\r\n\tHomeostasis is brought about by a natural resistance to change when already in the optimal conditions, and equilibrium is maintained by many regulatory mechanisms. All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components for the variable to be regulated: a receptor, a control center, and an effector. The receptor is the sensing component that monitors and responds to changes in the environment, either external or internal. Receptors include thermoreceptors and mechanoreceptors. Control centers include the respiratory center and the renin-angiotensin system. An effector is a target acted on to bring about the change back to the normal state. At the cellular level, receptors include nuclear receptors that bring about changes in gene expression through up-regulation or down-regulation and act in negative feedback mechanisms. An example of this is in the control of bile acids in the liver. \r\n\tSome centers, such as the renin-angiotensin system, control more than one variable. When the receptor senses a stimulus, it reacts by sending action potentials to a control center. The control center sets the maintenance range—the acceptable upper and lower limits—for the particular variable, such as temperature. The control center responds to the signal by determining an appropriate response and sending signals to an effector, which can be one or more muscles, an organ, or a gland. When the signal is received and acted on, negative feedback is provided to the receptor that stops the need for further signaling.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1), located at the presynaptic neuron, is a receptor that can stop stressful neurotransmitter release to the postsynaptic neuron; it is activated by endocannabinoids (ECs) such as anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamide; AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) via a retrograde signaling process in which these compounds are synthesized by and released from postsynaptic neurons, and travel back to the presynaptic terminal to bind to the CB1 receptor for modulation of neurotransmitter release to obtain homeostasis. \r\n\tThe polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are lipid derivatives of omega-3 (docosahexaenoic acid, DHA, and eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA) or of omega-6 (arachidonic acid, ARA) and are synthesized from membrane phospholipids and used as a precursor for endocannabinoids (ECs) mediate significant effects in the fine-tuning adjustment of body homeostasis.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThe aim of this book is to discuss further various aspects of homeostasis, information that we hope to be useful to scientists, clinicians, and the wider public alike.
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\n
1. Introduction: the contemporary meaning of ecotoxicology as a complex science
\n
Ecotoxicology is a scientific discipline, which of the modern stage of man-biosphere relations, is developed as the theoretician – methodical unifying centre for the optimization of these relations for the sustainability of life existence on Earth. The main basis for the development of ecotoxicology is classical toxicology—the research of drugs and chemical compounds effects on man. The modern concept of ecotoxicology is that it is the original part following the classical toxicology, which studies migration, transformation, degradation and utilization of toxic ingredients (with organic, inorganic or organic-mineral chemical nature; with natural biotic or abiotic origin and artificial, mainly anthropogenic origin) in the environment and their impact on Macro- biological systems with different levels of integration as groups of individuals, population, community, ecosystem, etc. studied in ecology\n (MBS) [1, 2] and others.
\n
The main objects of the ecotoxicological studies are the both: (1) toxic ingredients and their “behaviour” in the five main environments such as air, soil, terrestrial, water (incl. sediments) and biotic and (2) the responses of MBS in nature. The studied toxicants can be: (1) by the chemical nature: organic, inorganic or organic-mineral; (2) by the origin: natural (biotic or abiotic) and artificial (mainly anthropogenic origin); (3) by the toxicity: toxicants in the Black list, toxicants in the Grey list, etc. and (4) by the main environment of circulation: air, water, soil or different bio toxicants. The migration, transformation and degradation of toxic ingredients depend on the internal (endogenous) factors, that are, chemical properties of the toxicant and external (exogenous) factors or features of the environment. The studied MBS at different levels of integration can be: diverse individuals as elements of the population; homogeneous and heterogeneous populations as elements of the communities; heterogeneous communities as elements of the bio cenosis; ecosystem as a functional unity between biotope and bio cenosis; landscape, biome and biosphere formed by a corresponding set of ecosystems and their environment. The responses of MBS also depend on the endogenous factors (level of integration and features of the MBS) and exogenous factors (the characteristics of toxicants and habitats). Therefore, according to the used objects, ecotoxicology is an interdisciplinary complex science, developing on the border of chemical, biological, medical, ecological, environmental, economic, social and legal sciences. It can also be considered as applied environmental science studying the biological effects of anthropogenic ingredients. According to the main objects concerned, the main sections of ecotoxicology are Toxicant dynamics and Bio toxicology.
\n
Toxicant dynamics considers the migration, transformation and utilization of toxicants according to the characteristics of different environmental areas. There is a great difference in the evaluation of contaminants effects in the laboratory and in the environment. The physical and chemical changes of compounds in the environmental migration lead to the changes of their impact dose that vary in different environments. Therefore, the toxicants in nature often have an indirect effect on biosystems, changing the physical and chemical environment to act upon an indirect effect on the survival of organisms. For the terrestrial environment of great importance to toxicant migration is the temperature-precipitation Dynamics of habitat. In climatology, biogeography and ecology, this dynamics is well characterized by “climatic diagram” (“ombro-thermal” diagram) by Lyubenova [3]. The toxicants emission during the period of drought and semi-drought (calculated on the chart curves) poses an extra risk to the environment, because of the bio systems stress state, limited by temperature – precipitation patterns. The characteristics of different environments and the particular environment are important for the sensitivity of bio systems to toxicant. The toxicity and behavior of contaminant in the environment are also dependent on the concentration, but also to a large extent, on the predominant form (molecules, ions, complexes, etc.) of migration in biotope and of taken by bio systems.
\n
The development of analytical methods is very important in this division for solving the series of toxicological problems. For example, with the appearance of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP/MS) as a method of measurement, it is possible to separate and determinate the toxicity of various forms of each toxicant. Therefore, the chemical and physical measurements for assessing the toxicity of the substances and their forms are important for determining the valid toxic concentration in the bioassay and complementary test system reply.
\n
Bio toxicology examines the effects of toxicants on sensitive test systems and further on MBS in nature. For the manifestation of this effects is necessary to consider four main phases in passing of toxicants in bio systems, namely biological absorption and assimilation, metabolism, transport and excretion from the system. At the MBS level, biological uptake and accumulation from the environment (bioaccumulation) in the food chains (biomagnification) and accumulation in different organs or elements of bio system (bioconcentration) can be characterized by calculating several geochemical coefficients [4]: biological absorption coefficient (BAC); relative absorption coefficient, (RAC); acropetal coefficient (AC); temporal absorption coefficient (TAC); litter-mulch coefficient, A; and relative rate of transformation of the organic matter (RRTOM).
\n
There are few main differences between classical toxicology and ecotoxicology: (a) the usage of bio-test, including selected for this purpose; (b) the main objects for acute toxicity measurement are different – Daphnia spp., or laboratory rat (c) the reference of induced toxicological effects on sensitive/representative test objects to MBS in nature; (d) the usage of standardized methods and indicators (good laboratory practice) guaranteed the results recognition everywhere, etc. The requirements for the test bio systems are: susceptibility of cultivation and maintenance in laboratory, low-cost, highly responsiveness to the toxicant, mass usage and vast database available, representativeness of the exposed species to MBS, low correlation with other assessments in the same trophic level and strong correlation with a series of changes in ecosystems [1]. Today, in laboratory tests with test objects, most often are reported mortality, reproductive capacity, changes in growth, development, behaviour, biochemical, genetic changes and other.
\n
The MBS are characterized by a complex structural and functional organization and the specificity of the set of internal regulatory mechanisms that support the system in equilibrium, which should be considered in the toxicological effect extrapolation, as well as for assessment of ecosystem health and predicting the risk. Therefore, the models, adequately reflecting the responses of MBS in nature, require the knowledge of structure, function and the mechanisms for ensuring the existence and integrity of MBS and the behaviour of toxicants in the current climate. The main functions and features of MBS have been deeply commented by Lyubenova [5].
\n
The main aim of chapter is to comment the contemporary knowledge and established practice in the usage of bioassays to study the environmental toxicity of ingredients. The acute, chronic, mono-species and multi-species tests are discussed. Moreover, the analytical and biochemical methods for determining the initial damage at the molecular level on acute and chronic exposure are commented, too. The molecular markers (biomarkers) or indicators are very important for the early diagnosis of damages and the interests for new developments are growing steadily.
