in a controlled manner including changing the shape, colour, stiffness or stickiness in response to several external stimuli, such as temperature, hydrostatic pressure, electric and magnetic field or radiation [80]. These changes are related to the revealing or eliciting the new functionality of the material and may be utilized in biomedical applications. Through the common connection between the internal sensor, the activator and a specific control mechanism, smart materials are able to respond to external stimuli. Importantly, these mechanisms are also responsible for the return to the original state, when a stimulant disappeared [80, 81].
\nSmart materials include several types such as listed below [52, 80, 82–84]:
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Modern approaches in current regenerative medicine include developing biocompatible scaffolds and combining them with living cell of selected type and bioactive molecules, in order to enhance the regeneration process of damaged tissues and organs [47].
\nGrowing evidence indicate different populations of stem cells as a promising tool that may be utilized in tissue engineering and repair. Importantly, despite the regenerative properties of SCs, the restoration processes in damaged tissue are long and may not often be fully effective for functional recovery of damaged tissue. On the other hand, appropriate stimulation of reparative capacity of SCs may be achieved by modulation of chemical and physical properties of optimized biomaterials [47, 70, 77]. Therefore, simultaneous application of optimized and well‐combined SCs and biomaterials may open new perspectives for the synergistic effective cooperation of both such components to improve the efficiency of the regeneration process [77]. Biomaterials may enhance the biological activity of SCs by establishing a specific niche related to their native microenvironment. This type of cell‐biomaterial interactions leads to stimulation of cell adhesion, proliferation and directed differentiation of the cells implemented at the injured site [47, 70, 77]. Therefore, therapy based on biomaterials and SCs opens new possibilities for the development of innovative medicine [47, 77].
\nCurrently, growing evidence is focused on encapsulation of native SCs prior to their transplantation [47, 85]. Cells encapsulation technique is based on the immobilization of cells in a semi‐permeable membrane, which protects cells against mechanical damage and immune system response. Notably, the construction of the microcapsules allows bidirectional diffusion of nutrients, oxygen and wastes and therefore provides appropriate conditions for cell development [47, 85].
\nEncapsulated cells may be subjected to transplantation and directed differentiation. The material used to construct the microcapsules should possess particular physical properties, such as biocompatibility, mechanical stability, permeability, appropriate size, strength and durability [47]. One of the most common encapsulation materials is alginate. Due to the fact that the procedure for cell encapsulation using alginate can be performed under physiological conditions (physiological temperature and pH) and using isotonic solutions, it is widely distributed through clinical and industrial applications. Moreover, this natural biodegradable polymer that mimics the extracellular matrix and promotes cell functions and metabolism has been established in cartilage regenerative approaches [86, 87]. Microencapsulation technology represents a novel cell culture system that allows maintaining cell viability and differentiation of interested cell lines. It also may support the extracellular matrix production and cell organization in reconstructed tissue [86].
\nSignificant advancement of regenerative medicine, nanomedicine and biomaterials engineering offers extended possibilities to obtain novel, effective achievements, which may be utilized in biomedical applications. The effect of interdisciplinary activity resulted in the development of bioactive scaffolds that promote cell propagation and enhance their biological activity. However, some difficulties in biomaterial‐ and cell‐based therapy are still unclear and need to be addressed for widespread investigations. Nevertheless, integrative research in biomaterials and medicine fields is a challenge to develop effective therapies for cancer, civilization diseases and provide further development of tissue engineering.
\nThis work is supported by grants from the National Science Centre (NCN): SONATA BIS‐3 (UMO‐2013/10/E/NZ3/007500), SYMFONIA 3 (UMO‐2015/16/W/NZ4/00071) and the National Centre for Research and Development (NCBR): STRATEGMED III (BioMiStem project; ID 303570) to EZS. The Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology at the Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland, is a partner of the Leading National Research Center (KNOW) supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education.
\nThe COVID-19 pandemic has escalated into the largest health crisis of the 21st Century. According to the COVID-19 situation dashboard of the World Health Organization (WHO), the virus has infected more than 117,132,788 people worldwide to date, and has also killed over 2,600,839 [1]. Epidemiological projections show that the outbreak overwhelmed even well-developed healthcare systems [2]. Many countries have thus imposed pandemic suppression measures such as lockdowns and community quarantines in an effort to stem the progress of the pandemic [3].
Health commodity supply chains are a critical element of a well-functioning health system and a vital input to advancing national and regional health security goals. Strong medicine and health commodity supply chains improve health outcomes and build trust in health systems. Robust supply chains provide critical vaccines, medicines, diagnostics, and other essential health supplies to support communicable disease prevention, control, and response activities [4]. A public health supply chain is a network of interconnected organizations or actors that ensures the availability of health commodities to people who need them. Essentially there are four parts to a supply chain; product manufacturers or the suppliers, distributors, service providers (hospitals, pharmacies, retail medicine sellers) and finally the customers or patients [5].
The coronavirus pandemic is having a clear impact on the supply chains of virtually all manufacturers, retailers, and wholesalers. As the world attempts to navigate through this difficult time, most companies are struggling to maintain a steady flow of required goods and services. Whether it is frozen foods and grocery items, or ventilators and masks, medicines or even the services clinic visits etc), the supply chain has been facing multiple obstacles [6]. This disruption is mainly due to COVID 19 pandemic, emanating from China being the second largest economy in the world and the major supplier of inputs for manufacturing companies around the world. Majority of the original equipment manufacturers in China have stopped production [7]. At present, most of the production capacity of these drugs and chemical precursors are in the United States, China and India. Global supply chains have been disrupted due to loss of labor and raw material inputs, creating ripple effects that cross national boundaries [3].
This chapter describes the impacts of the pandemic on public health supply chain, challenges that countries are facing, learnings from the pandemic and provides futuristic strategic recommendations for the building and rebuilding of the supply chains to manage the impact of the pandemic and guide responsiveness towards future pandemics.
This chapter is an outcome of a systematic review done by using Purdue libraries online access and e-resources centre ‘All Databases” search tool. The search was conducted from June to August, 2020 using the PRISMA checklist. We screened 622 records and reviewed 31 peer reviewed publications and 7 unpublished papers from across the countries.
