Results summary of the known field trials carried out in three citrus-growing countries of the Mediterranean area to evaluate the effect of CEVd and HSVd on vegetative growth and yield of different citrus scion and rootstock combinations.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8282",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Polar Seismology - Advances and Impact",title:"Polar Seismology",subtitle:"Advances and Impact",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Seismology in polar regions (Arctic and Antarctic) allows us to study the static condition and high-latitude dynamics of the Earth. This book covers the recent developments in seismology in polar regions; observations and networks; international collaboration; heterogeneous structure and dynamics of the lithosphere; deep Earth's interiors observed from high latitudes; characteristics of seismicity and seismic wave propagation; and global tectonics in terms of Earth's history, including the interdisciplinary studies on the interaction between Earth's spheres. Since the International Polar Year (IPY) in 2007/2008 was the most exciting campaign launched within contemporary polar studies, this book observes recent seismological achievements by the IPY, specifically focusing on the seismic signals near the surface associated with cryosphere dynamics and evolution. Topics on cryoseismology, such as glacial earthquake activities, are viewed in terms of global warming. Moreover, observational experiments and long-term monitoring under the extreme conditions in the polar environment are also discussed.",isbn:"978-1-78923-569-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-568-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-839-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78404",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"polar-seismology-advances-and-impact",numberOfPages:116,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"69e0f0e64b988f29d30532c2618705b2",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao",publishedDate:"October 10th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8282.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10243,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 8th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 29th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 28th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 16th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 15th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Authored by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51959/images/system/51959.jpg",biography:"Dr. Masaki Kanao obtained his Ph.D. from Kyoto University. He is currently working at the National Institute of Polar Research in Tokyo. He is chiefly interested in the Earth\\'s structure and evolution from geoscience studies. Polar regions, both in Arctic and Antarctic, have been investigated by geophysical investigations particularly by passive and active seismic sources. He is also interested in the present Earth’s dynamics and tectonics of the continental lithosphere. The Antarctic continent, as a member of the past Gondwana super-continent, has been the main target to reveal lithospheric evolution history. Recently, inter-disciplinary studies in terms of glacial earthquakes, cryoseismic events in Greenland and Antarctica have been focusing on involving environmental changes associated with global warming. These investigations in polar regions have been contributing to the development of all kinds of global Earth sciences.",institutionString:"National Institute of Polar Research",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"17",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"National Institute of Polar Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"654",title:"Seismology",slug:"seismology"}],chapters:[{id:"61734",title:"Introduction: Progress of Seismology in Polar Region",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78550",slug:"introduction-progress-of-seismology-in-polar-region",totalDownloads:1104,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Several kinds of seismological investigations have been conducted in the polar region, which include the areas of both the Arctic and the Antarctic regions, in various depth ranges from the surface layers to the deep interiors of the Earth. The polar region has an advantage in order to seek inside the physical condition of the Earth as a “window” viewed from high latitudes. In this chapter, historical issues and progress of seismic research and its observations in the polar region are demonstrated during the last half-century from the era of the International Geophysical Year (IGY 1957–1958).",signatures:"Masaki Kanao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61734",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61734",authors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],corrections:null},{id:"61742",title:"An Overview of Seismological Projects during the International Polar Year",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78551",slug:"an-overview-of-seismological-projects-during-the-international-polar-year",totalDownloads:902,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During the International Polar Year (IPY 2007–2008), many seismological studies had been carried out in bipolar regions; particularly, advances and progresses in observation networks were established for the purpose of detecting precise data regarding geophysical studies. In this chapter, major seismological projects during the IPY, in both the Antarctic and the Arctic regions, are introduced with their fruitful scientific results and involved logistic operations.",signatures:"Masaki Kanao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61742",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61742",authors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],corrections:null},{id:"61730",title:"Seismological Studies on the Deep Interiors of the Earth Viewed from the Polar Region",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78552",slug:"seismological-studies-on-the-deep-interiors-of-the-earth-viewed-from-the-polar-region",totalDownloads:1012,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Seismological studies on the deep interiors of the Earth (depth range from the mantle to the inner core) viewed from the polar region have an advantage to promote global geosciences, such as for revealing the heterogeneous structural variations along the latitude from the poles to the equators. In this chapter, major seismological investigations, which had been held during the IPY, particularly newly identified founding of deep interiors of the Earth, will be introduced.",signatures:"Masaki Kanao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61730",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61730",authors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],corrections:null},{id:"61763",title:"Structural Studies on the Earth’s Crust, Plates, and the Ice Sheet in the Polar Region",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78553",slug:"structural-studies-on-the-earth-s-crust-plates-and-the-ice-sheet-in-the-polar-region",totalDownloads:941,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During the International Polar Year (IPY 2007–2008), a number of seismological studies regarding the structure and dynamics of the Earth’s surface layers, the static inner structure of the crystalline crust and lithosphere involving Earth’s history, earthquake occurrence mechanism, inner deformation of the plates, crustal movement relating to deglaciation, seismic isotropy, and the other topics of the ice sheet overlying the solid earth were conducted. In this chapter, recent seismological results as for the structural study of the crust, plates, and ice sheet in bipolar regions are overviewed.",signatures:"Masaki Kanao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61763",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61763",authors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],corrections:null},{id:"62218",title:"Studies on Seismicity in the Polar Region",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78554",slug:"studies-on-seismicity-in-the-polar-region",totalDownloads:1029,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During the International Polar Year (IPY 2007–2008), several seismological research studies have been conducted as a part of geophysical observations in bipolar regions. In this chapter, recent studies involving seismicity in bipolar regions are introduced on the basis of compiled data from the International Seismological Centre (ISC). The relationship between the present seismicity and the heterogeneous structure of the crust and upper mantle is discussed, together with a review of geoscientific achievements in terms of the tectonic history of the Earth.",signatures:"Masaki