\n
\n
\n
2. Ecotoxicological testing: contemporary knowledge and gaps
\n
The ecotoxicological effects of contaminants on bio systems and MBS are developed as sub lethal and lethal responses. The earliest toxicological responses (change in biological systems) are detected at the cellular level. Some of the most important effects are changes in the structural components of the cell membrane (e.g. breach links between proteins and lipids); suppression of certain enzymes (e.g. microsomal enzymes); damage to the whole or partial metabolic changes (e.g. the synthesis of carbohydrates) [6]; changes in DNA correlation, respectively mutations and modification of cell growth [7], etc. At the macro-bio system level, effects related with their structure and functioning can be observed: efficiency of energy utilization and transmission through the food chains [8]; bio-depressant effects (inhibition of growth and reproduction) [9] and bio-stimulant effects (e.g. eutrophication) on population or community [10]; changes in the nature of biological cycle—capacity (the amount of chemical elements involved in biomass per year), intensity (of productive processes, energy transformation and destructive processes), chemistry (determined by the leading elements in the cycle), openness (e.g. balance of import and export); bioaccumulation of toxicants (higher concentration in the biomass than in the surrounding medium) [11]; bio magnification (increasing the concentrations in each higher-trophic level) [12]; bio concentration (accumulation in separate organs or elements of bio-system), etc. In most cases, plants and animals are more exposed to the combined effects of many pollutants simultaneously [13]. The interaction between them may increase or decrease the toxicity of the mixture and hence alter the response of the biological system. The effects on biosystem exposure on two or more toxicants may result in the following combining toxicological responses: supplementary response (e.g. in simultaneous action of two organophosphate compounds) [14]; synergistic (reinforced) response (e.g. response of rat to concomitant ingestion of hepatic toxins – ethanol and carbon tetrachloride) and depressed (antagonistic, reduced) response, when the antagonistic reaction between toxicants exists: for example, chemical (e.g. the toxic effect of Se and Hg) [15], competitive (e.g. the toxic effect of CO), uncompetitive (e.g. the toxic effect of atropine and organophosphorus insecticides), functional (e.g. the toxic effect of barbiturate decreased vascular pressure) and predisposing (e.g. the reduction of organophosphorus insecticides toxicity with piperonyl bioksid by blocking the activity of cytochrome P450, responsible for the metabolism of organophosphates) antagonism. The interactions between toxicants and natural chemicals in the environment result in formation of new molecules or complexes, changing their expected utilization. When toxicity is unknown, the conducting tests use a wide range of concentrations and report of “all or none” response. The dose–response relationship is the tested biological effects to 4–5 toxicant concentrations that cause from 20 to 80% mortality. This value is only representative of acute exposure, not chronic one. The LD50 and ED50 variables are influenced by many factors: behaviour of animals [16], age [17], sex [18], temperature [19], water quality (hardness) [20], pH [21], etc. Nevertheless, the 50% response rate is used, because it is the most reproducible response and can be calculated with high reliability. There are three main types of systems for the contaminants exposure of aquatic organisms: Flowing-through, Static and Renewal [1 and others]. Flowing-through systems are preferred for the study of acute toxicity. They are recommended for toxicants with high volatility and pollutants that are unsustainable in water [22 and others]. The static systems are applied mainly in short-term tests (≤96 h with fixed or slowly degradable materials and at a low load (biomass/water volume) of the test organisms. Static systems are used at limited availability of studied pollutant critical load with residual water or receiving toxic effects at critical levels of the components of the test. The renewal systems are applicable in work with small organisms that may be lost in watercourse systems or that are very sensitive to streams. They are also used in the case of limited test material. A recirculation test is similar to a static test except that the test solutions and control water are pumped through an apparatus, such as filter, to maintain water quality but not reduce the concentration of test material. The water is returned to the test chamber. This type of test is not routinely used because of uncertainty about the effect of the apparatus (aerator, filter and sterilizer) on the test material [1].
\n
Figure 1.
Percentage distribution of ecotoxicological studies published based on random sampling.
\n
In the random sample of 384 published studies, 535-conducted bio-tests were considered. For the studied period (2010–2016), an exponential increase of published ecotoxicological studies to 2012 can be observed—Figure 1. The level is kept in 2013 and the percentage sharp fell in 2014, while in 2015 the published ecotoxicological studies are closed to that in 2014. We do not have compete data for 2016, but it seems that this trend will likely keep. Furthermore, the scientific community is concerned about finding new environmentally acceptable agents and technologies in industry, agriculture and households, which is gradually becoming a priority in the new solutions. No less is the role of environmental legislation, the timely testing of new toxicants and the introduction of regulations and restrictions.
\n
Among the reviewed studies, the tests for toxicity of aquatic environment prevail – 67%, of which these for the toxicity of freshwater are 35%, the terrestrial ones are about 20% and those concerning three environments – 13% (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Percentage distribution of ecotoxicological studies by media published in random sample.
\n
During the years, the focus of researches has been on the toxicity of different environments, for example, in 2011, prevailed these for the aquatic environment; in 2012, for the terrestrial; in 2013, again for the aquatic; and in 2015, again for the terrestrial (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Percentage distribution of ecotoxicological studies by media and years published in random sample.
\n
For the research period in the toxicological testing, 25 groups of biological systems have been used as most tests have been performed with crustaceans and fishes, 22% and 20%, respectively (Figure 4). Common test objects are also insects (9%), molluscs (9%), algae (8%) and the plants (6%). In the ecotoxicological studies, 61 crustacean species, 51 fish species, 27–17 insect species, molluscs, algae and higher plants have been used (Figure 5).
Figure 4.
Percentage participation of biological groups for ecotoxicological testing in random sample (2010–2016).
Figure 5.
Participation of biological groups (number of species) for ecotoxicological testing in random sample (2010–2016).
\n
\n
2.1. Ecotoxicological tests for short–term (acute) and continuous (long–term,6 chronic) toxicity
\n
The accepted types of toxicants impact on exposed biosystem are: acute (high doses and for a short time, typically 24 – 96 h); sub-acute (repeated exposure for one month or less at lower doses than those in the acute exposure); sub chronic (multiple exposure, for 1–3 months) and chronic (exposure for more than 3 months at doses representing about 1/100 to 1/1000 of the acute dose). The exposure intervals definition varies for different biological systems, media and toxicants.
\n
For the period concerned, the studies of acute toxicity clearly prevailed over the chronic tests. In a number of studies for clarifying the actual toxicity, a series of both tests have been performed. The practical application of subacute and sub-chronic tests is low or negligible (Figure 6), but the trend of increasing the interest for these tests in 2014 and 2015 is noticeable.
\n
Figure 6.
Percentage participation of acute and chronic tests in random sample (2010–2016).
\n
Acute ecotoxicological testing has two main applications in environmental risk assessment. One of the applications is in conducting the screen test, for example, to determine whether the toxicant is biologically active at test doses for used indicators. The second type of application is the determination of acute toxicity—measuring the dose-response function and determination of LC50/LE50 for a predetermined period. The acute toxicity tests is the first step for detecting the total toxic effects caused by toxicant. Many studies have been dedicated for searching to the most sensitive species to conduct acute tests. The practice shows that there are no universal species, that are the selection of species depends on the type of toxicant and the affected ecosystems. Virtually every hydrobiont is suitable for conducting the acute tests, but one of the most used are Daphnia magna [23–26], Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata [27, 28]; many mussel species like Dreissena polymorpha [7] and Mytilus edulis [29]. Fish species are also very often used as test system: Danio rerio [30, 31], Gambusia holbrooki [32], Cyprinus carpio [33, 34], Oreochromis niloticuss [35, 36]. The terrestrial test objects include bees [37, 38], Mus musculus [39], Megascops asio [40], Podarcis sicula [41] Aquila adalberti, soil invertebrates [42] and other. The bacterial species, especially Vibrio fischeri, are also used in many ecotoxicological tests [27, 28, 43] and others. Today the most used plant test objects are different species of algae [44] and duckweed (Lemna spp.) [45]. They have a high reproductive capacity and therefore the study includes several generations in a relatively short period. Intensity of photosynthesis [46] and growth [47] are measured at algae or growth [48] at duckweed. Reporting indicators for the photosynthesis intensity are: concentration and ratio of pigments in photosynthetic biomass [49], amount of released oxygen [50], assimilated 14CO2 [51], ATP production [52] and number of cells [53]. Short-term sublethal tests are used to evaluate the toxicity of effluents to aquatic organisms [54], but some authors use terrestrial organisms [38]. These methods are developed by the EPA, and only focus on the most sensitive life stages. The endpoints for these tests include changes in growth, reproduction and survival as NOECs, LOECs, LC50s and EC50s [25] and others. Acute toxicity resulted in abortion rate of eggs and embryonic stages [25], reduced offspring and egg production [55], reduction in hatching success [56], decrease in fecundity [57], decrease in fertility [57], failure of metamorphosis [58], delayed development [59] and abnormalities and deformities in fish larvae [60]. Despite the results cited above, [61] reported no significant effects of the insecticide indoxacarb on the eggs, young and old larval stages and the pupal stage of two species of Trichogramma [62] and observed no negative effects on Daphnia magna embryonic development or hatching rate to insecticide Carbaryl up to concentrations almost 1000 times of the median effect concentration (EC50) of neonate survival in acute tests. Furthermore, [63] suggested that adaptation to tolerate PCBs has altered the sensitivity of Fundulus heteroclitus to oxidative stress during embryonic development, demonstrating a cost of the PCB resistance adaptation and [64] reported resistance of Fundulus heteroclitus from the Atlantic Wood Superfund site on the Elizabeth River to the acute toxicity and teratogenesis caused by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and others.