Literature search was done using keywords like “impact of COVID-19”, “effects of COVID-19”, “supply chain and COVID-19”, “health impacts of COVID-19”, “global and public health supply chain during pandemics”, “public health and supply chain”, and “impact of outbreaks” on databases like Pubmed, ProQuest, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Science Direct (Elsevier). We have excluded literatures that did not report challenges, effect or impact of COVID-19 on health supply chain and as well those not reported in English.
Figure 1 shows the flow chart of this review.
Flow of information through the different phases of the review.
After careful review of the articles, 38 out of 622 screened publications were selected for inclusion in this study. Extracted data were analyzed and sectioned into positive impact, negative impact, challenges, learnings and recommendations.
All the 38 studies included in the review were conducted between February and August, 2020. Majority of the studies reviewed were conducted globally [8], in Africa [9], Asia [2] and United States [5]. A survey published on March 28 by the Chartered Institute of Procurement and Supply found that 86% of supply chains are impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic while another study by the Institute for Supply Management found that between early March and late March, 2020, the number of companies experiencing supply chain impact rose from 80 to 95% [9].
Our review revealed the following:
While Covid-19 has been blamed for economic downturns, it has shifted organizational focus towards a sustainable supply chain [6]. Other positive impacts include:
Creativity and Flexibility among Companies and Countries. Due to the impact of COVID-19, many companies around the world started to re-purpose or re-adjust their production, with many brewing companies and distilleries producing hand-sanitizers, fashion companies producing masks and automotive companies looking to produce ventilators. Some governments and businesses developed a variety of innovative prevention measures such as drive-through testing kits and products that can be utilized all over the world. Countries that have never produced surgical masks, gloves, sanitizers, or ventilators turned to domestic production [7, 10, 11, 12, 13].
Increased Availability and Utilization of Technology and Innovation in the Health Sector:
Technology driven health services which was largely considered a novelty or luxury, now has the opportunity to demonstrate real value as traditional healthcare services become overwhelmed by patient load demands [7, 14].
Some organizations were able to quickly mobilize by leveraging existing tools for source-code dissemination, accelerating innovation and targeted problem-solving. Notably, the COVID-19 emergency has highlighted the power of the Maker community to make a real and immediate impact [13].
Diversification of suppliers and logistics models:
The pandemic has thrown up opportunities for entrepreneurs to take advantage of the need for sourcing raw materials along more efficient commodity routes and methods such as railways, increase in dual sourcing of key components and a preference for larger, more financially stable suppliers with multiple manufacturing sites [14, 15].
Companies that operate regularly in the supply chain should expect to see the emergence of stronger, more conservatively financed, multi-site suppliers as a long-term outcome of the pandemic [14].
Increased Capacity in Research and Development: As the world manages to contain Covid-19 outbreak, various countries and firms are focusing on finding a vaccine, developing protocol to treat infected patients, adopting capabilities which ensure the integrity of the processes and the quality of the products and creating a safe working environment for employees [6, 7, 13].
Unlike other disruption risks, the epidemic outbreaks start small but scale fast and disperse over many geographic regions causing simultaneous disruptions in supply, demand, and logistics infrastructure [16]. A report published on 21 February 2020, indicated that 94% of the companies listed in the Fortune 1000 list were already facing SC disruptions due to the COVID-19 [17]. Other negative impacts include:
Shortage in essential and non-essential medicines, raw materials, medical and pharmaceuticals products: As a result of the surge in the pandemic which led to the inevitable lock down of the economy across affected countries, there has been a noticeable decrease in production and exportation of equipment, raw materials, as well as finished products across different countries [6]. Production supply shortages, transport interruption and the virus containment measures taken by the government was limiting market access, hampering manufacturing activities and nudging the economy towards an inflationary recession which is adversely affecting the manufacturing sector, including that of health products production [7, 16, 18, 19, 20]. It has certainly surprised many to discover just how much western countries (in which shortages are particularly prevalent) rely upon global supply chains to obtain medical supplies from China and low-cost economies [21]. However, these networks have poor resilience to global disruptions, with nearly 35% of manufacturers reporting disturbances due to the global Corona virus pandemic [8, 11, 22]. Given the expected increase in COVID-19 cases and global competition for sourcing PPE, many medical facilities currently do not have enough stock and/or reliable resources to meet the anticipated demand [10].
Congestion of cargo terminals and delays in transportation of food and health commodities due to travel ban and movement restrictions: The severe spread of the virus into Europe and the United States has blocked the movement of the products and materials worldwide [8]. Many manufacturers and service providers experienced disruptions as more than $100 million worth of goods were stuck in China during the China lockdown [7]. For many countries and firms, the inability to respond to the Covid-19 outbreak lies in its transportation services [23]. The world’s largest 1,000 companies had over 12,000 factories, warehouses and operations in quarantined regions in early March, 2020 [19]. If cargo does not flow, within days, there will be no space in the terminals to discharge other cargo and some of the cargo waiting to be discharged includes food and medicine [7].
Depletion of human resource for supply chain: COVID-19 has cost hundreds of thousands of human lives globally including healthcare professionals, and exposed the weaknesses of national health systems worldwide [12]. Global supply chains have been disrupted due to loss of labor and raw material inputs, creating ripple effects that cross national boundaries [3].
Some big multi- nationals have left themselves dangerously exposed to supply-chain risk owing to strategies designed to bring down their costs [24].
Reduced access to medicines due to increase in prices of medicines and movement restrictions: In Nigeria, the lockdown which was accompanied with the closure of borders and travel ban across states led to a significant drop in the quantity of essential medicines in the health facilities with a consequent increase in the prices of medicines, hand sanitizers, face masks, personal protective equipment, and other medical equipment used for providing health care, making it difficult for consumers to get the medicines they need [25].
Reduced patronage to small scale suppliers: An increase in dual sourcing of key components and a preference for larger, more financially stable suppliers with multiple manufacturing sites presents new challenges for smaller and more leveraged companies, regardless of their expertise [14, 15].
The COVID-19 pandemic has triggered a number of challenges that have led to shortages and price hikes, and could potentially fuel an epidemic of fake and substandard medicines [26]. Findings from the reviewed literature reported the following challenges:
There is lack of visibility, collaboration and coordination of real demand and supply [7]. A survey with over 700 respondents conducted by Bass ware found that 60% of responding procurement managers experience a lack of transparency in their supply chain [9]. Absence of supply chain strategy for pandemics: Decision-making is executed under epistemic and stochastic uncertainty [27, 28].