Kanao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62218",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62218",authors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],corrections:null},{id:"61739",title:"A Decade of Advances in Cryoseismology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78555",slug:"a-decade-of-advances-in-cryoseismology",totalDownloads:1039,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Among the various kinds of seismological features observed in the polar region, the characteristics of the wavelets and involved seismicity related to cryosphere dynamics are introduced to mark a decade of advances in “cryoseismology.” Classifying the seismic waves originating from the cryosphere dynamics and understanding the generating mechanism as well as the temporal-spatial distributions in seismicity should be important in order to realize surface environmental variations associated with global warming in the polar region.",signatures:"Masaki Kanao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61739",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61739",authors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],corrections:null},{id:"61769",title:"Seismic Detection in the Inland Plateau of East Antarctica",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78556",slug:"seismic-detection-in-the-inland-plateau-of-east-antarctica",totalDownloads:1009,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Several international programs to deploy broadband seismic stations over the Antarctic continent were conducted during the International Polar Year (IPY 2007–2008). Antarctica’s Gamburtsev Province (AGAP)/Gamburtsev Mountains Seismic Experiment (GAMSEIS), which was a part of AGAP and the Polar Earth Observing Network (POLENET), contributed greatly to establish a geophysical network in Antarctica. AGAP/GAMSEIS was an internationally coordinated deployment of more than 30 seismographs over the crest of the Gamburtsev Mountains and the areas of Dome-A, -C, and -F. The project provided a detailed information on the crust and mantle structures and, key constraints on the origin of the Gamburtsev Mountains and more broadly on the structure and evolution of the East Antarctic craton and subglacial environment. With the data from GAMSEIS and POLENET, the local and regional seismic signals associated with ice movements, oceanic loadings, and local meteorological variations were recorded in addition to a number of teleseismic events around the globe. The characteristic seismic signals of local origin in the inland plateau of the ice sheet were demonstrated with a capability to investigate subglacial environment, particularly at the marginal areas of the East Antarctic continent.",signatures:"Masaki Kanao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61769",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61769",authors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],corrections:null},{id:"61767",title:"A New Trend in Cryoseismology: A Proxy for Detecting the Polar Surface Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78557",slug:"a-new-trend-in-cryoseismology-a-proxy-for-detecting-the-polar-surface-environment",totalDownloads:1193,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"“Cryoseismology” is a new branch of interdisciplinary science, which treats glacier-related seismic events and their dynamics associated with the variable phenomenon of the Earth’s surface. Cryoseismology is considered to be one of the proxies for detecting environmental variations, particularly in the polar region, which contains the majority volume of the cryosphere of the planet. Various kinds of cryoseismic signals recently reported are reviewed by classifying them into several categories on the basis of their occurrence locations and focal dynamics. Temporal-spatial variations in cryoseismic activities and their wave propagation characteristics could demonstrate a new image of cryodynamics, which have not yet been known well before but have a significant impact on the global environment and human activities.",signatures:"Masaki Kanao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61767",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61767",authors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],corrections:null},{id:"61740",title:"Interactions among Multispheres of the Earth’s System and Polar Regions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78558",slug:"interactions-among-multispheres-of-the-earth-s-system-and-polar-regions",totalDownloads:1062,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Among the environmental variations in the surface layers of the Earth, global warming and those involving multisphere interactions in the polar region are reviewed with scientific research funding. By focusing on the wavelet phenomena with various generating sources within the Earth’s system, interdisciplinary research studies are conducted on the influences and responses to climate change in the polar region.",signatures:"Masaki Kanao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61740",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61740",authors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],corrections:null},{id:"61741",title:"Summary: Global Seismology and the Polar Region",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78559",slug:"summary-global-seismology-and-the-polar-region",totalDownloads:953,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"“Polar Seismology” has been developed since the International Geophysical Year (IGY 1957–1958) and contributed significantly to global seismology in particular through the big project of the International Polar Year (IPY 2007–2008). At present, in the first stage of the twenty-first century, “polar regions” play an important role to monitor and understand the drastic variations in the Earth’s system as well as to advance the inter-disciplinary studies of the interactions among multispheres within the system.",signatures:"Masaki Kanao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61741",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61741",authors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"4",title:"Compact",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"892",title:"Seismic Waves",subtitle:"Research and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"77aca8357f09b77cf39eb669b711c862",slug:"seismic-waves-research-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/892.jpg",editedByType:"Edited 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Furthermore, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that the incidence of trauma, predominantly requiring surgery, accounts for 10% of deaths and 16% of disabilities worldwide—considerably more than malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS combined [2].
\nConfounding the underlying comorbidities that patients present with during surgery, patients also suffer a significant biologic perturbation—the “surgical stress response”—a significant stressor to the human body during the perioperative period. A variety of systems are involved in this stress response, including the sympathetic autonomic nervous system, endocrine system, and immune system [3]. Inflammatory mechanisms are intimately tied to the immune system and contribute to direct defense against infection and promote postoperative wound healing. This physiological reaction of the human body can be exaggerated by a systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) [4]. SIRS results from the release of endogenous factors such as damage‐associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) or alarmins [4, 5] after surgical tissue injury [6]. DAMPs activate the complement system, leading to a rapid generation of C3a and C5a [7–9] and initiation of the release of a myriad of inflammatory mediators such as adiponectin, leptin, C‐reactive protein, interleukins (IL‐8, IL‐10, etc.), soluble tumor necrosis factor‐receptor 1(sTNF‐R1), and 8‐isoprostane.
\nThe surgical pro‐inflammatory and pro‐oxidant milieu may result in both functional and structural alterations in the endothelium, resulting in hemostatic dysregulation and impaired microcirculation with consequent microvascular‐related postoperative complications (Illustration courtesy of Dr Marissa Ferguson).
Interestingly, these inflammatory mediators, described as a systemic “inflammome,” are increased in obese patients presenting for bariatric surgery [10]. Hence, this suggests that a significant number of patients may present to surgery with an underlying pro‐inflammatory state and is also seen in patients with inflammatory comorbidities, such as rheumatoid disease, inflammatory bowel disease, and diabetes mellitus [11, 12]. This inflammatory burden activates cellular processes at affected sites within tissues, with enhanced capillary permeability to soluble mediators, particles, and cellular trafficking. These systems are in a delicate balance, which can be easily disrupted to exacerbate disease or organ dysfunction [13].