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Chronic ecotoxicological testing is subjected to determine whether the long-term toxicant exposure that is supposed to be present in the environment, can have a significant detrimental impact on ecosystems. The number of selected species that inhabit the ecosystem is tested to toxicant exposure. The threshold of chronic concentration complies with the reactions of the most sensitive species. In the practice, the following assumptions are made to the chronic toxicity determination: selected individuals are with respective sensitivity to toxicant corresponding to the representative natural groups; chronic threshold concentration set for the most sensitive species, is the starting chronic toxicity for the ecosystem; studied species are the most sensitive to the toxicant in the ecosystem. The chronic tests provide information allowing extrapolation of the effects at the community and ecosystem level [1]. In the chronic tests, the bio-reactions upon exposure to toxicants for a long time are examined [65], often as long as the entire life cycle. After running the assay, the established initial concentration causing chronic sensitivity of the ecosystem is compared with the expected concentration of toxicant in the environment. Effect of severe chronic toxicity can be expected at concentrations exceeding the established in the environment initial or threshold concentrations. For the predicting of toxicants chronic effects, commonly three categories of tests are used: including life cycle [66], including the most sensitive life stages [67] and functional. By the lifecycle tests, the contaminant impact of chronic exposure on reproduction, growth, survival and other indicators of several generations of test organisms are examined. The tests begin with eggs, larvae or juveniles and continue until the reproduction of test organisms. The used toxicant concentrations range from causing strong negative impact to at least one that has no influence on studied indicators (compared to controls). Most commonly aquatic organisms that can complete their life cycle in laboratory are used—algae, invertebrates and others. In these tests, the calculation of survival and fertility by age is conducted according to equations of Lotka or Yuler [1]. The isolated generations in the period of youth and the period of maturity may be also used for these tests. The toxicity tests on the life cycle require considerable time and costs, especially for vertebrates. The tests conducted on the most sensitive life stages are used for studying the contaminants impact of chronic exposure to the survival and growth of eggs [68] and larvae [69] of fish. The indicative tests have been developed with the early – eggs floating on the water surface or eggs laid on the bottom of rivers or estuaries, embryos or larvae. In surface water micro-layer are concentrated heavy metals, detergents, chlorinated oil hydrocarbons, etc. The sediments also accumulate a number of toxicants. The tests start with the exposure of groups of fertilized eggs or embryos through the system for supply of serial concentrations of tested toxicant. The range of concentrations should include substantial effects and lack of impact. The species inhabiting cold water, for example Salmo gairdneri, are usually exposed for a period of 330–570 days [1] while inhabitants of warm water, for example zebrafish, are exposed from 30 to 250 days [70]. The parameters of the measurement include survival, growth and teratogenesis. The benefits of testing embryos and larvae are: saving time and money; creating opportunities for the study of larger number of species compared with the life cycle tests; calculated thresholds for chronic toxicity can be extrapolated to many more species for a wide range of areas and trophic levels than the potential in the implementation of testing lifecycle; the needs to conduct these tests due to the insufficient data on the fish toxicity. The concentration of toxicant that causes chronic toxicity effects on eggs, embryos and larvae vary among the same species and among different species. It depends on the duration of the conducted test—stage of the life cycle or the whole life cycle. For example, the studies with small Salmo gairdneri fish has the highest degree of sensitivity to six toxicants, while the eggs are relatively resistant, because of the bio–absorption alteration. The early life-staged tests are not considered as valid, if mortality in the control sample is greater than 30% [1]. Some authors published results of conducting tests with eggs [71], fish embryos [28], larvae [72] and early stages of development [24], as through them the potential toxic effect is reflected.
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By the functional tests, the effects of toxicants on various physiological functions of test objects are studied. The fishes and other aquatic organisms react physiologically and with behavioural changes on toxic exposures. For example, changes are observed in blood chemistry [73], enzymatic activity [74], histology [75], swimming behaviour [76], sensory perception and disease resistance. This testing has some disadvantages: the effect of adaptation to toxicant is absent and the reported effects differ from the real ones; the inability to capture all variation in functional parameter for MBS; the inability to extrapolate the results to MBS. In general, the information is about the relationship between functional individual bio-effects to toxicants and the survival, growth and reproductive capacity of the populations in community. The data for the discussed test categories are used to determine the threshold concentration of the toxicant causing chronic toxicity.
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Bioaccumulation tests are toxicity tests that can be used for hydrophobic chemicals that may accumulate in the fatty tissue of organisms. The toxicants with low water solubility generally can be stored in the fatty tissue due to the high lipid content in this tissue. The storage of these toxicants within the organism may lead to cumulative toxicity. Some authors report results from bioaccumulation in different tissues and organs like liver, kidney, gills, embryo tissue and accessory glands [60, 77]. Bioaccumulation tests use bio concentration factors (BCF) to predict concentrations of hydrophobic contaminants in organisms [78] and others. The BCF is the ratio of the average concentration of test chemical accumulated in the tissue of the test organism (under steady state conditions) to the average measured concentration in the water.
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Tests with sediments. At some point, most chemicals and elements originating from both anthropogenic [79] and natural sources [80] accumulate in sediments. For this reason, sediment toxicity can play a major role in the adverse biological effects seen in aquatic organisms, especially those inhabiting benthic habitats [81]. A recommended approach for sediment testing is to apply the Sediment Quality Triad (SQT), which involves simultaneously examining sediment chemistry, toxicity, and field alterations so that more complete information can be gathered [82]. Collection, handling and storage of sediment can have an effect on bioavailability and for this reason standard methods have been developed to suit this purpose [83]. Some ecotoxicological tests for assessing sediments quality are published [84]. The worms [42], clams [85], fish [86] and phytoplankton [87] are mostly used as test objects.
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2.2. Mono–species tests and multi–species tests
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For the period concerned, the studies of acute toxicity clearly prevailed over the chronic tests. In a number of studies to clarify the actual toxicity the series of both tests have also been performed. The practical application of subacute and sub-chronic tests is low or negligible (Figure 6), but the noticeable trend of increasing the interest for these tests in 2014 and 2015 is observed (Figure 7). The analyses carried show that in 2012, 2014 and 2015, the tests with two species as test objects and multi-species ones were applied in most published studies. In 2013, the focus is mainly on tests with communities and multi-species ones.
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Mono-species tests are appropriate in determining the toxicological effects on individual characteristics of species such as mortality [88], growth [89], reproductive capacity [41], behaviour [38] and other but have limited significance for the consequences on the entire ecosystem from the pollutants impact [36]. The disadvantages of mono-species testing are: the responses of individuals are often not sufficient to extrapolate responses of other (even very close) species and determine the real toxical effects in nature; the identifying of sensitive species or groups to the toxicant is expensive; the influence of indirect effects from intra-population and inter-population relationships on toxicity cannot be observed; the standardized laboratory conditions in conducting mono-species tests are different from the conditions in the biotope [90]. The influence of many additional abiotic and biotic factors is always present in the field effects changing significantly the eco–toxicological response. The mono–species tests have been used for years for the simulation of multi-species effects in ecosystem although the existing inadequacy. Therefore, the results obtained in mono-species tests are more often used in practice and have the same rank of importance to those of multispecies tests enable to assess indirect effects, such as the changes of structure and the functioning of ecosystem (changing in competition, predation, energy flow and circulation of substances, etc.).
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Figure 7.
Percentage participation of tests with different number of test objects used in random sample (2010–2016).