Some supply chain disruption are not included in regular supplier performance metrics and such, unplanned for. Most supply chains are still based on reactive or transactional model, therefore, it could take several days or month to adjust supply chains during pandemics [7]. It has become extremely challenging to continue the operations of supply chains as the operations of some parts of the supply chain in some firms has stopped with little or no alternatives during disruption [7, 29]. ISM also found that 44% of respondents to its survey did not have plans in place to cope with supply disruptions from China [9].
It is a great challenge to provide medical supplies (such as masks and protective clothing etc.) and equipment (for checking, testing, and monitoring the disease etc.) to meet the needs of treatment, protection, and control [7]. In a pandemic situation, the demand of the essential products increases expressively; on the other hand, the supply of the raw materials decreases considerably with a constraint of production capacity. These dual disruptions impact the production process suddenly, and the process can collapse without immediate and necessary actions [8, 16, 30]. Limitation on international trade and travel; The ban on the international travel during this pandemic may pose a serious challenge to the healthcare system in Nigeria and across Africa because of heavy reliance of Nigeria and other developing countries on importation of medicines, API and other needed resources for drug manufacturing from other countries [31]. Due to severe disruptions (e.g., manufacturers closed or partially closed, air- ports operating with harsh restrictions, shortages of medical equipment and supplies) recorded, a good number of industries including health commodity manufacturers may experience ripple effects [17, 29].
Cost and legal issues: Another challenging part is keeping cost under control which includes higher production costs, shipping costs and agreed costs of pending orders. A legal issue related to disagreeing the agreed cost as a Force Majeure clause or not, poses legal challenge for every company [32].
Wrong supply chain success function shift, which focuses on just cost savings and not revenue-assurance or sustainability [7]. A lot of the resilience challenges have arisen from a cost obsession and short-term cost focus in supply chain management [9].
Once effective pharmaceutical treatments are found, there will be the major engineering challenge of ramping up production at a rate that matches the pandemic [27]. Planning will be hindered by the lack of solid scientific knowledge about COVID-19 and inadequate literature on pharmaceutical supply chain (PSC) network design in the disastrous situations and other uncertainties (current literature on disruption recovery strategies and modeling during pandemics is mostly limited to humanitarian logistics) which make demand projections highly uncertain [16, 22, 27].
Limited supply chain talents in Africa [28].
Social Resilience among Supply Chain Partners, Healthcare professionals and Patients: Most supply chains are transactional in nature but transactional supply chain will not be beneficial during and post Covid-19 [6] Thus;
It is critical to prepare health care professionals to build resilience in their interactions with patients and other stakeholders [12]
By developing a culture of collaboration across its supply network, a firm can develop trust among supply chain partners that can help in data-sharing and joint problem-solving [6]
Covid-19 has forced companies to lay greater emphasis on the environmental and social aspects of public health supply chain and not just the economical aspect [6, 33]
Inflexibility of Supply Chains: Most firms follow strict rules for their supply chain such as; specific number of days for distribution, specific production time, delivery rules, etc. These responses have proved to be inadequate during the crisis. Thus, reacting to the Covid-19 requires flexibility in the supply chain and the overall ecosystem of a firm;
The central learning from Covid-19 is to diversify production, sourcing, and logistics whenever and however required such that external shocks cannot disrupt the supply chain [6].
We also found evidence that centralized procurement and tendering can achieve direct cost savings, while supply chain management program can reduce drug stock outs and increase drug availability for populations [34].
The Decoupling from China’s Supply Chains: COVID-19 has accelerated two powerful trends for the future, the decoupling from China’s supply chains and the relocation of strategic manufacturing operations out of China [12]. A study by corporate data analytics firm, Dun & Bradstreet, reported that 51,000 companies around the world have one or more direct suppliers in Wuhan and at least 5 million companies around the world have one or more tier-two suppliers in the Wuhan region, where COVID-19 originated [18]. In US, there’s been bipartisan support for legislation that would study the current medical equipment supply chain and develop an action plan to potentially address the country’s dependence on foreign-made products [21].
Strategies to deal with Major Outbreaks
Designing an appropriate pharmaceutical supply chain network for pre-positioning and distributing drugs at post-disaster plays an important role in decreasing the response time and the number of casualties.
Pre-positioning of emergency supplies belongs to the preparedness phase of a disaster that brings about some advantages for the Humanitarian organizations [22].
Analysis of the Italian production network has found that sectors are both highly connected and asymmetrically connected. Hence, a local shock due to lockdown policy propagates through the whole economy and generates a sizeable global disturbance. This confirms the importance of value chain analysis in investigating how the economy adjusts to dislocation and destruction of parts of its productive capacity [35].
The current impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on the manufacturing firms is already very severe and medium-to-long-term impacts are predicted to be higher than that of any other previous major outbreaks such as 2003 SARS and 2009 H1N1 [21, 36, 37, 38].
Key levers for de-risking the supply chain include the need to balance global sourcing with near shore and local sourcing, the adoption of multiple sources and a greater utilization of information technology to drive more complete and immediate information availability. Talent management in supply chain management needs to promote a focus not just on costs, but also on resilience as well as on learning from current events to improve decision-making [10, 30]. Findings from the reviewed literature reported the following recommendations:
Strengthen Local Manufacturing Capacity and Fortify local supply chain: The global scientific community has been galvanized into action in a frantic search for a cure for COVID-19. Greater collaboration between governments and industries will be needed to ensure minimum disruption in global supply chains Firms also need to collaborate with multiple stakeholders and be more strategic in their approach to supply chain management. Companies have to come up with alternative means of raw materials sourcing and identify other modes of cost benefit transportation. This will also involve identifying urgent research and development challenges for pharmaceutical supply chains. There should be increased R & D by local universities who should create specialized post-graduate schools that focus on research, while also recruiting and training fresh lecturers who focus on research and product/process development to grow the domestic manufacturing sector [6, 12, 15, 16, 22, 28, 29, 32, 39].
Technological Augmentation and Utilization: Studies have recommended new supply chain technologies that dramatically improve collaboration, visibility, agility and optimization across the end-to-end supply chain, understand complexities and support companies’ ability to resist such shocks from impact of any pandemics or rare events. Block chain systems can assist in keeping the data needed for recoveries such as information and data for production capacity, human resources requirements, information of supplier capacities, and emergency suppliers [6, 17, 30, 32, 38, 40].