\nImpaired microcirculation, largely driven by vascular endothelial dysfunction, is increasingly implicated as a central pathophysiological feature of postoperative morbidity. Microcirculation is affected by certain noxious stimuli, many of which are common to the perioperative period, including direct injury from surgical manipulation or hemodynamic shear stress, hypoxia (e.g., ischemia‐reperfusion injury), and through exposure to inflammatory cytokines and endotoxins. Perioperative inflammation caused in reaction to surgical trauma causes a pro‐inflammatory and pro‐oxidant milieu that results in both functional and structural alterations in the endothelium. This may lead to microcirculation hemostatic dysregulation with impaired local tissue perfusion and consequent micro‐ and macrovascular‐related postoperative complications (Figure 1) [14, 15].
\n\nThe endothelial “organ” is estimated to weigh approximately 1 kg in adults and covers the entire vasculature with a single layer of cells, covering a surface area of approximately 100–150 m2 and comprising 10–60 trillion cells in a single layer.
\nFor a long time, the endothelium was considered to be inert, tasked with passive maintenance of a non‐thrombogenic blood‐tissue interface. In 1980, however, Furchgott and Zawadzki [16] discovered the endothelium‐derived relaxing factor (nitric oxide), and since then our understanding of the importance of the vascular endothelium has undergone a dramatic evolution.
\nThe endothelium is now recognized as a complex tissue composed of key immunoreactive cells that respond to environmental conditions. Sandwiched between the blood compartment and the vascular smooth muscle cells, the single layered endothelium is ideally located to act as a dynamic sensor‐effector organ. Most of the endothelial cell mass is found in the endothelial lining of the resistance vessels and capillaries, thereby exposing a relatively large endothelial surface to a small volume of blood (up to 5000 cm2/ml). This facilitates the exchange of nutrients and metabolic products [17], and thus allows the endothelium to exert significant autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine actions on smooth muscle cells, platelets, and peripheral leukocytes. Endothelial cells, thereby, participate actively and reactively in the regulation of a number of key physiological processes, including vascular tone, vascular permeability, hemostasis (thrombosis, fibrinolysis, and platelet adherence), immune and inflammatory (leukocyte adherence) reactions, angiogenesis, and maintenance of the basement membrane. This dynamic “gate keeping” role of the endothelium, modulated through its metabolic and synthetic functions (such as production of nitric oxide, endothelin, prostaglandins, cytokines, growth factors, and adhesion molecules) and through the expression of endothelial cell receptors and glycoproteins on the abluminal surface, allows the healthy endothelium to maintain a dominant state of vasodilation, anti‐thrombosis/pro‐fibrinolysis by inhibition of platelet and leukocyte adhesion—a state that is indispensable for body homeostasis [18].
\nIn contrast, endothelial dysfunction, activation, and injury are characterized by inhibition of vasodilation, promotion of a pro‐thrombotic/anti‐fibrinolytic state, and promotion of platelet and leukocyte adhesion. Altered release of endothelium‐derived factors appears to be pivotal in pathophysiological changes that occur in disease states, such as atherosclerosis, thrombosis, hypertension, pulmonary hypertension, eclampsia, hyperglycemia, diabetes, metastatic disease, immune diseases, inflammatory syndromes, infectious processes, and sepsis. Indeed, there is increasing evidence that perturbations in the vascular endothelium are directly or indirectly involved in the pathophysiology of numerous disease processes, including postoperative morbid events.
\nThe phenotypic expression of the endothelium can be described as a dynamic “set point” that ranges between a quiescent, activated, or dysfunctional state. Endothelial cell (EC) dysfunction caused by perioperative inflammation in response to an acute stressor (surgery, critical illness) is accompanied by microcirculatory hypoperfusion that can lead to end‐organ dysfunction.
The crucial step in the progression of perioperative endothelial dysfunction is the change of the endothelium from a quiescent into an active state. The endothelium, activated by exposure to inflammatory cytokines, becomes prothrombotic, prone to vasoconstriction instead of vasodilation, and more porous with increased fluid extravasation and increased cellular trafficking to the intercellular space. A systemic response to major trauma, associated with a lowered ability to fight infection and susceptibility to sepsis, will further activate the destructive inflammatory response [19].
\nIn those patients presenting with underlying impaired preoperative microcirculatory function now confounded by the pathophysiologic changes to the endothelium that accompanies the surgical stress response will be at higher risk of deterioration of the endothelial reserve below a critical “physiologic threshold” required to sustain microvascular integrity and perfusion (Figure 2).
\n\nThrough reconstitution of the endothelial layer, which generally occurs in the presence of angiogenesis and vasculogenesis, endothelial function can be restored. Neovascularization is mediated through migration and proliferation of endothelial cells within the vasculature. Endothelial colony‐forming cells (CFCs) developing endothelial progeny is the key factor in order for mature endothelial cells to proliferate and restore endothelial function [20–22]. For adult vasculogenesis, endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) play an important role for the
A major limitation in this field has been the lack of specific markers and different methods used to identify circulating EPCs. Different methods included flow cytometry, cell culture methods, immunostaining, and consequently render comparison difficult. Three functional populations of EPCs have generally been well defined. A cellular population that expresses the phenotype CD34+ AC133+ KDR+ has gained wide acceptance as a measure of circulating EPC in human subjects [31]. These cells, while being recruited to denuded vessels in ischemic sites, do not become persistent vascular endothelial cells or display de novo in‐vivo vasculogenic potential, but rather exhibit potent paracrine properties to regulate new vessel formation through angiogenesis [32, 33]. These cells are referred to as proangiogenic hematopoietic cells [22, 34, 35]. Colony‐forming assays, in which plated human CD34+ peripheral blood cells form cellular clusters on fibronectin‐coated dishes in‐vitro, have identified other populations of EPC. Asahara et al. [23] described that CD34+ peripheral blood cells form clusters, bind acetylated low‐density protein (acLDL) and differentiate into spindle‐shaped endothelial cells. These cell clusters are referred to as EPC colony‐forming units (CFU). A third population of EPCs, identified as yet another type of cell colony emerging from plated peripheral blood mononuclear cells, form tightly adherent cells with a cobblestone appearance and are referred to as endothelial colony‐forming cells (ECFC), late outgrowth cells (OEC), or blood outgrowth endothelial cells (BOEC). These cells become part of the systemic circulation of the host and have vessel‐forming ability [36] These ECFCs, with
EPC enumeration correlates with cardiovascular risk factors, extent of coronary disease, and risk of future cardiovascular events [24]. EPC enumeration and functional characterization assess the reparative ability and propensity to cardiovascular injury, and thus greatly improves the risk stratification of patients for postoperative morbidity. Given that peripherally circulating EPCs and intrinsic stem cells play an important role in accelerating endothelialization and tissue remodeling following vascular damage from both disease and toxic insults, we anticipate that therapeutic attempts to stimulate mobilization and homing of bone marrow‐derived EPC or exogenous administration of cell‐based (progenitor) therapies will likely emerge in clinical medicine over the next decade [38–40]. Comorbid disease states and aging associate with decreased regenerative ability by EPCs and may underlie the etiology of postoperative complications and delayed recovery following surgery. For example, diabetes is characterized by poor bone marrow mobilization and decreased proliferation and survival of EPCs [41]. Inhibiting oxidative stress has been shown to modulate EPCs and normalize post‐ischemic neovascularization in diabetics. Similarly, EPC mobilization is also reported to improve with insulin therapy in diabetic rats [42]. Whether this effect is mediated by insulin itself or through improved glucose control needs to be clarified.