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Multi-species tests. At every level of biological organization appear new features that could not be recognized even by the most intense and careful studies of low levels. The complexity of MBS makes unacceptable the assumption that the responses received in toxicity tests of various species are applicable for predicting the behaviour of system of integrated species [91]. Therefore, the biological effects within the natural system differ considerably from those in laboratory tests [1]. Only acute toxic effects can be accounted with available methods. Another way to resolve the testing problems is by the identification of sensitive or/and key species or groups of species for MBS, but it is very expensive approach. We also need to bear in mind that in multispecies tests many answers are skipped due to unification of indicators, individuality of responses and statistical unreliability of additional indicators. So, we are faced with the inability to reproduce the experimental results to MBS level due to the variability and specifics of relationships, self-organization and self-regulation of different MBS. In other words, the uniqueness of each MBS leads to the inability for the toxicant assessment unification. The toxic effects extrapolation to ecosystem level requires good description of the biotope conditions and availability of data on the structure and functional processes. The lack of classification and characterization of ecosystem types in relation to specific environmental factors and bio-system features hampers the ecotoxicological research interpretation. For example, the population generally shows a lower sensitivity to pollutants than the individuals do. It seems that environmentally more realistic approach includes monitoring the effects of exposure to toxic impact in natural ecosystems or man-made systems specially designed to resemble fully the characteristics of natural systems (multi-species tests with the key representatives of studied ecosystem – model ecosystems, microcosm, mesocosm, lake-coral systems and others). The most optimal combination of test objects for aquatic ecosystems includes species of algae, crustaceans and fish, reflecting their functional structure. The micro-ecosystem is not an absolute analogue of the natural ecosystem, but a small system with sufficient complexity that could allow realistic ecological study of the typical characteristics of ecosystem in nature. Their application to environmental toxicology has been of interest, where fate and behaviour of contaminants markedly modify the exposure of biota to them and hence the environmental hazard [1]. In the aquatic micro-cosmology, there are two major achievements even in the last century: the ecosystem model and the food chain model. The ecosystem model is used to study the inherent ecosystem properties and functions in the level of integration—cycling of substances, energy flow and homeostasis. The food chains model is applied in studying the relationships predator-prey, environmental efficiency in the transmission of energy in trophic levels, etc. The experiments with food chains model is simpler and easier to manage compared to experiments with ecosystem model. The main problem is in selecting the appropriate microcosm types for different studies. Many species tests include a set of standard reproductive tests on daphnia, where the dose–response relationship is determined depending on the supply of nutrients [1]; large – (CEPEX, 1300 m3); medium – (10–150 m3) and small-sized (1.4 m3) bags or tanks is used for the isolation of communities living in the open sea. Usually the larger the system is, the longer it will operate and the environmental conditions, community structure and functioning will look more like natural. The artificial macro-bio-systems differ by the nature of communities; by the period of submission of the matter—long and short duration, also by using materially closed systems. The classical example is Taub test [1]. He performed to some degree a standardized toxicity test with 24 identical 3.6 1 containers that are “infected” with a total of 10 algal species, five animal species and unknown set of bacteria. The duration of the experiment was 60 days due to deterioration of the community in the absence of normal biological cycle. In Kersting classical test [1], the lack of mineral circle was overcome. He has developed a microcosm with 151 Compartments, in which primary production, secondary production and decomposition are separated to prevent overconsumption. The balance between production and decomposition in this type of microcosm proves its sustainability for months or even years in relatively stable conditions, which corresponds to the “ecological temporal periods”. These types of models that are designed to resemble certain types of natural systems (isomorphic models) usually include sedimentary part and benthic invertebrates and operate under watercourse conditions. In most cases, it is expected the water, sediments and biota to be modelled from the site. There are designed different tanks in size (560 1 or 13 m3) with a variable depth to external structures that are best described as model flows, model channels and model lakes of various sizes. These test systems can combine the evaluation of biological effects with studies on transformation of pollutants in the environment. Test systems modelling the changes of interactions between populations under the chemical stress were also developed in the last century. The tests of Cairns and Lundgren [1], studying the interactions of algae and daphnia populations under chemical stress, are well known [1]. The usage of a battery of bioassays involving different species at different trophic levels is an efficient and essential tool for predicting environmental hazards to the aquatic ecosystem. For example [85], the adverse effects of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) on sediment quality at the Bay of Cádiz (SW, Spain) were investigated using a battery of acute bioassays and chemical contamination. The author concluded that the test may provide complementary information for diagnose of environmental factors that can impair aquatic communities. In other study [92], a battery of marine and freshwater species representing different trophic levels was used, and compared the bioassay of sensitivity levels to pharmaceutical residues of three antidepressants (fluoxetine, sertraline and clomipramine). The bioassays like the algal growth inhibition test (Skeletonema marinoi and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata), the micro-crustacean immobilization test (Artemia salina and Daphnia magna), development and adult survival tests on Hydra attenuata, embryotoxicity and metamorphosis tests on Crassostrea gigas, and in vitro assays on primary cultures of Haliotis tuberculata hemocytes were selected. The importance of test battery usage showing the difference in sensitivity between bioassays hence high interspecies variability in EC50–values was underlined. The battery of bioassays and representative aquatic organisms (Vibrio fischeri, microalgae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and invertebrate Daphnia magna) for assessing the acute toxicity of water-extractable fractions of biochar-amended soil was published [93]. Based on the obtained results, the authors suggested that the battery of rapid and cost-effective aquatic bioassays that account for ecological representation can complement analytical characterization of biochar-amended soils and risk assessment approaches for surface and groundwater protection. The battery of bioassays was used [94] to assess the impact along a river due to a leak of effluent from an Installation of Cleansing and Uranium Recovery (Tricastin, France) and provided an estimation of exposure conditions that occurred along the river. The acute toxicity of the effluent was evaluated and compared to the toxicity of uranium nitrate in bioassays using Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Daphnia magna, Chironomus riparius and Danio rerio.
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The dysfunction occurring in plant communities and its effects on the plant populations structure and functioning is very well studied, especially for systems with poor species composition and simple structure. The pioneer studies have been published [1]. The imbalance is defined as a sudden change of the resource base that led to a clearly visible response. The hierarchical series of responses to these impacts can be predicted. The responses of the plant may influence the plant populations—reproduction, density spatial structure, rate of growth, mortality, body age, genetic variations, interspecies connections, etc. The different responses of plant populations can lead to major change of plant community as species composition, species richness, distribution of included genera, succession processes, etc. At the ecosystem level, these changes affect the primary productivity, the intensity of respiration, the intensity of mineralization and other functional processes. These responses depend on the type, frequency, intensity, duration and heterogeneity of dysfunctions. In some cases, we can evaluate the different obtained effects to the intensity and combination of impacts in models of vegetation structure and dynamics changes. By the comparison between the responses of exposed plant communities and the responses of untreated ones that grow on compatible soil types under similar topography and climate, the imbalance can be evaluated. Further, it would be possible to find a correlation of the results from laboratory tests, such as root growth, the growth of algae in soils or soil extracts, with actual plant data. There are some attempts to create models and study the complex toxicity on terrestrial ecosystems, but they are mostly with cultural ecosystems. For example, a model toxicological investigation of cultural plant-soil complex treated with wastewater have been published [95, 96]. Today, the conducting ecotoxicological studies with model ecosystems are common practice in the aquatic toxicology. While it can be considered that to some degree the problems associated with the study of the toxicological effects in the aquatic toxicology are resolved, this is not the case in terrestrial toxicology.
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Tests with nanoparticles Nanoparticles represented by a group of toxicants as TiO2 [97], ZnO [44], carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) [98], core-shell copper oxide [99], silver (AgNPs) [49] and others are tested in ecotoxicology. Mainly, tests with aquatic organisms are conducted like algae [97–99], plants and invertebrates [97].
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Biomarkers The most used biomarkers is the activity of antioxidant enzymes like catalase (CAT) [100], superoxide dismutase (SOD) [101], glutathione S-transferase (GST) [102], glutathione peroxidase (GPX) [101] and glutathione reductase (GR) [101] or their gene expression. Many authors use Hsp70 (heat shock proteins) and their expression for determining the toxicity of a pollutant [102, 103]. When using fish as test object, the haematological parameters are often applied as biomarkers [104]. Behavioural biomarkers are applied for frog tadpoles [105], clams [106]; fish [31], cladocerans [107]. When using plants as test object, cell viability (mitochondrial activity) and plant physiology (chlorophyll) are used as biomarkers [108].
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3. About the studies of ecosystem health (ecosystem diagnosis)
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The evaluation methods for ecosystems health assessment are usually based either on risk assessment or on bio assessment [1]. Most studies attach importance of risk assessment, but it is appropriate when the effect caused by known toxicant from one or more known sources with relatively high emissions and expected acute effect. The risk assessment focuses on the chemical composition, the impact of environmental toxicity and laboratory data. The acute tests with test object definitions as well as the available kits usually are used. The data of plants and soil invertebrates can be used to study the response of the short exposure, especially when impacts were made at regular intervals. The upper layer of the soil (5 cm) and plants (root, leaf and stem) are collected for the acute toxicity testing. It is essential also to measure physiological parameters—respiration, photosynthesis, pigments as well as microbial communities indexes. The short response of soil microbial community is also suitable indicator for this review—for example, the intensity of soil respiration of exposed and unexposed soil. The studies about the ecosystem’s risk assessment using GIS, aerospace technologies and calculation of State Vector also were published [109–113 and others].