Policymakers and program managers should examine the root causes of inefficiencies in pharmaceutical supply chain and procurement processes in order to determine how best to improve health systems performance in their specific contexts. In addition they should consider the root causes of programmatic challenges to purchasing and distributing health products in their context and identify specific interventions that can strengthen these processes. As the evolution and implications of the COVID-19 crisis are still unfolding, we posit that exploring the experiences and strategic responses of Asian countries may shed some useful light on ways to combat COVID-19 for the policymakers and suuply chain managers in the rest of the world [12, 34].
Development and Assessment of supply chain strategies: Optimal supply chain planning taking into account agility, resilience and sustainability are important. The negative impact of the pandemic has fostered the need for development and implementation of health supply chain strategy. The next-generation supply chain needs a significant change in outlook. Based on our analysis, we recommend firms adopt a forward looking approach. These forward-looking strategies must comprise of multiple facets of the supply chain including people, processes, and technology.
Devoting resources for supply network mapping as a risk-mitigation strategy. A firm can design its supply network in such a way that it can balance risk and operational flexibility, manage supply chain disruptions, and keep supply chain agile. Brian Higgins, a principal Supply Chain & Operations Leader of KPMG, US has recommended some very pertinent action points for the long term:
Build agility and speed into your supply chain by creating Micro-Supply Chains;
Assess opportunities to diversify the supplier base and identify geographically diverse suppliers to onboard in the event of emergency. Consideration should be given to dual-sourcing for critical components.
Move towards a Supplier-Centric approach to procurement, further integrating your supply chain with those of your direct suppliers to Original Equipment Manufacturers and direct suppliers to Tier-1 and Tier 2 suppliers
Look to develop more collaborative relationships with critical suppliers in other to build organizational resilience as it is highly unrealistic to completely exit the Chinese market because of the supplier ecosystem in the place, however, organizations should understand their supply chain more deeply.
A study proposed a framework for operations and supply chain management at the times of COVID-19 pandemic spanning six perspectives, i.e., adaptation, digitalization, preparedness, recovery, ripple effect, and sustainability.
Assessment of COVID-19-related procurement and supply chain risks and life-cycle sustainability assessment of pharmaceutical product systems and development of drug allocation strategies under resource or supply constraints were recommended [6, 17, 41].
Human resource supply chain strategy that includes the selection of the critical workforce that can handle the turbulence in any environment. The supply chain initiatives will require a focused Crisis Management head whose skills and responsibility will be to communicate to all stake holders, consolidating requirements and setting priorities and work on risk mitigating methods of supply chain during non-crisis period. This will need scenario planning, resource optimization, and efficiency management. There is a greater need for a firm to look beyond profitability. Ensuring the well-being of not only a firm’s employees but also those employed even with suppliers is critical if a firm wants to avoid disruptions in the supply chain [6, 32].
Utilize suitable resilience strategies for designing pharmaceutical relief networks, employ other types of supply contracts, consider the coordination and collaboration of multiple humanitarian organizations in a collaborative setting and address the case in which successive disasters may happen. Relief managers can ensure the high availability level of pre-positioned pharmaceutical items by paying attention to their procurement time and shelf-lives. By utilizing mobile pharmacies the distance between relief shelters and drug supply sites can be reduced, and the distribution of drugs to inaccessible areas can be possible. Infectious disease outbreak preparedness strategies should incorporate primary healthcare services and other health system modalities to cater for non– pandemic-related conditions [18, 22].
Suppliers should manage the perception of their readiness to adapt to changing situations. Those that demonstrate competence will be rewarded as their customers look back in the coming years. Rather than ignore or complain about uncertainty, suppliers will be well-served if they can demonstrate plans that show customers they can reliably manufacture regardless of societal disruptions. Suppliers also need to be dynamic by focusing on multiple best practices explored by other suppliers, competitors and ecosystem in order to optimize cost and delivery, improve visibility across the network, and accelerate reaction times to issues in production and delivery [6, 14, 15].
The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted global health product supply chains, affecting key materials and ingredients, finished health products, logistics, and shipping medical devices, essential medicines and pharmaceutical products as a result of border closures, international trade restrictions and transportation problems [42]. The COVID-19 pandemic clearly shows the lack of resilience in supply chains and the impact that disruptions may have on a global network scale as individual supply chain connections and nodes fail [41].
As did HIV, the COVID-19 is likely to have profound and long-term consequences on global health care supply chains. The HIV pandemic transformed health care supply chains globally and in particular in lower and middle-income countries, (LMICs) leading to the mobilization of new financial resources for health care products, service delivery, and the creation of international bodies (including The Global Fund and PEPFAR) [43].
The short-term effects of COVID-19 on global health care supply chains have been severe; factory and border closures, transportation disruption, shifting demand, and price increases but it is more important to reflect on what the long-term consequences will be and how global changes will affect the LMICs. This is because LMICs are in their early stages of pharmaceutical development; thus they rely on importation of drugs, raw materials and equipment from countries outside the region, notably India and China.18 Researchers wonder whether the changes will be positive overall or if countries will revert to the same systems that left us unprepared for an international pandemic. This review was unable to find answer to these questions. However, crises like pandemics tend to have lasting impacts, and it is likely that the short-term disruption of health care supply chains we are seeing will result in longer-term structural changes. This highlights the need for policymakers to address challenges to large-scale and sustainable drug manufacturing, using the COVID-19 situation as a learning opportunity. It is interesting that some companies are offering strong technological solutions, which may help them survive and even prosper. While the hope is that COVID-19 will increase recognition of the importance of strong health care supply chains with commensurate investment, there will also be pressure on funders to rebuild their own shattered economies. There will be pressure to turn inward, certainly over the short term. There may also be opportunities for alternative financing mechanisms including venture capital [43]. The review has noted the fact that disruption does not necessarily mean negative outcomes and that it is incumbent on all health supply chains organizations to turn this disruptive event into positive change.
The COVID-19 pandemic is a disruption of an unprecedented magnitude, which is testing the resilience of global supply chains. The ability for a supply chain’s operators to effectively plan, enabling a means for the supply chain to absorb, recover from, and adapt to disruptions of various lengths, impacts, and probabilities, is essential to ensuring the supply chain’s function and success. For a supply chain, resilience measures the ability to prepare for and provide essential functions during a disruption, and then to recover from and adapt post-disruption into a form that is better suited to the new “present.” Although sustainability, robustness, risk mitigation, leanness, and other supply chain management practices are important for business success, supply chain resilience is unique in its focus on recovery following a disruptive event [44].