\nAn intact microcirculation is key for the functional success of the cardiovascular system and end‐organ perfusion. In the perioperative period, a wide range of microcirculatory alterations associated with surgery itself, including factors such as anesthesia type, hypothermia, hemodilution, inflammatory reaction, and microemboli formation [43,44], impair endothelium‐dependent vascular function to decrease blood flow and oxygen supply to the parenchymal cells. An improved understanding of the different types of microcirculatory alterations may also contribute to reducing perioperative complications. Variants of impaired microcirculation include impaired microcirculatory perfusion where obstructed capillaries are observed next to capillaries with flow, often seen in clinical conditions such as sepsis or reperfusion injury; microcirculatory alterations characterized by increased diffusion distance between oxygen‐carrying red blood cells and tissue cells, often seen in hemodilution that accompanies cardiopulmonary bypass; microcirculatory tamponade, often associated with excessive use of vasopressors and/or increased venous pressure. This fluid overload causes tissue edema that consequently leads to a damage of endothelial cells and losses of hemodynamic coherence, glycocalyx barriers, and/or the compromise of adherence and tight junctions [45].
\nAlterations of the cerebral microcirculation may represent a key component for the development of postoperative sepsis‐associated encephalopathy. Cerebral hypoperfusion is a common complication of sepsis and its pathophysiology is complex and related to numerous processes and pathways, while the exact mechanisms producing neurological impairment such as delirium in septic patients is not fully understood. Cerebral hypoperfusion is caused by vasoconstriction that may be induced by inflammation and hypocapnia. The underlying endothelial dysfunction in sepsis leads to impairment of microcirculation and cerebral metabolic uncoupling that may further reduce brain perfusion. The natural autoregulatory mechanisms that protect the brain from reduced/inadequate cerebral perfusion can be impaired in septic patients, especially in those with shock or delirium, and this further contributes to cerebral ischemia if blood pressure drops below critical thresholds [46].
\nPostoperative brain dysfunction (delirium and coma) may relate to impaired microcirculation following surgical trauma and the associated inflammation seen in the postoperative period. Postoperative neurocognitive dysfunction is very prevalent, especially in the elderly surgical patient population. It has been reported to independently associate with prolonged mechanical ventilation, longer and more costly hospitalizations, delayed cognitive dysfunction that persists for months after hospital discharge, and increased mortality [47–53]. Factors implicated in the pathogenesis of acute brain dysfunction, such as inflammation, abnormal cerebral blood flow, and increased blood‐brain barrier permeability [54, 55], are known to impact endothelial function. Similarly, critical illnesses, such as sepsis and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, states that circulating inflammatory cytokines affect endothelial nitric oxide production and expression of adhesion molecules [56, 57]. This results in coagulation system activation, altered perfusion, distorted permeability, and decreased ability for vascular repair [58, 59]. In the brain specifically, structural and functional alterations of blood–brain barrier endothelial cells secondary to inflammatory states have been associated with increased microvascular permeability and impaired microcirculatory blood flow [60–63]. This relationship between endothelial dysfunction and brain dysfunction during critical illness is increasingly reported in critically ill patients. The observed impact of endothelial dysfunction and injury on brain function will also likely reflect that seen in other end organs, including acute lung injury following surgery [64] or during critical illness [65].
\nTherapeutic modulation of underlying subclinical microvascular endothelial dysfunction holds promise for a significant reduction in perioperative morbidity and specifically for complications such as impaired wound healing and end‐organ dysfunction related to impaired microcirculation following surgery. Perioperative inflammation can be targeted with non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs to limit activation of the endothelial‐thrombotic‐inflammatory cascades with potential to improve perioperative outcomes [66–68]. Other therapeutic interventions, including preoperative exercise capacity, which aim to improve endothelial‐dependent vascular function before surgery in order to cope with the inflammatory burden are currently under investigation in clinical studies [69, 70].
\nNumerous factors have an important role in the mobilization of EPCs [71, 72]. These include growth factors (e.g., GM‐CSF, GCSF, VEGF, placental growth factor, erythropoietin, and angiopoietin‐1), pro‐inflammatory cytokines, chemokines (e.g., stromal cell‐derived factor‐1), hormones (e.g., estrogens, and lipid lowering and antidiabetic drugs), and physical activity [73]. The stimulatory effect of exercise on EPC has been shown in highly trained athletes [74], healthy subjects [71], and importantly also in patients with cardiovascular disease [75]. However, further research is required to understand the potential benefit of exercise to endothelial health in patients with subclinical cardiovascular disease characterized by endothelial dysfunction secondary to comorbidities, including metabolic syndrome or in patients subjected to the acute inflammatory insult of surgery.