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Bio assessment is applied for the complex effects of mixed toxicants or for low non-specific toxicity similar to chronic effects. The assessment focuses on ecosystem characteristics, factors causing stress and their importance and usage of measurements and models for chronic effects assessment. Bio assessment includes micro- and macro-research to perform controlled tests for ecosystem under impacts. It is necessary to know the characteristics of studied ecosystems and principles of their self-management and self-control. The bio-assessment of ecosystem state is based on the results of tests series with “critical” ecosystem components for chemical, physical and biological effects on ecosystems. There have been published 44 different characteristics important for the bio-assessment of ecosystem state and the eight of them are identified as critical ones of varying importance for different ecosystems. These ecosystem characteristics are as follows: (1) The features of the habitat to maintain biodiversity and reproduction of organisms; (2) The phenotypic and genotypic diversity of organisms; (3) The length of food chain, supported by biotope; (4) The determining biological production level of active and stored nutrients in biotope; (5) The features of biological turn-over for maintaining the ecosystem existence; (6) The energy flux to maintain the trophic structure; (7) The set of feedbacks for self-regulation and (8) The capacity to regulate the toxic effects, including capacity for biological absorption, metabolism and decomposition of toxicant, linking with the anthropogenic influences buffering. The importance of every critical characteristic depends on the ecosystem geographical location (i.e. eco region) and whether the system is aquatic or terrestrial. Some authors published bio assessments for different ecosystems, by selection of a set of indexes for the noticed critical characteristics [114–117]. The complex of 44 characteristics, even the complex of eight of them, the variation in the relative importance of each of them for the different ecosystems and the lack of standardized indices and methods for each of them, makes the representative assessment unlikely at each case. The representative assessment of ecosystem can only be done with a few “standard” test systems types. Today the scientific community makes efforts to resolve these methodological problems, not only in relation to ecosystem diagnosis, but also to assess the ecosystem capacity, assets and services [118].
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The need of test systems classification leads to the publication of a set of investigations in the last century. For example, the classification [1] is based on the following criteria: environment (air, water and soil); time of exposure (long, medium, occasionally, etc.); concentration of toxicant (mg/l, mg/m3); used organisms (bacteria, fish, mammals, plants, etc.); type of exposure (through food, air, dermal, etc.); the effects on test objects (genetic, toxic, bio-accumulation, etc.); measuring methods; test type (common, standard, experienced, screening); requirements for variability, accuracy and precision of values and technical requirements for personnel and laboratory equipment. The developed protocols, however, require significant modifications depending on the type of ecosystem and environmental factors, the objectives of the study and more mentioned in the specific dynamic action analyses (SDA). To assess the possible effects on ecosystem level, the responses of dominant species are usually investigated on a set of sample plots. The mostly used indicators are grouped as indicators of plant community, plant chemistry (major cations, nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, zinc, etc.), aboveground and water insects (some populations of Homeoptera are extremely sensitive to changes in the chemical and species composition of communities), soil invertebrates, soil chemistry (indicators for mineralization potential of organic nitrogen and phosphorus, variable cations, pH, inorganic nitrogen, total nitrogen, organic and inorganic phosphorus), water chemistry, organic matter decomposition (the activity of heterotrophic microorganisms and species of class Arthropoda, etc. [119, 120 and others]. A lot of plant community indicators and indices are applied at ecosystem level as plant species composition and density (number/m2); plant biomass, separated into herbaceous and woody, above- and underground, live and dead; the average height of the stems; specific leaf mass (SLM); stalk weight; total dry weight (W); total leaf area (Le), etc. The relative indexes are also calculated as: the relative growth [Rw = (1/W)·(dW/dT]; relative leaf area [Re = (1/La)·(dLa/dT)]; leaf ratio [F = La/W]; full leaf evaluation [E = (1/La)·(dW/dT)] and others. Soil invertebrates as earthworms, spiders and nematodes are sufficiently sensitive to the quantity and quality of plant roots and plant detritus and can influence or be influenced by microbial populations. This group of consumers is identified as the potential regulator of the decomposition and production processes. The macro arthropods and earthworms are associated with the fragmentation of detritus, while the micro arthropods and nematodes are more important for the micro-organisms populations. Earthworms are a standard system for the bio assessment. The soil nematodes and the species of Scarabaeidae family are linked to net primary production and are sensitive to changes in plant chemistry. The number and trophic composition of soil invertebrates are measured together with the biomass of plant roots and rhizomes and dead biomass. The plant carbon distribution changes in stress are also a good indicator for toxicity. The data for a living and dead biomass in relation with the number and composition of soil invertebrates provides possibility for ecosystem state assessment. Usually the number of earthworms and large arthropods is measured in spring and autumn using soil samples of 0.1 m2 and 30 cm depth. The micro arthropods and nematodes are measured by mechanical separation of soil samples.
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For the forest ecosystem health assessment, the widespread indicator is defoliation that can do possible to calculate the ratio of damage of ecosystem: C = [∑(n·k)/NK]·100, where n is number of trees with respective scores of defoliation (first to fifth score); N—the total number of trees; K – maximum score on the scale. The forest ecosystems are considered to be damaged at C > 30% [121] Percentage of defoliation is determined by sight with guidance, where the habitus of crowns with different rates of defoliation for each tree species is given.
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Dendro-chronological analysis for ecosystem health assessment. By the dendrochronological analysis, the impact of external factors (including contaminants) on the radial growth of stems may be determined. Depending on the change of these variables, the characteristic pattern of the tree ring series was formed. The pattern includes: successively alternating narrow and wide rings of lighter or darker wood; changes in the density of the tree rings; change in the ratio between early and late wood, changes in the chemical, cytological and histological characteristics of tree rings, etc. The year with changes in growth or with special annual ring, is named different special year. The different special years are very important in cross-dating and in identifying the age of trees, as well as the time of stressed events by climatic factors, pollution, disease, pests, etc. The samples are taken with Presler’s driller on 1–1.5 m height of the stem and placed in special templates. They are measured by LINTAB™. Through the statistical processing of obtained series of values, the influence of considered stressors or bio assessment can be performed [121]. The main indicator for dendro-chronogical, especially dendro-chemical analysis, is the growth index (It). It is the ratio between measured and calculated value for tree ring (Wt/Gt) by the best reflected to the course of tree stem growth trend (R2 > 0.45). Thus, the influence of age on the growth is eliminated and the environmental information in the rings is enhanced. The analysis of content of chemical elements in annual rings and its dynamics can provide valuable information about changes in the environmental toxicity. There is information for over 70 chemical elements that can be absorbed from the soil by root system, also through the bark or caught by the leaves and moved to the xylem. Many authors have found that the vertical transport of nutrients thousand times exceeds the horizontal one, that is, radial migration of elements in annual rings is minimal, because they form the insoluble complexes [1, 3, 111 and others]. Therefore, the content of chemical elements in the wood gives a general picture of the environmental factors influenced on tree species for their lifetime. The chemical memory of annual rings also can be used to estimate the changes in the environmental toxicity. Recently, the set of dendrochronological indicators have been developed for the forest state assessments: number of eustress periods; their duration, frequency and depth; eustress years (unfavourable climatic type of years), reactive tree functional types and eustress-climatic predictive patterns [122–124]. The authors perceive eustress as a repeating state of restricted radial growth rate of tree stems within a period of one or multiple years and caused by unfavourable environmental factors. This state encompasses the numerous other reactions of tree species. The level of radial stem growth (or tree ring width) is the main parameter that the developed holistic approach operates with, as well as the growth index, which is the main indicator for the statistical determination of low growth threshold (categorized as eustress). The study of the forest ecosystem state is based on the assessment of eustress depth (A) – A=1s∑i=1s(1−Iti), duration (D) – the number of adjacent eustress years, and frequency (F) – the number of stress years for a period of 100 years, and the creation of eustress nomenclature by five-graded scales. The performance evaluation of eustress in particular localities allows the expression of reactive functional type of tree species. For example, functional type F4D5A4 means that in particular locality the typical for trees of that species are frequent, very long and deep eustresses and that “forest behaviour” puts the existence of the forest under some risk. For the analysis of eustress based on the periods with limited growth, SP-PAM 2.0 software has been developed [125]. Thus, these analyses can be applied for the forest ecosystem state assessment.