Maintaining the supply chain of pharmaceutical products is not only paramount to cover the immediate medical response but will be fundamental to reducing disruption of the healthcare delivery system, which requires constant medicines, diagnostic tools and vaccines for smooth functioning.
In Nigeria, for example, over 70% of the prescribed medications are produced from active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) primarily sourced from firms in China and India. Uninterrupted access to medicine is an integral part of healthcare systems much needed and essential for the well-being of the population, but the COVID-19 pandemic has threatened this [31].
There is need to consider the new digital technologies that have potential to improve the ripple effect control in cases of epidemic outbreaks. Making innovations and data work for the supply chain resilience in crisis times, understanding and progressing the research of how these technologies can be used boost supply chains resilience, are important future research areas with a particular focus on data analytics, artificial intelligence, and machine learning [45].
There is minimal risk of bias in this study as articles were merely reviewed as presented and reviewers were not privy to the original data of the individual studies. Reviewers were also not interested in the outcome of the review but aimed at providing recommendations to country supply chains for the benefit of public health. None of the reviewers is a publisher of any of the articles reviewed. The review is limited to the competences of the reviewers in interpreting the results and to the fact that the coverage of included articles was flexible and neither restricted the review to articles conducted in homogenous settings nor compared their findings.
This study buttresses the need to devise and institute clear strategies on supply chain management in country and regional emergency responses, promotion of local manufacturing of medicines and other health products to reduce the extensive dependency on importation from international markets and increase the talent pool of supply chain management especially in Africa.
The review concluded that many manufacturers and service providers in some countries are already experiencing severe shortage of essential and non-essential raw materials including medical and pharmaceutical products, in addition to intermediate inputs, due to the COVID-19 pandemic and it’s consequent border closures, trade restrictions among nations, and transportation problems. The COVID-19 pandemic however exposed some hidden potentials in many countries especially in Sub Saharan African. There is need for health supply chain resilience through development of a reliable supply chain strategy for pandemics and other such emergencies.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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It is possible to evaluate the silica network formation along the hydrolysis and condensation reactions in terms of siloxane rings formation and Si–O(–Si) angle deformation due to the introduction of organic groups, the employed synthetic route or encapsulated species interaction. The siloxane four- or six-membered rings imply in a more rigid or flexible network, respectively, in order to accommodate the organic groups. A structural analysis of the materials is of high importance, since interactions between the encapsulated molecules and the matrix are critical for the device performance, such as sensors. This type of device needs the permeation of an analyte to activate the encapsulated receptor molecules inside the silica structure. Fourier transform infrared spectrometry can be also used to determine parameters of the silica network as a function of the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity degree and the siloxane ring structure with respect to thin film porosity. This silica structural analysis is reviewed along the text in a tentative of better exploring the data resulting from these powerful techniques. In addition, the functionalization of silica structures by the use of organoalkoxysilanes, which is important to the creation of high-specific materials, can be well described by these two complementary techniques. The Si–C bonds and the maintenance of the organic substituents such as methyl, octyl, octadecyl, vinyl, phenyl, aminopropyl, mercaptopropyl, isocyanatopropyl, iodopropyl, chloropropyl and glicydoxypropyl could be evaluated after the sol-gel synthesis process. The literature regarding silica vibrational spectroscopy is also explored creating a data bank of wave numbers for the most important bonds for different types of silica and hybrid silica materials obtained by different synthetic routes.",book:{id:"5283",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopy-to-current-research-in-the-chemical-and-biological-sciences",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",fullTitle:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences"},signatures:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti and João Henrique Zimnoch",authors:[{id:"178200",title:"Prof.",name:"Joao Henrique",middleName:null,surname:"Zimnoch Dos Santos",slug:"joao-henrique-zimnoch-dos-santos",fullName:"Joao Henrique Zimnoch Dos Santos"},{id:"186947",title:"Dr.",name:"Larissa",middleName:null,surname:"Brentano Capeletti",slug:"larissa-brentano-capeletti",fullName:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti"}]},{id:"63324",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80430",title:"Fatty Acids: From Membrane Ingredients to Signaling Molecules",slug:"fatty-acids-from-membrane-ingredients-to-signaling-molecules",totalDownloads:1630,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Fatty acid constitutes the foundation cell membranes, provides metabolic energy, affects functions of membrane-bound enzymes/receptors, conducts signaling cascades, and helps in learning-related memory cognition in mammals, including humans. Structurally, the fatty acids are of two kinds: saturated and unsaturated; the latter are again of mono- and polyunsaturated types. From nutritional perspectives, they are of essential and nonessential types. Omega-6 linoleic acid (ω-6 LLA, C18:2) and ω-3 alpha linolenic acid (ω-3 αLLN, C18:3) and ω-6 arachidonic acid [(ω-6 AA, C20:4); it is conditional] are essential fatty acids (EFAs). In addition, mammalian brains cannot biosynthesize the ω-3 docosahexaenoic acid (ω-3 DHA, C22:6) in adequate amounts because of lack of necessary enzymes. Thus, DHA is essential for the growth and development of the brains. Deficiency of DHA produces visual- and learning-related memory impairments, and neurodegeneration in the aged brains and Alzheimer’s disease brains. Finally, this chapter will highlight and broaden the awareness about the essentiality of different fatty acids with a special emphasis on DHA.",book:{id:"7006",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids"},signatures:"Michio Hashimoto and Shahdat Hossain",authors:[{id:"260006",title:"Prof.",name:"Shahdat",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"shahdat-hossain",fullName:"Shahdat Hossain"},{id:"260206",title:"Prof.",name:"Michio",middleName:null,surname:"Hashimoto",slug:"michio-hashimoto",fullName:"Michio Hashimoto"}]},{id:"43080",doi:"10.5772/55287",title:"Grain Yield Determination and Resource Use Efficiency in Maize Hybrids Released in Different Decades",slug:"grain-yield-determination-and-resource-use-efficiency-in-maize-hybrids-released-in-different-decades",totalDownloads:4873,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"3586",slug:"agricultural-chemistry",title:"Agricultural Chemistry",fullTitle:"Agricultural Chemistry"},signatures:"Laura Echarte, Lujan Nagore, Javier Di Matteo, Matías Cambareri, Mariana Robles and Aída Della Maggiora",authors:[{id:"164811",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Echarte",slug:"laura-echarte",fullName:"Laura Echarte"},{id:"165595",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:"Lujan",surname:"Nagore",slug:"maria-nagore",fullName:"Maria Nagore"},{id:"165596",title:"BSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Di Matteo",slug:"javier-di-matteo",fullName:"Javier Di Matteo"},{id:"165598",title:"BSc.