\nExercise has been shown to improve exercise capacity, specifically the anaerobic threshold (AT) and the maximum oxygen consumption (pVO2), and underlying endothelial reserve. In healthy subjects, Laufs et al. [76] showed that moderate and intense running for 30 min (80–100% velocity of individuals’ AT) increased circulating EPC levels, but this was not seen with running occurred at short intervals (10 minutes). In elderly patients with coronary artery disease, a 4‐week exercise program achieved significant upregulation of circulating EPCs. More recently, this was achieved after an even shorter (15 days) cardiac rehabilitation program, with an increase in EPCs that correlated with improved exercise capacity [73]. Other markers of improved endothelial function from a cardiac rehabilitation program included: a two‐fold increase in EPCs, a three‐fold increase in CFU, increased blood nitrite concentration, and reduced EPC apoptosis [75]. The duration and the intensity of exercise that are needed to adequately stimulate EPC mobilization and improve endothelial function require further investigation [77]. Surgical injury induces the mobilization of EPCs, with significantly higher circulating EPC and bone marrow EPC levels observed 24 hours after surgery in an animal model [78]. The ability to mount an EPC response is also seen in critical illness, and the response is significantly greater in patients that survive sepsis [27], and recover from illness, for example, without fibrotic changes after pneumonia [40].
\nGiven that “responders” who mount a “cellular” stress response to injury, with increased EPC mobilization, have improved organ recovery [40] and improved survival [27], it is increasingly clear that a bone marrow‐derived cellular component must follow the surgical “stress response” to facilitate repair processes. In a recent pilot study, we were able to demonstrate that patients scheduled for major surgery that exhibited an EPC response to the stressor of preoperative exhaustive exercise with a single cardiopulmonary exercise test up to pVO2 suffered significantly fewer postoperative complications [69]. Whether strategies to improve bone marrow capacity and responsiveness will influence a patient’s ability to withstand surgical injury remains to be investigated. Increasing this bone marrow‐derived regenerative response through preoperative exercise training may be one potential therapeutic option to optimize patients’ health status prior to surgery.
\nHowever, discovering an inadequate EPC response during acute illness, such as impaired wound healing, pneumonia, acute lung injury [64], or sepsis [65], is likely too late. Hence, using a surrogate stressor, for example, exercise, to allow for early identification of at‐risk patients prior to surgery will enable timely strategies to improve bone marrow responsiveness to be implemented. Importantly, some of the endothelial dysfunction, particularly that acquired in the perioperative period, may be transient or reversible and may not actually involve structural change in the cells of the vascular endothelium, but more likely potentially reversible alterations in function—so these would not require new cells, just repair of a damaged process. Importantly, whether this lack of EPC response is an epiphenomenon, a surrogate marker, or indeed causative of increased postoperative complications, requires further study. The causative nature is supported by animal studies that suggest that exogenous EPC administration can rescue endotoxin‐induced acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), with reduced inflammation, improved oxygenation, and improved survival [38, 39].
\nJeong et al. [79], investigating whether diabetic neuropathy could be reversed by local transplantation of EPCs, reported that motor and sensory nerve conduction velocities, blood flow, and capillary density were reduced in sciatic nerves of streptozotocin‐induced diabetic mice; with recovery after hindlimb injection of bone marrow‐derived EPCs that were shown to engraft in close proximity to the vasa nervorum. This study demonstrated that bone marrow‐derived EPCs could reverse manifestations of diabetic neuropathy, and that cell‐based translational approaches may provide a novel and valid therapeutic alternative in the future.
\nExercise [80] and tissue insult from surgery [78] are known to increase the mobilization of EPC. In this manner, cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) can be used as a catalyst to increase the circulating population of EPCs and as a diagnostic tool of a patient’s ability to mount an EPC response preoperatively. Additional gas exchange parameters obtained during a diagnostic CPET (anaerobic threshold and peak VO2) can be used to determine patients’ individual physiologic capacity and the amount of exercise needed in order to stimulate the population of EPC. Preoperative exercise training could condition patients’ individual functional capacity and to improve endothelial reserve by affecting EPC responsiveness. As such, Cesari et al. [73] reported a significant increase in circulating EPCs in those patients that improved their exercise capacity by more than 23%, as assessed by a six‐minute walk test, after completion of a rehabilitation program.
\nRegular exercise has been described to be involved in risk reduction of many chronic pathological alterations such as cancer, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases. One key mechanism, which is frequently discussed in this context, is that exercise contributes to an anti‐inflammatory environment, thereby counteracting a major risk factor of those diseases [81–83]. This hypothesis is supported by a vast body of literature, indicating that acute exercise induces a short‐term strong increase in the pro‐inflammatory cytokine interleukin‐6, which in turn induces a long‐term depression of TNF‐α and the expression of anti‐inflammatory mediators, such as interleukin‐10 and soluble receptors of interleukin‐1 [84]. Furthermore, recent research suggests that regular exercise suppresses over a life‐span the permanent expression of inflammatory cytokines via epigenetic mechanisms. Nakajima et al. [85] showed that the DNA‐methylation in the promoter region of the ASC gene, the products of which induce inflammation, is decreased in older subjects. An intermediate exercise intervention resulted in a re‐methylation of this region; hence, the methylation pattern of 60‐ to70‐year old was corrected to those of 30‐ to 40‐year‐old study participants.
\nThe anti‐inflammatory effect of exercise is mediated by cells which secrete protective cytokines, such as interleukin‐6, which is expressed by skeletal muscle‐tissue during physical activity. However, little is known about the exact mechanism in which exercise triggers the anti‐inflammatory component. Evidence rises that regular exercise and higher levels of cardiovascular fitness are related to an increased number of regulatory T‐cells. Since these cells have strong anti‐inflammatory properties (e.g., by secreting Interleukin‐10), they may contribute to the intermediate anti‐inflammatory effect of exercise [86].
\nExercise is involved in multiple processes establishing an anti‐inflammatory environment, which counteracts with perioperative inflammatory stress. Therefore, preoperative exercise, which is feasible over a 1‐month time period, may contribute to a reduction of the inflammatory burden that is present in patients undergoing surgery.