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Nowadays, the kits are widely used for short-, long-term and risk ecotoxicological assessment, as well as for ecosystem health assessment and for quality monitoring of water and wastewater, because they are rapid, sensitive and cost-effective way [126–128]; determining the impact of bio-toxins produced by blue-green algae [129–131], chemicals for mutagenicity [132], chemicals and wastes released in aquatic, terrestrial environments and sediments [127]. Different model organisms are used like algae, aquatic invertebrates, bacteria and plants.
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4. Conclusion
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New synthetic chemicals are recorded each year and the legislation in countries requires the immediate conduction of the both – toxicological and ecotoxicological testing. The scale of the potential ecological impacts on the environment and biota requires fast and accurate assessments of toxicological effects. The practical importance of ecotoxicology for the existence and functioning of the MBS is constantly growing. The toxicity may be different for different species in the ecosystem and for the same species in different ecosystems. Furthermore, toxicants do not only directly affect the biological system being evaluated, but may have an indirect negative effect on it, altering both abiotic and biotic parameters in the ecosystem. The various populations of the same species under different environmental conditions will respond differently to a given concentration of toxicant. In ecotoxicology practice, the number of species is used as test objects, and the results are extrapolated to all groups of organisms in the ecosystem. The variation in size, physiology, evolution, ontogeny and geographical distribution are some of the important parameters that usually do not fit exactly. However, some of the basic tests have demonstrated its great importance in the understanding of contaminants effects on the environment. The series of variables must be considered for the realistic assessment of environmental toxicity and MBS state. The reported sublethal effects often refer to changes in the structure of MBS that can lead to their degradation. A greater variation in the responses of individuals, populations and ecosystems observed in nature are compared with these reported under laboratory conditions, due to the mutual influence. This fact requires the more intensive usage of multi-testing systems—micro- and mesocosms and new developments. The analysis of situation and problems of ecotoxicological testing makes it possible to outline the directions in which to focus future efforts. They are related to the search of sensitive species for acute and risk testing, developing of new biomarkers and kits, especially for the study of terrestrial toxicity, formation of model systems (micro- and mesocosms) by key members of the ecosystem trophic network for multi-species testing and modelling the toxic effects at MBS level, which is especially true for the terrestrial ecotoxicology.
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\n\n',keywords:"ecotoxicology, bio tests, acute, chronic, mono-species, multispecies, biomarkers, kits",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/51891.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/51891.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51891",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51891",totalDownloads:2021,totalViews:589,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:7,impactScorePercentile:96,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 24th 2016",dateReviewed:"July 1st 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 26th 2016",dateFinished:"August 4th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Nowadays ecotoxicology plays the role of a theoretician – methodical unifying centre for the optimization of man – biosphere relations and sustainable existence of life on the Earth. The main basis for its development is the classical toxicology—studies of chemical compounds’ effects on man, but ecotoxicology is the original part, following it. According to the modern concept, the ecotoxicology is a science for migration, transformation and utilization of different toxic ingredients (with organic, inorganic or organic-mineral chemical nature; with natural biotic or abiotic origin and artificial, mainly anthropogenic origin) in the environment and their impact on Macro- biological systems with different levels of integration as groups of individuals, population, community, ecosystem, etc. studied in ecology. In this chapter, the types of ecotoxicological tests are discussed in detail with a set of examples about used species, advantages and disadvantages of different types of toxicity testing. The application of exposed natural ecosystems or man-made analogue systems is also commented as the environmentally more realistic approach for ecotoxicological testing. These test systems are increasingly becoming in aquatic ecotoxicology practice, but they are contemporary challenge in terrestrial testing. The development of test systems for realistic assessment of contaminant toxicity is essential for the efficient control of human influence on the environment.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/51891",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/51891",book:{id:"5362",slug:"toxicology-new-aspects-to-this-scientific-conundrum"},signatures:"Mariyana Lyubenova and Silvena Boteva",authors:[{id:"187225",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariyana",middleName:"Ivanova",surname:"Lyubenova",fullName:"Mariyana Lyubenova",slug:"mariyana-lyubenova",email:"ryann@abv.bg",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"194135",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvena",middleName:null,surname:"Boteva",fullName:"Silvena Boteva",slug:"silvena-boteva",email:"silvenab@abv.bg",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction: the contemporary meaning of ecotoxicology as a complex science",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Ecotoxicological testing: contemporary knowledge and gaps",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Ecotoxicological tests for short–term (acute) and continuous (long–term,6 chronic) toxicity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Mono–species tests and multi–species tests",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. About the studies of ecosystem health (ecosystem diagnosis) ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Lyubenova M, Kalchev R. Ecotoxicology – Small Practicum (second amended edition). An-Di Press, Sofia; 2009. 305 p. (in Bulgarian)'},{id:"B2",body:'Newman MC, Clements WH. editors. Ecotoxicology: A Comprehensive Treatment. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group; 2008. 852 p'},{id:"B3",body:'Lyubenova M. Plant Ecology. “M. Drinov” Academic Press, Sofia; 2004. 574 p. (in Bulgarian)'},{id:"B4",body:'Lyubenova M. 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Available from: http://www.biohidrica.cl/english/biohidrica_productsenvironment_water.htm [Accessed: 2016-06-19]'},{id:"B129",body:'Lai EPC. Bioassay kits for ecotoxicological testing of wastewaters with nanoparticles. Biochemistry and Analytical Biochemistry. 2013;2:e139. doi: 10.4172/2161-1009.1000e139'},{id:"B130",body:'Abraxis [Internet]. 2016. Available from: http://www.abraxiskits.com/products/algal-toxins/ [Accessed: 2016-06-19]'},{id:"B131",body:'EnviroLogixTM [Internet]. 2016. Available from: http://www.envirologix.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/ET022-Microcystin-101215.pdf [Accessed: 2016-06-19]'},{id:"B132",body:'National Toxicology Program. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services [Internet]. 2016. Available from: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/testing/types/genetic/invitro/sa/index.html [Accessed: 2016-06-19]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mariyana Lyubenova",address:"ryana_l@yahoo.com, and ryann@abv.bg",affiliation:'
Department of Ecology and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Biology, Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, Sofia, Bulgaria
Department of Ecology and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Biology, Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, Sofia, Bulgaria
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1. Introduction
Renewable energy remains the most dominant energy source in Africa with wood sources accounting for a large share of biomass energy. Although wood energy accounts for only 10% of global primary energy, about 2.8 million people depend on wood fuel for cooking and heating [1, 2]. The extraction and use of wood for energy is prominent in developing countries with more than 70% of households in Sub-Saharan Africa depending on wood energy. Access to modern energy remains a major problem in developing countries; however, poorer countries suffer more from energy access problems [3]. Poor access to modern energy rates in less developed countries (LDCs) and Sub-Saharan (SSA) countries remain high at 91 and 83%, respectively. In SSA, the access to electricity and modern energy remains a major constraint with 560 and 625 peopled deprived, respectively. Poor access to modern energy equally varies between urban and rural areas in Africa; in SSA, 66% of the population use solid fuels for heating and cooking, 13% use charcoal while kerosene, electricity and LPG follow with 7, 6, and 5%, respectively [4].
The global use of wood fuel for cooking and heating has devastating negative health effects with 2 million deaths annually from pneumonia, cancer and chronic lung diseases due to exposure to pollution from biomass combustion. Women and children are most affected by these diseases with about 44% of these deaths being children and 60% of adult death being women [3]. More than 50% of deaths from pneumonia, cancer and chronic lung diseases in LDCs and SSA is due to combustion of solid fuels, while only 38% for developing countries in general [3]. Household air pollution (HAP) is a major driver of global health emergencies with about 4.3 million premature deaths; non-communicable diseases (NCDs) account for 3.8 million deaths (WHO, 2016). HAP accounts for more than 33% deaths related to chronic obstructive pulmonary in both low- and middle-income countries, 17% of deaths related to cancer, 15% of ischaemic heart disease and 25% stroke-related deaths (WHO, 2016). This chapter seeks to review the different diseases caused by incomplete combustion of biomass for energy and how bioenergy from tree commodities can be a sustainable remedy.
2. Solid fuelwood combustion and health effects in rural Africa
Several scientific publications have reported significant health effects of wood fuel combustion for cooking especially through open fire in rural areas [5, 6]. Childhood respiratory infections such as pneumonia and otitis media have been highly associated with fuel wood combustion [5]. Among women, there is a high association between fuelwood combustion and high risk of chronic bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, especially asthma and cataract. Indoor combustion of fuelwood has been called the ‘kitchen killer’ because about 1.6 million deaths have been registered as a result, accounting for 2.7% of global disease burden (WHO, 2007).