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Robles",slug:"mariana-robles",fullName:"Mariana Robles"},{id:"165599",title:"MSc.",name:"Aída",middleName:null,surname:"Della Maggiora",slug:"aida-della-maggiora",fullName:"Aída Della Maggiora"},{id:"167765",title:"Dr.",name:"Matias",middleName:null,surname:"Cambareri",slug:"matias-cambareri",fullName:"Matias Cambareri"}]},{id:"51767",doi:"10.5772/64581",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopic Methods to the Elucidation of Lignin Structure",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopic-methods-to-the-elucidation-of-lignin-structure",totalDownloads:2934,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Lignin in plant cell wall is a complex amorphous polymer and is biosynthesized mainly from three aromatic alcohols, namely, p-coumaryl, coniferyl, and sinapyl alcohols. This biosynthesis process consists of mainly radical coupling reactions and creates a unique lignin polymer in each plant species. Generally, lignin mainly consists of p-hydroxyphenyl (H), guaiacyl (G), and syringyl (S) units and is linked by several types of carbon-carbon (β-β, β-5, β-1, and 5–5) and ether bonds. Due to the structural complexity, various molecular spectroscopic methods have been applied to unravel the aromatic units and different interunit linkages in lignin from different plant species. This chapter is focused on the application of ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, Fourier transform Raman (FT-Raman) spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to lignin structural elucidation.",book:{id:"5283",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopy-to-current-research-in-the-chemical-and-biological-sciences",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",fullTitle:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences"},signatures:"Tingting You and Feng Xu",authors:[{id:"174103",title:"Prof.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"feng-xu",fullName:"Feng Xu"},{id:"182550",title:"Dr.",name:"Tingting",middleName:null,surname:"You",slug:"tingting-you",fullName:"Tingting You"}]},{id:"43053",doi:"10.5772/55416",title:"In vitro Antioxidant Analysis and the DNA Damage Protective Activity of Leaf Extract of the Excoecaria agallocha Linn Mangrove Plant",slug:"in-vitro-antioxidant-analysis-and-the-dna-damage-protective-activity-of-leaf-extract-of-the-excoecar",totalDownloads:3352,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3586",slug:"agricultural-chemistry",title:"Agricultural Chemistry",fullTitle:"Agricultural Chemistry"},signatures:"C. Asha Poorna, M.S. Resmi and E.V. Soniya",authors:[{id:"148913",title:"Dr.",name:"Soniya",middleName:null,surname:"E V",slug:"soniya-e-v",fullName:"Soniya E V"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51767",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopic Methods to the Elucidation of Lignin Structure",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopic-methods-to-the-elucidation-of-lignin-structure",totalDownloads:2934,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Lignin in plant cell wall is a complex amorphous polymer and is biosynthesized mainly from three aromatic alcohols, namely, p-coumaryl, coniferyl, and sinapyl alcohols. This biosynthesis process consists of mainly radical coupling reactions and creates a unique lignin polymer in each plant species. Generally, lignin mainly consists of p-hydroxyphenyl (H), guaiacyl (G), and syringyl (S) units and is linked by several types of carbon-carbon (β-β, β-5, β-1, and 5–5) and ether bonds. Due to the structural complexity, various molecular spectroscopic methods have been applied to unravel the aromatic units and different interunit linkages in lignin from different plant species. This chapter is focused on the application of ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, Fourier transform Raman (FT-Raman) spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to lignin structural elucidation.",book:{id:"5283",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopy-to-current-research-in-the-chemical-and-biological-sciences",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",fullTitle:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences"},signatures:"Tingting You and Feng Xu",authors:[{id:"174103",title:"Prof.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"feng-xu",fullName:"Feng Xu"},{id:"182550",title:"Dr.",name:"Tingting",middleName:null,surname:"You",slug:"tingting-you",fullName:"Tingting You"}]},{id:"62041",title:"Assessment of Sugarcane-Based Ethanol Production",slug:"assessment-of-sugarcane-based-ethanol-production",totalDownloads:2249,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter aims to explain how bio-ethanol has been drawn to become a successful alternative to partially replace petroleum as a source of liquid fuels in Brazil. A brief historical analysis about the production of bio-ethanol from sugarcane is presented. The motivation to start the production of the ethanol as biofuel in the 1970s and how the governmental policies have contributed to the ups and downs, successes, and failures of the sugarcane industry is shown. Then, the efficiency of the sector is addressed; firstly, the increasing efficiency of the agricultural sector is discussed, showing how the productivity per hectare has increased in the last decades and which improvements are further expected in a near future. Finally, the industrial process is discussed: the current efficiency in processing sugarcane to produce ethanol and the emerging technologies, not only to process sugarcane juice, but also to harness bagasse, vinasse, and sugarcane straw.",book:{id:"7238",slug:"fuel-ethanol-production-from-sugarcane",title:"Fuel Ethanol Production from Sugarcane",fullTitle:"Fuel Ethanol Production from Sugarcane"},signatures:"Rubens Eliseu Nicula de Castro, Rita Maria de Brito Alves,\nCláudio Augusto Oller do Nascimento and Reinaldo Giudici",authors:[{id:"50350",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Oller Do Nascimento",slug:"claudio-oller-do-nascimento",fullName:"Claudio Oller Do Nascimento"},{id:"98033",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita Maria",middleName:null,surname:"De Brito Alves",slug:"rita-maria-de-brito-alves",fullName:"Rita Maria De Brito Alves"},{id:"248441",title:"BSc.",name:"Rubens E",middleName:null,surname:"N De Castro",slug:"rubens-e-n-de-castro",fullName:"Rubens E N De Castro"},{id:"248442",title:"Prof.",name:"Reinaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Giudici",slug:"reinaldo-giudici",fullName:"Reinaldo Giudici"}]},{id:"52212",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman Characterization of Silica-Based Materials",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-and-raman-characterization-of-silica-based-materials",totalDownloads:3449,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman are powerful techniques to evaluate silica and hybrid silica structure. It is possible to evaluate the silica network formation along the hydrolysis