\nBesides the mobilization of EPCs and its anti‐inflammatory properties, exercise is known to regulate key factors of vascular functioning. Furthermore, exercise induces the expression of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and increases the levels of VEGF [87–89]. The first studies revealed that the regulation of these factors is at least partially driven by epigenetic mechanisms. Wu et al. [90] revealed that exercise in rats results in a downregulation of the microRNA155. Interestingly, the messenger RNA of eNOS is known to be inhibited by microRNA155. One essential mediator may be displayed by shear‐stress which is also associated with epigenetic modifications of the chromatin (histone modifications) in the eNOS gene region [91, 92]. Fernandes et al. [93] found reduced levels of microRNA126 and 16 in exercising animals. Both microRNAs were previously described to inhibit the expression of VEGF. Although the previous studies give a premature insight into the underlying mechanism, they display that exercise truly contributes to the improvement of vascular function and regeneration on the molecular level. Further research, especially in humans, is warranted to get more information about the mechanism and dose–response relationship of exercise contributing to endothelial and vascular regeneration.
\nImpaired microcirculation secondary to underlying vascular endothelial dysfunction is increasingly recognized to play a central role in the pathophysiology associated with numerous postoperative complications. Noxious stimuli, including direct injury from surgical trauma and hypoxia (e.g., ischemia‐reperfusion injury), trigger adrenergic‐inflammatory‐thrombotic‐immune cascades to impair the microcirculation, with consequent perfusion‐related postoperative complications.
\nThe endothelium, characterized by exquisite sensitivity to inflammation and low proliferative potential, has limited self‐repair capacity that is dependent on circulating bone marrow‐derived endothelial progenitor cells for regeneration. As such, the extent to which the endothelial physical and functional integrity and bone marrow responsiveness, for the circulating progenitor pool, is preserved mirrors not only underlying cardiovascular health but also as an important factor in susceptibility to postoperative morbidity.
\nThis review explores the effect of perioperative inflammation on the microcirculation and some of the current protective strategies available to clinicians. “Prehabilitation,” with preoperative exercise to improve underlying endothelial function and bone marrow responsiveness for endogenous endothelial repair mechanisms, and anti‐inflammatory strategies to limit activation of the endothelial‐thrombotic‐inflammatory cascades may provide clinical strategies to preserve the microcirculation to engender optimal surgical outcomes.
\nViroids are circular, highly structured, single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) phytopathogens. Although they do not code for any peptide, these enigmatic pathogens have evolved the capacity to replicate within cellular organella, the nucleus and chloroplast for
Citrus exocortis is a destructive disease infecting citrus species [9, 11]. The agent of this disease, citrus exocortis viroid [
Citrus exocortis could affect a various part of the tree including the rootstock (at bark and wood levels), scion, leaves, and fruits, thus causing different types of damages such as bark scaling and cracking, bumps, severe stunting, low fruit-bearing, the poor appearance of the canopy [21, 24, 25, 26, 27], and poor tree performance [28]. CEVd-infected trees in the orchard show typical symptoms. The most characteristic one is bark scaling on trifoliate orange rootstock, yellow stem blotch on trifoliate orange and its hybrids and Rangpur lime (
The major susceptible citrus rootstocks, which show exocortis bark scaling symptoms, are trifoliate orange and its hybrids, Palestine sweet lime (
The type and severity of symptoms induced by citrus exocortis disease depend not just on the selected rootstock as described above, but also on the amount of viroid present in the scion and the infection with other citrus viroids. High temperatures can also accelerate the development of symptoms [30]. The results of a long-term field trial carried out with clementine trees grafted on the trifoliate orange rootstock revealed that CEVd-induced effects might be both reduced or increased when CEVd-infected trees were exposed to mixed viroid infections. In other words, several interactions among viroids including CEVd have been revealed through comparative assays between symptoms developed on trees infected with CEVd alone or co-infected with other viroids. The most clear-cut interaction occurs between CEVd and Citrus viroid IV [
Numerous field trials have been conducted on different citrus species, varieties, and rootstocks under three different agroecosystems, to evaluate the effect of CEVd on vegetative growth and yield (Table 1). The first field trial has been conducted to assess the effect of CEVd infection on commune clementine trees grafted on Pomeroy trifoliate orange. CEVd-infected trees have been periodically monitored for a period of 12 years (from 1990 to 2002) for symptom expression, growth, and fruit yield. CEVd-infected trees showed a significant reduction of growth and yield, which became increasingly apparent over time with infection. Cumulative yield varied from 291,1 to 570,3 kg in 2001 for CEVd and the control, respectively. This equated to 50% cumulative yield lost. This yield attenuation was associated mainly with the loss of large fruit production. Indeed, it has been shown that CEVd reduced fruit production significantly for calibers 2 to 5. Cumulative weights were smaller than the control for caliber 0–1 and small calibers 6 and 7–8, with some significant difference [21]. The quality of fruits from CEVd-infected orange trees (Washington Navel) grafted on Carrizo citrange rootstock has been evaluated from 2004 to 2007. The results of this experiment showed that the quality of the fruit was not affected by CEVd infection [26].
Combination | Effect on | References | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Scion | |||||
CEVd | |||||
Clementine | Orange Pomeroy trifoliate | NSE | [21] | ||
Oranger Washington Navel | Carrizo citrangec | NSE (Reduction of almost 17% and 27% for CEVd-129 and CEVd-117, respectively) | NSE (Low reduction of about 2% and 10% for CEVd-129 and CEVd-117, respectively) | [26] | |
Orange Maltaise demi sanguine | Soor orange ( | NSE | NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | [46] |
Alemow | NSE | NSE | NSE | ||
Carrizo citrangec | NSE | NSE | NSE | ||
NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | ||||
Cleopatra mandarin ( | NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 25%) | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | ||
Swingle citrumelo (Citru)c | NSE | NSE | NSE | ||
Rangpur lime ( | NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 28%) | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | ||
Trifoliate orangec | NSE | ||||
HSVd | |||||
Clementine | Orange Pomeroy trifoliatec | Little or no real impact | NSE | [21] | |
Orange Washington Navel | Carrizo citrangec | NSE (Reduction of almost 15% for CVd-IIc) | NSE (Reduction of almost 8% for CVd-IIb) | No effect | [26] |
Orange Maltaise demi sanguine | Soor orange ( | NSE | NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | [46] |
Alemow | |||||
Carrizo citrangec | NSE | NSE | NSE | ||
NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | ||||
Cleopatra mandarin ( | NSE | NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | ||
Swingle citrumelo (Citru)c | NSE | NSE | |||
Rangpur lime ( | NSE | NSE | NSE (Reduction of almost 20%) | ||
Trifoliate orangec |
Results summary of the known field trials carried out in three citrus-growing countries of the Mediterranean area to evaluate the effect of CEVd and HSVd on vegetative growth and yield of different citrus scion and rootstock combinations.