The combustion process generates smoke; this smoke contains a complex mixture of numerous particles and substances composed of varied organic and inorganic compounds [7, 8]. These compounds are toxic and dangerous to the health system of human beings; they contain carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen and sulphur oxide (NO2, CO2), aldehydes, particulate matter PM (PM10), volatile organic compounds, chlorinated dioxins, free radicals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [8]. The health effects on children less than 5 years and women are not homogenous. Respiratory infections such as pneumonia are common in young children less than 5 years, while chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (CORP) and lung cancer are common in women. Other health effects such as adverse pregnancy and eye diseases are equally common [9, 10].
To better appreciate the health effects of fuelwood combustion, a review of literature for over 17 papers was done. The objective was to capture the most prevalent health outcomes as a result of indoor and outdoor fuelwood combustion. The table below (Table 1) shows the results of the reviewed papers in a summary form [11].
The impact of cooking with firewood on respiratory health
Indonesia
A unique Indonesian household survey
Individuals living in households that cook with firewood have lower lung capacity than those that cook with cleaner fuels; impact being larger on women and children
Effect of indoor air pollution from biomass and solid fuel combustion on symptoms of preeclampsia/eclampsia in Indian women
India
Logistic regression
Women living in households using biomass and solid fuels have two times higher likelihood of reporting preeclampsia/eclampsia symptoms than those living in households using cleaner fuels
PM10 emissions from cooking fuels in Nigerian households and their impact on women and children
Ibadan, Nigeria
Qualitative analysis
Majority of the respondents complained of health-related issues during and after cooking with cough, breathing problems, skin and eyes irritation being the most common
Cough, breathing problems, skin and eyes irritation
Health impact on women using solid cooking fuels in rural area of Cuttack District, Odisha
Cuttack District, Odisha
Cross-sectional study with the use of Chi-square test
Exposure to smoke from cooking fuel is significantly associated with the prevalence symptoms of headache, dry cough and hypertension
Headache, dry cough and hypertension
Table 1.
Review of health effects of fuelwood combustion on users.
The exposure to smoke due to cooking fuel accelerates respiratory-related illnesses such as dry cough and nose irritation; further analysis equally underscores high association with headache, dry cough and hypertension [25]. The review above shows significant health effects related to respiratory-related diseases, of the 17 studies, 13 underscore respiratory tract infections as major outcome of fuelwood combustion. The most common forms of the respiratory tract infections are dry cough, breathing problems, neurologic problems, cardiopulmonary, cardiovascular diseases, asthma and lung cancer [20, 23, 25].
Lower life expectancy has equally been reported by Badamassi et al. [24]; they underscore that combustion of particulate matter (PM2.5) has adverse effect on life expectancy in the long run, with a greater negative effect on female life expectancy. Their study equally shows higher life expectancy for exposed households in urban areas and countries with higher GDP per capita; this can be explained by the fact that these groups can have better access to health care. Cardiovascular diseases have equally been reported to be associated with fuelwood combustion [19]. Other diseases such as asthma, stroke and immune system impairment have equally been attributed to indoor and outdoor pollution as a result of fuelwood combustion [19].
3. Bioenergy as a sustainable and health energy source
The precedent section underscores that about 700 million (82%) of Africans are at high risk of household air pollution due to the use of solid-fuel for cooking with an average 581,000 deaths annually [26]. Globally, the demand for solid-fuel for cooking has reduced considerably, average 50–40%; however, Africa stagnates at 80% over the decades. Escalating fuel cost, population growth and supply interruptions have accounted for reduced demand in modern fuel demand. Even when households use modern fuel for cooking, they often combine with solid-fuel cooking stoves [27, 28]. The production of energy from biological waste using modern production techniques has been promoted as a way out of this public health crisis. Significant efforts have been made through different cross-country projects aimed at producing clean and modern bioenergy such as liquid and gel biofuels. Efforts to promote more clean energy sources such as ethanol stoves and clean cooking stoves have not met required objectives due to poor market penetration and high subsidisation cost [26]. However, in West Africa, ethanol businesses have registered steady growth with over 200,000 stoves reported in different countries over 3 years.
Biogas projects in East Africa played an important role in changing mindsets and providing a cleaner alternative for households. In Kenya, three biogas operating units have been constructed by the Taita Taveta Wildlife Forum (TTWF) as part of a pilot project aimed at improving access to clean energy. This is promoted because biogas produces clean energy, with less indoor and outdoor pollution, thus reduced chances of respiratory tract infections and heart infections. The biogas production process equally generates nitrogen and liquids rich in nutrients that can serve as fertilizers.
The use of bioenergy as an alternative to solid-fuels is encouraged because through the different conversion techniques, energy is generated which enhances good combustion with limited emission of air pollutants. This form of energy is good both for indoor and outdoor use at urban and rural areas. The promotion of this form of energy is equally backed by the constant availability of biomass for bioenergy conversion, with by-products that are equally good for crop cultivation.
4. Bioenergy from tree commodities as a sustainable remedy
Tree commodities commonly referred to as ‘money trees’ are trees grown principally for cash by many African countries. These trees are often the principal source of income for most farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Africa, cocoa, coffee, oil palm, industrial round wood, cashew, almonds and walnuts are the principal tree commodities. These tree commodities are a source of income to millions of Africans and accounts for tons of agricultural biomass produced annually. Agricultural biomass after extraction of the fruit of these products is often left to rot in the farms while farmers suffer from energy shortages. Residue from tree commodities such as husk of cocoa and coffee, empty fruit bunch of oil palm, forest thinning from timber exploitation and shell of almonds are potential sustainable feedstock for bioenergy generation.
With the appropriate technology and adoption by community members, tree commodities can serve as a pathway for sustainable bioenergy generation without changing land use and without extra efforts from the farmer to find feedstock. The potential of using bioenergy for reducing health effects of traditional biomass for combustion is backed by the fact that tree commodities are often found in rural areas, with serious energy deficiencies, high prevalence of respiratory tract infections as a result of solid wood fuel combustion.
The potential of using bioenergy from tree commodities as a clean energy source is evaporated in this chapter by looking at two aspects: (1) by evaluating the potential in terms of quantity of bioenergy that can be generated by tree commodities and (2) operational framework for bioenergy from tree commodities to effectively serve rural population as a renewable and healthy energy source.
4.1 Evaluating the potential quantity of bioenergy from tree commodities in Africa
To evaluate the potential of bioenergy from tree commodities, seven tree commodities were chosen for analysis based on the number of farmers or population affected by the different tree commodities. The chosen tree commodities are coffee (Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora), cocoa (Theobroma cacao), oil palm (Arecaceae), walnuts (Juglans), cashew (Anacardium occidentale), almonds (Prunus dulcis) and industrial round wood. When evaluating bionenergy potential from tree commodities, provisions are taken for the use of residue for other uses, such as soil nutrient. The extraction equally considers other aspects such as weather, soil types, crop yields, harvesting technique and wind patterns [29, 30]. Researchers have evaluated different soil systems and uses of residue from biomass and conclude that 44–64% of biomass residue can sustainably be used for biomass generation [29, 30, 31]. Using a more conservative approach, this chapter uses a 20% extraction rate to estimate bioenergy production from tree commodities. Data from the FAO (2018) database serve as a basis for estimation in this chapter. Sustainable extraction rates were gotten from literature review from a variety of sources; residue to product ratio and moisture content was extracted from OECD/IEA [32]. Moisture content for coffee and cocoa was obtained from NREL [33], oil palm from Husain et al. [34], walnuts from Uzan and Yaman [35], cashew from Mohod et al. [36], industrial round wood from FAO [37] and almonds from [38]. Table 2 below shows the results of bioenergy potential from tree commodities for bioelectricity, biochemical ethanol and diesel.
Tree commodities as a source of bioenergy, bioelectricity, biochemical ethanol and diesel.
Bioenergy generation from tree commodities in Africa can potentially generate between 4.26E+06 and 1.14E+07 MW of bioelectricity from the seven-tree commodities while 6.26E+08 and 1.71E+09 L of bioethanol can potentially be generated from tree commodities. Tree commodities equally can equally serve as an important potential source for diesel, estimates from tree commodities show that 4.27E+08–1.14E+09 L can be generated from tree commodities.
The figure above (Figure 1) shows that bioenergy generation from industrial round wood is the highest averaging 46% for the bioelectricity (47%), bioethanol (46%) and Fischer-Tropsch diesel (46%). Cashew shell can equally contribute significantly bioenergy production accounting for 15% of diesel and bioethanol and 21% of electricity. Cocoa comes third as the highest contributor, accounting for 13% of bioelectricity and 15% of bioethanol and diesel. Coffee follows representing 7% of bioelectricity production and 11% of bioethanol and diesel. Oil palm equally contributes significantly to this potential, with 9% of total potential of bioelectricity and 10% of bioethanol and diesel potential production. These percentages underscore the significant potential contribution of tree commodities in generation clean, modern bioenergy than can potentially reduce public health diseases associated with the combustion of solid-fuel biomass. However, for this to be a reality, a lot of policy and operational tools must be put in place and readily available at local level.