and condensation reactions in terms of siloxane rings formation and Si–O(–Si) angle deformation due to the introduction of organic groups, the employed synthetic route or encapsulated species interaction. The siloxane four- or six-membered rings imply in a more rigid or flexible network, respectively, in order to accommodate the organic groups. A structural analysis of the materials is of high importance, since interactions between the encapsulated molecules and the matrix are critical for the device performance, such as sensors. This type of device needs the permeation of an analyte to activate the encapsulated receptor molecules inside the silica structure. Fourier transform infrared spectrometry can be also used to determine parameters of the silica network as a function of the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity degree and the siloxane ring structure with respect to thin film porosity. This silica structural analysis is reviewed along the text in a tentative of better exploring the data resulting from these powerful techniques. In addition, the functionalization of silica structures by the use of organoalkoxysilanes, which is important to the creation of high-specific materials, can be well described by these two complementary techniques. The Si–C bonds and the maintenance of the organic substituents such as methyl, octyl, octadecyl, vinyl, phenyl, aminopropyl, mercaptopropyl, isocyanatopropyl, iodopropyl, chloropropyl and glicydoxypropyl could be evaluated after the sol-gel synthesis process. The literature regarding silica vibrational spectroscopy is also explored creating a data bank of wave numbers for the most important bonds for different types of silica and hybrid silica materials obtained by different synthetic routes.",book:{id:"5283",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopy-to-current-research-in-the-chemical-and-biological-sciences",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",fullTitle:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences"},signatures:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti and João Henrique Zimnoch",authors:[{id:"178200",title:"Prof.",name:"Joao Henrique",middleName:null,surname:"Zimnoch Dos Santos",slug:"joao-henrique-zimnoch-dos-santos",fullName:"Joao Henrique Zimnoch Dos Santos"},{id:"186947",title:"Dr.",name:"Larissa",middleName:null,surname:"Brentano Capeletti",slug:"larissa-brentano-capeletti",fullName:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti"}]},{id:"63324",title:"Fatty Acids: From Membrane Ingredients to Signaling Molecules",slug:"fatty-acids-from-membrane-ingredients-to-signaling-molecules",totalDownloads:1630,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Fatty acid constitutes the foundation cell membranes, provides metabolic energy, affects functions of membrane-bound enzymes/receptors, conducts signaling cascades, and helps in learning-related memory cognition in mammals, including humans. Structurally, the fatty acids are of two kinds: saturated and unsaturated; the latter are again of mono- and polyunsaturated types. From nutritional perspectives, they are of essential and nonessential types. Omega-6 linoleic acid (ω-6 LLA, C18:2) and ω-3 alpha linolenic acid (ω-3 αLLN, C18:3) and ω-6 arachidonic acid [(ω-6 AA, C20:4); it is conditional] are essential fatty acids (EFAs). In addition, mammalian brains cannot biosynthesize the ω-3 docosahexaenoic acid (ω-3 DHA, C22:6) in adequate amounts because of lack of necessary enzymes. Thus, DHA is essential for the growth and development of the brains. Deficiency of DHA produces visual- and learning-related memory impairments, and neurodegeneration in the aged brains and Alzheimer’s disease brains. Finally, this chapter will highlight and broaden the awareness about the essentiality of different fatty acids with a special emphasis on DHA.",book:{id:"7006",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids"},signatures:"Michio Hashimoto and Shahdat Hossain",authors:[{id:"260006",title:"Prof.",name:"Shahdat",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"shahdat-hossain",fullName:"Shahdat Hossain"},{id:"260206",title:"Prof.",name:"Michio",middleName:null,surname:"Hashimoto",slug:"michio-hashimoto",fullName:"Michio Hashimoto"}]},{id:"63553",title:"Cyclic Fatty Acids in Food: An Under-Investigated Class of Fatty Acids",slug:"cyclic-fatty-acids-in-food-an-under-investigated-class-of-fatty-acids",totalDownloads:1340,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Cyclic fatty acids are an unusual class of minor fatty acids generally produced by bacteria and less frequently by plants. Among plants, the most known cyclic fatty acid is sterculic acid (9, 10-methyleneoctadecenoic acid) produced by Sterculia foetida. Bacteria (e.g., lactic acid bacteria) synthetize cyclopropane fatty acids, such as dihydrosterculic acid (9, 10-methylene octadecanoic acid) and lactobacillic acid (11, 12 methylene octadecanoic acid), to strength their membrane, improving their resistance to environmental stress. Another class of cyclic fatty acids is omega-cyclohexyl fatty acids, present in milk and probably produced by rumen bacteria. Cyclopropane and omega-cyclohexyl fatty acids have been recently found in bovine meat and dairy products, representing important foodstuffs in human diet. In this chapter, a review of literature data concerning the presence of cyclic fatty acids in foods, their metabolism in humans, and their potential bioactivity will be provided. The role of some cyclic fatty acids as molecular markers for food authenticity will also be highlighted.",book:{id:"7006",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids"},signatures:"Augusta Caligiani and Veronica Lolli",authors:[{id:"257412",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Augusta",middleName:null,surname:"Caligiani",slug:"augusta-caligiani",fullName:"Augusta Caligiani"},{id:"257577",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Lolli",slug:"veronica-lolli",fullName:"Veronica Lolli"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"82",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"80838",title:"Effect of Cross-Linking Agent on Mechanical and Permeation Properties of Criolla Orange Pectin",slug:"effect-of-cross-linking-agent-on-mechanical-and-permeation-properties-of-criolla-orange-pectin",totalDownloads:34,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102976",abstract:"Pectin from orange peel was extracted and cross-linked, applying different cross-linking agents to visualize any effect on its mechanical and permeation properties. Calcium chloride (II) and iron chloride (III) were the cross-linking agents. Besides, commercial pectin was also used to compare its properties with neat orange pectin. Tensile testing showed mechanical stiffness of the orange pectin matrix in the presence of cross-linking agents. Calcium ions better cross-linked the polymer matrix as shown by their highest tensile strength and elastic modulus, with moderate elongation at break. Iron ions showed a weaker cross-linking effect on the pectin matrix, improving the elastic modulus but retaining almost the same tension strength. Lower elongation at break concerning neat orange pectin was observed for cross-linked samples. Water uptake (WU) and water vapor permeation (WVP) of cross-linked samples had lower values than those of neat orange pectin. However, these results are still high compared with synthetic polymers. Finally, gas permeation assays were performed using N2, O2 and CO2 gases, according to exchangeable gases in fresh fruits and vegetable packaging. Results showed a conveniently modified atmosphere