Susceptible to citrus tristeza virus [
Susceptible to CTV stem-pitting and cachexia.
CTV tolerant.
A function of the used viroid isolates.
All citrus viroids are distributed primarily by the introduction and propagation of infected budwoods and subsequently by mechanical transmission, and CEVd is no exception [11]. Mechanical transmission of CEVd has been already reported. It took place on secateurs, tools, knives, and hedging equipment [9, 11, 27, 29] especially from lemon (
Cachexia is a destructive disease infecting citrus species [11]. The agent of this disease, hop stunt viroid [
Cachexia could affect a various part of the tree including the trunk, bark, twigs, branches, leaves, and fruits, thus causing different types of damages such as bark and trunk gumming with a rough and rugose appearance, bark-cracking, moderate and severe tree stunting, chlorosis, decline and death of severely affected trees, brown stipple spotting on the underside of the leaves, and the appearance of small pits on the wood [9, 21, 24]. Cachexia disease mainly affects some mandarins and their hybrids such as tangelos, and
As mentioned before, for CEVd, the type and severity of citrus cachexia symptoms depend also on the presence of other citrus viroids in the tree. The results of a long-term field trial carried out with clementine trees grafted on the trifoliate orange rootstock revealed that HSVd-induced effects might be both reduced or increased when HSVd-infected trees were exposed to mixed viroid infections. The most clear-cut interaction occurs between HSVd and CVd-IV. This interaction is manifested by a slight increase in fruit yield and reduction of scion circumferences [24].
The same field trials described before to evaluate the effect of CEVd on vegetative growth and yield (Table 1) were used for the same purpose for HSVd. Little or no effect in vegetative growth has been observed on commune clementine trees infected by HSVd as it has been determined by the measure of height and rootstock and scion circumferences [21]. Cumulative yield varied from 377,6 to 570,3 kg in 2001 for HSVd (CVd-IIc isolate) and the control, respectively. This equated to 34% cumulative yield lost [21]. The negative impact of HSVd infection on cumulative yield has been reported in another study carried out on Orange Maltaise demi sanguine grafted on Alemow (
As pointed out before, for CEVd, propagation of infected budwoods and mechanical inoculations with contaminating tools were reported as the principal causes for the omnipresence of multiple viroid species, including HSVd, among citrus orchards [34]. Mechanical transmission of HSVd has been already reported. Indeed, the results of a transmission assay carried out under greenhouse conditions revealed that all HSVd strains are mechanically transmitted from citron to healthy citron by a single slash with a knife blade [32]. As for CEVd, the potential involvement of gots in HSVd spread has been shown under controlled conditions [34]. Top working, a common practice in Mediterranean countries, seems to have largely contributed to HSVd spread in Mediterranean citrus orchards [9]. HSVd is not known to be seed-borne [47] in citrus or to have natural vectors [11, 48].
It is usually accepted that although the mechanisms through which viroids interact with their hosts are beginning to be dissected, the key triggering events and molecular mechanisms underlying viroid pathogenesis remain unclear [49, 50], and CEVd and HSVd are no exception. As demonstrated by various types of citrus pathogens [51, 52], further investigation of the molecular basis of viroid-host interactions is crucial to better understand the pathogenesis of viroids, and thus help to develop effective strategies to combat viroid diseases [50, 53]. Important changes occur in the chloroplast, cell wall, peroxidase, and symporter activities upon infection of Etrog citron with CEVd [54]. The CEVd-infected citron system has been subsequently used for studying the feedback regulation mechanism using transcriptomic analysis. The analysis of the woody host response to CEVd revealed the activation of basic defense and RNA-silencing mechanisms following CEVd infection. In other words, a large number of genes (about 1530) encoding key proteins involved in the RNA silencing pathway, and proteins related to basic defense responses are expressed following CEVd infection [53]. Furthermore, a recent study elucidates the role of phytohormone pathways, particularly those linked to ethylene, in disease development and ribosomal stress caused by CEVd infection by using tomato as an experimental host [55]. For HSVd, a small RNA-mediated gene silencing response has been highlighted upon the infection of lemon by HSVd. The large amounts of HSVd-small interfering RNA (siRNA) from both central and variant domains have been suggested to be involved in interference with host gene and symptom development [56].
Generally, biological assays based on indicator host plants expressing typical symptoms of infection and able to withstand higher levels of viroid replication played an essential role in both viroid detection and characterization [57]. CEVd and HSVd are viroid diseases present in citrus orchards around the world [11]. The biological diagnosis through indexing method is considered as an efficient tool to test the health status of a plant, regarding a disease by inoculation with the grafting of the budwood or any other infected tissue in indicator plants that allow viroid replication, symptoms expression [11, 58], and the enhancement of viroid concentration [59]. However, bioassays for CEVd and HSVd detection and identification may require a panel of indicator host plants [60]. Certain considerations need to be respected for the proper indexing of citrus viroids. These include the use of excellent plants, the work under warm temperatures, and the use of citron index plants grown one per container. As mentioned previously, citrus viroids are highly mechanically transmissible and tools must be disinfected to avoid their spread [9].