Figure 1.
Percentage of bioenergy generated from different tree commodities.
4.2 Operational framework for bioenergy from tree commodities to effectively serve rural population as a renewable and healthy energy source
For modern bioenergy to serve as a potential clean energy source for rural African communities and millions of Africans at risk of respiratory tract infections and cardio-vascular diseases, several important pre-requisites are required.
Government support: For modern bioenergy to be a mainstay in rural Africa and reduce incidences of deaths through solid-fuel combustion, government authorities must support the development of modern bioenergy infrastructure. This requires significant shift in policy and investment from the government and different multi-lateral partners. The understanding of policy makers of the health advantages of developing modern bioenergy systems coupled with sustainable management practices is key to pushing a policy reform agenda for modern bioenergy generation in Africa.
Significant financial investment: Developing modern bioenergy generation systems for tree commodities requires significant financial investment. Multi-lateral development agencies aimed at reducing carbon emissions and promoting healthy living of populations can shift their funding streams to bioenergy generation. For this to happen, they must understand that modern bioenergy does not only reduce carbon emission, deforestation but can equally save the lives of millions of people potentially at high risk of respiratory tract infections as a result of solid-fuel combustion. This financing should go along way in investing not only in infrastructure for bioenergy development but equally in community adapted distribution mechanisms that will enhance adoption of new form of energy. These new energy sources should be cheaper and more efficient for adoption to be faster.
4.3 Sensitization and training on modern bioenergy generation from tree commodities
The acceptance and adoption of new bioenergy as an improved energy source required that users understand the key advantages. Thus, sensitisation at different levels with a clear distinction of advantages over traditional solid-fuel combustion should be made. Adoption can equally be facilitated by developing simple modern bioenergy generation systems that are adapted to rural context with minimal investment. This will enhance adoption especially when the cost of generation is relatively low and accrued advantages and multi-scaled.
Public-private partnerships and cooperation: The developments of sustainable modern bioenergy systems stakeholder buy-in a different levels and scales. Thus, a public-private partnership scheme is very important. The private sector with similar objectives can collaborate with government agencies in developing the bioenergy agenda as financial partners, technical support agents, or for policy advocacy. International cooperation is equally important for broad-based decision-making with local impacts coupled with strategic deployment frameworks adapted to different contexts. Understanding different stakeholders from different countries is paramount to advancing bioenergy generation.
Technical Training Research Centre for Development (TTRECED), Cameroon
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3. CORRECTIONS
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A Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Only a small portion of a Chapter is flawed in a way that does not severely affect any findings.
\\n\\t
It is determined that the scientific community would be better served by a Correction rather than a Retraction.
\\n\\t
Corrections will be issued in one of two distinct forms -- ERRATUM or CORRIGENDUM, depending on the origin of a mistake.
\\n
\\n\\n
3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\n
An Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\n
A published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n
3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\n
A Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n
4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\n
IntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\n
In the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\n
The general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n
1. RETRACTIONS
\n\n
A Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\n
A formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\n
\n\t
Data fabrication
\n\t
Data recycling in a purportedly original research article
\n\t
Severe plagiarism - whether or not the plagiarism is to be deemed severe will be determined by the Academic Editor and verified by plagiarism checking software
\n\t
Double publication
\n\t
Copyright infringement - for example, if a Chapter uses copyrighted figures without permission.
\n\t
Unreliable findings
\n\t
Unethical research practices
\n\t
Any other practice or act considered potentially harmful to the scientific community.
\n
\n\n
Publishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n\n\t
All relevant bibliographic information about a retracted Chapter will be given in the title.
\n\t
A Retraction Notice will be published as a regular book Chapter and will be given its own Chapter number.
\n\n\n
\n\t
Authors shall be required to approve a proposed retraction of their Chapter. If Authors maintain that their Chapter should not be retracted, the Academic Editor may issue a Statement of Concern (see 2. below).
\n
\n\n
1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n
\n\t
Additionally, a Chapter retracted on grounds of copyright infringement (e.g. double publication) may be Removed by the publisher should the original copyright owner request such action. A Chapter retracted on grounds of its potential to harm the scientific community, for example, when a Chapter is defamatory in nature, may also be subject to removal.
\n\t
No formal Removal Notice will be published but a notice citing the reason for removal will be prominently displayed in place of a retracted and subsequently removed Chapter.
\n\t
Chapters published due to inadvertent production mistakes shall be canceled and the cancellation notice will be published.
\n
\n\n
2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\n
A Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\n
\n\t
Authors refuse to approve a retraction proposed by the Academic Editor
\n\t
There is inconclusive evidence of scientific misconduct
\n\t
Authors and their respective institutions fail or refuse to provide adequate assistance in an investigation
\n\t
The publication of a Statement of Concern will adhere to the Retraction Notice guidelines outlined above
\n\t
An article PDF for which a Statement of Concern is published will remain available online without being edited or watermarked
\n
\n\n
IntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n
3. CORRECTIONS
\n\n
A Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n
\n\t
Only a small portion of a Chapter is flawed in a way that does not severely affect any findings.
\n\t
It is determined that the scientific community would be better served by a Correction rather than a Retraction.
\n\t
Corrections will be issued in one of two distinct forms -- ERRATUM or CORRIGENDUM, depending on the origin of a mistake.
\n
\n\n
3.1. ERRATUM
\n\n
An Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\n
A published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n
3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\n
A Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n
4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\n
IntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\n
In the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\n
The general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
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Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. 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MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. 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Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. 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Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. There are symptomatic or/and curative therapeutic approaches to combat COVID-19 related nervous system damage that are partly still under study.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Robert Weissert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",issn:"2753-894X",scope:"
\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{},overviewPageOFChapters:[],overviewPagePublishedBooks:[],openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81831",title:"Deep Network Model and Regression Analysis using OLS Method for Predicting Lung Vital Capacity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104737",signatures:"Harun Sümbül",slug:"deep-network-model-and-regression-analysis-using-ols-method-for-predicting-lung-vital-capacity",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Decision Science - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11604.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Business and Management",value:86,count:1,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. Samim Al Azad and Slimane Ed-dafali",hash:"86a6d33cf601587e591064ce92effc02",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Leadership in a Changing World - A Multidimensional Perspective",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",institutionString:"Université Laval",institution:{name:"Université Laval",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Business and Management",value:86,count:1}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]}},subseries:{item:{id:"11",type:"subseries",title:"Cell Physiology",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology",scope:"
\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"81576",title:"Carotenoids in Thermal Adaptation of Plants and Animals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104537",signatures:"Ivan M. Petyaev",slug:"carotenoids-in-thermal-adaptation-of-plants-and-animals",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Ivan",surname:"Petyaev"}],book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81358",title:"New Insights on Carotenoid Production by Gordonia alkanivorans Strain 1B",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103919",signatures:"Tiago P. Silva, Susana M. Paixão, Ana S. Fernandes, José C. Roseiro and Luís Alves",slug:"new-insights-on-carotenoid-production-by-gordonia-alkanivorans-strain-1b",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81246",title:"Role of Carotenoids in Cardiovascular Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102750",signatures:"Arslan Ahmad, Sakhawat Riaz, Muhammad Shahzaib Nadeem, Umber Mubeen and Khadija Maham",slug:"role-of-carotenoids-in-cardiovascular-disease",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81159",title:"Potential of Carotenoids from Fresh Tomatoes and Their Availability in Processed Tomato-Based Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103933",signatures:"Rose Daphnee Ngameni Tchonkouang, Maria Dulce Carlos Antunes and Maria Margarida Cortês Vieira",slug:"potential-of-carotenoids-from-fresh-tomatoes-and-their-availability-in-processed-tomato-based-produc",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"80902",title:"Computational Chemistry Study of Natural Apocarotenoids and Their Synthetic Glycopeptide Conjugates as Therapeutic Drugs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103130",signatures:"Norma Flores-Holguín, Juan Frau and Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"computational-chemistry-study-of-natural-apocarotenoids-and-their-synthetic-glycopeptide-conjugates-",totalDownloads:30,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Norma",surname:"Flores-Holguín"},{name:"Daniel",surname:"Glossman-Mitnik"},{name:"Juan",surname:"Frau"}],book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7999",title:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7999.jpg",slug:"free-radical-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Kusal Das, Swastika Das, Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar, Varaprasad Bobbarala and S. 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