effect by avoiding CO2 permeation and stabilizing N2 and O2 selectivity.",book:{id:"10742",title:"Pectins - The New-Old Polysaccharides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10742.jpg"},signatures:"María Guadalupe García and Martin Alberto Masuelli"},{id:"79923",title:"Sustainable Horticultural Waste Management: Industrial and Environmental Perspective",slug:"sustainable-horticultural-waste-management-industrial-and-environmental-perspective",totalDownloads:158,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101689",abstract:"Horticultural crops are highly nutritious and shared lion portion of our daily diet. These items are consumed in different ways according to their nature and processing processes. These days, a crucial concerning issue is arising globally to ensure nutrition security for huge population that leads to focus on production increase, quality improvement, food safety assurance, and processing strategies. Consequently, a large amount of waste generates in the processing industries, household kitchen, and supply chain of horticultural commodities that has led to a significant nutrition and economic loss, consequently creating environment pollution with extensive burden of landfills. However, these wastes showed magnificent potentiality of re-utilization in several industries owing to as rich source of different bioactive compounds and phytochemicals. Therefore, sustainable extraction methods and utilization strategies deserve the extensive investigations. This review paper extensively illustrates the horticultural waste generation options, sustainable recycling strategies, and potentiality of recycled products in different industries for betterment in population with the assurance of green environment and sustainable ecology.",book:{id:"10742",title:"Pectins - The New-Old Polysaccharides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10742.jpg"},signatures:"Jahidul Hassan, Md. Noor-E-Azam Khan, Md. Mijanur Rahman Rajib, Maksuratun Nahar Suborna, Jiasmin Akter and Md. Faisal Ahamed Hasan"},{id:"79710",title:"Pectin-Based Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering Applications",slug:"pectin-based-scaffolds-for-tissue-engineering-applications",totalDownloads:105,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101521",abstract:"Tissue engineering (TE) is an interdisciplinary field that was introduced from the necessity of finding alternative approaches to transplantation for the treatment of damaged and diseased organs or tissues. Unlike the conventional procedures, TE aims at inducing the regeneration of injured tissues through the implantation of customized and functional engineered tissues, built on the so-called ‘scaffolds’. These provide structural support to cells and regulate the process of new tissue formation. The properties of the scaffold are essentials, and they can be controlled by varying the biomaterial formulation and the fabrication technology used to its production. Pectin is emerging as an alternative biomaterial to non-degradable and high-cost petroleum-based biopolymers commonly used in this field. It shows several promising properties including biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity and gelling capability. Pectin-based formulations can be processed through different fabrication approaches into bidimensional and three-dimensional scaffolds. This chapter aims at highlighting the potentiality in using pectin as biomaterial in the field of tissue engineering. The most representative applications of pectin in preparing scaffolds for wound healing and tissue regeneration are discussed.",book:{id:"10742",title:"Pectins - The New-Old Polysaccharides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10742.jpg"},signatures:"Anna Lapomarda, Aurora De Acutis, Carmelo De Maria and Giovanni Vozzi"},{id:"78642",title:"Production of Pectin from Citrus Residues: Process Alternatives and Insights on Its Integration under the Biorefinery Concept",slug:"production-of-pectin-from-citrus-residues-process-alternatives-and-insights-on-its-integration-under",totalDownloads:161,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100153",abstract:"This chapter describes the pectin production process from citrus residues. It discusses the importance of essential oils removal before processing through steam distillation, hydrodistillation, or solvent extraction. Also, it presents different extraction methods (acid hydrolysis, microwave-assisted acid hydrolysis, and hydrodistillation) that have been employed and different solvents that can be used for its purification. Since all these processing parameters can affect the final pectin yield and quality, a discussion is made on which processing options and conditions could be used based on recently reported data. The best operational conditions based on the percentages of pectin recovery and their relationship with quality parameters, such as the galacturonic acid content and degree of esterification are presented. Finally, a discussion is made regarding the opportunities for its integration under the biorefinery concept that could help to enhance several economic and environmental aspects of the process.",book:{id:"10742",title:"Pectins - The New-Old Polysaccharides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10742.jpg"},signatures:"Daniel David Durán-Aranguren, Caren Juliana Alméciga Ramírez, Laura Catalina Villabona Díaz, Manuela Ayalde Valderrama and Rocío Sierra"},{id:"78624",title:"Pharmaceutical Applications of Pectin",slug:"pharmaceutical-applications-of-pectin",totalDownloads:146,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100152",abstract:"Pectin, a natural ionic polysaccharide found in the cell wall of terrestrial plants undergoes chain–chain association to form hydrogels upon addition of divalent cations. Based on its degree of esterification, pectin has been classified into two main types. The high methoxyl pectin with a degree of esterification greater than 50%, which is mainly used for its thickening and gelling properties and the low methoxyl pectin, which is widely used for its low sugar-content in jams, both applications being in the food industry. Pectin is mostly derived from citrus fruit peels, but can also be found in other plants such as waterleaf leaves, cocoa husk, and potato pulps. Pectin has been used as an excipient in pharmaceutical formulations for various functions. This chapter will focus on the various applications to which pectin has been used in the pharmaceutical industry.",book:{id:"10742",title:"Pectins - The New-Old Polysaccharides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10742.jpg"},signatures:"Olufunke D. Akin-Ajani and Adenike Okunlola"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:5},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain. She is a Full Professor at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery at the same University. She developed her research activity in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry and Immunology of horses. She is a scientific reviewer of several international journals : American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Comparative Clinical Pathology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology. Since 2014, she has been the Head of the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the Hospital Clínico Veterinario from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University.",institutionString:"CEU-Cardenal Herrera University",institution:{name:"CEU Cardinal Herrera University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. 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