The citron test is a very sensitive and diagnostic index for determining the presence of CEVd [9]. However, indexing,
As to cachexia, Parson’s special mandarin budded on vigorous root-stock such as rough lemon or Volkamer lemon is reported as an excellent indicator for the disease [9, 65]. The biological indexing may take up to one year before symptoms are seen. The reaction of Parson’s Special mandarin may differ depending on HSVd isolates. In other words, some isolates are very mild reacting, whereas others are quite severe in their reaction to the indicator plant. Indeed, a mild strain reaction consists of just a slight browning at the bud union or cut back region of the Parson’s Special mandarin while a severe reaction consists of the appearance of gum in the wood that may extend via the entire plant [9]. Cuban Shaddock has been proved to be the best rootstock, compared to rough lemon or Volkamer lemon, for symptom expression on Clemeline 11–20 indicator plants for indexing cachexia. Furthermore, the application of 0,5% foliar urea sprays, alone or in combination with 20 ppm gibberellic acid showed to produce more intense expression of cachexia symptoms in the indicator Clemeline 11–20 than the unsprayed control [64].
Cross protection is a biological assay, in which the infection of a plant with a viroid strain ensures protection from infection with another strain of the same viroid. This bioassay can be used for indirect viroid biological indexing. It has been applied in the diagnosis of several viroids including CEVd and HSVd. Typically, the principle of this method is based on the infection of the plant with a mild strain of a viroid, followed by its inoculation with inoculum from a plant suspected to be infected with a severe strain of the same viroid. Positive indexing of the viroid is revealed by the non-expression of symptoms in the tested plants [60]. It has been shown in a cross-protection assay, performed with CEVd-129 as a “protecting” strain against the severe type strain of CEVd that a mild strain of CEVd could lead to apparent “protection” against challenge inoculation with the severe strain. However, it is important to highlight that variability has been shown in the induced protection effect. The latter varied from only a brief delay to almost total impairment of symptom expression. The level of protection depends on the length of the interval between the inoculations with the mild and severe strains [66].
Since viroids lack a protein capsid, serological techniques used routinely in plant viruses’ detection are not applicable [67]. Nucleic acid-based methods, including polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), hybridization (dot- and northern-blots and micro−/macroarrays), amplification (reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP)) and sequencing (next-generation sequencing and Sanger sequencing), offer rapid cost-effective, and reliable diagnosis of viroids [60].
PAGE is considered as the first molecular technique used for the rapid (2–3 day period) identification of viroid infected plants. This technique continues to play a crucial role in the identification of new viroids since it is the only diagnostic method that is sequence-independent. PAGE analysis under denaturing conditions showed that many
Since the beginning of their use in the 1980s, dot blot hybridization and hybridization of tissue imprints began to replace PAGE for routine viroid detection. This is mainly because these methods allow the processing of a large number of samples [57]. A northern hybridization protocol, which relied on the analysis of preparations from bark tissues, was proved to be more sensitive than PAGE to detect CEVd and HSVd from field-grown plants of different citrus species and cultivars [70]. A citrus viroids-multiprobe composed of full-length clones of HSVd, CEVd, and two other citrus viroids has been constructed for the simultaneous detection of viroids associated with citrus trees. All the tested viroids were effectively detected with this multiprobe when tested by both northern hybridization and dot blot methods. It is important to highlight that this multiprobe does not allow the identification of the viroid type species resulting in a positive signal [71].
Due to the small size of viroids, numerous RT-PCR approaches can be applied for both their detection and subsequent characterization. In the case of CEVd and HSVd, numerous RT-PCR and real-time RT-PCR approaches have been developed and proved to allow the detection of CEVd and HSVd in both singleplex or multiplex assays [63, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76]. A list of some RT-PCR and related tests developed to detect CEVd and HSVd are presented in Table 2. Some of these tests allow also the discrimination between mild and severe CEVd strains and the identification of HSVd isolates associated with cachexia symptoms [77]. The multiplex one-step RT-PCR assay developed by Wang et al. [75] is considered a good tool streamlining the simultaneous detection of up to five citrus viroids, including CEVd and HSVd. This enables to reduce time and labor without affecting sensitivity and specificity. Indeed, serial dilution experiments showed that the singleplex RT-PCR sensitivity was similar to that of multiplex RT-PCR for all the tested viroids [75]. This type of assay could be used in high throughput screenings of viroids associated with citrus in field surveys, germplasm banks, nurseries, as well as in other viroid disease management programs [74]. Similarly, the multiplex RT-TaqMan PCR assay developed by Papayiannis [76] enables accurate discrimination between CEVd and HSVd with a diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of 100%. It is important to emphasize that in conventional RT-PCR tests, the overall sensitivity and specificity were lower and varied between 97 and 98% for HSVd, and 94 and 95% for CEVd. Therefore, this essay presented 1000-fold more analytical sensitivity [76]. The specificity of the tests described previously was confirmed by including healthy controls and/or plant tissue infected with other citrus graft transmissible virus and bacteria pathogens and non-targeted citrus viroids. Both singleplex and multiplex assays did not cross-react with any non-inoculated negative controls or other citrus pathogens [63, 74, 76]. To date, PCR-based approaches have been proven efficacy on viroid direct detection. However, false positives and negatives due to amplicon contamination and failure to generate cDNA of suitable size during reverse transcription, respectively, are not uncommon and therefore preclude the application of RT-PCR for large scale indexing [70].
Name of RT-PCR test | Sequence 5′-3′ | Tm (°C) | Genomic coordinates | Size of the expected product | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Primer/Probe Name | |||||
RT-PCR | |||||
Singleplex | |||||
CEVd-R | GGGGATCCCTGAAGGACTT | 60 | 80-98a | 371 bp | [72, 85] |
CEVd-F | GGAAACCTGGAGGAAGTCG | 99-117a | |||
HSVd-F 27-mer VP-20 | CGCCCGGGGCAACTCTTCTCAGAATCC | 60 | 78–102 | 251 bp | [37, 73] |
HSVd-R 26-mer VP-19 | GCCCCGGGGCTCCTTTCTCAGGTAAG | 60–85 | |||
HSVd VP-98 | CTCCAGAGCACCGCGGCCCTC | DN | 120–140 | 140 bp | [37] |
HSVd VP-99 | CTGGGGAATTCTCGAGTTGCCGC | 1–23 | |||
Multiplex | |||||
CEVd-F194 | TTTCGCTGCTGGCTCCACA | 58 | 194–212 | 196 bp | [63] |
CEVd-R18 | ACCTCAAGAAAGATCCCGA | 371–18 | |||
HSVd-F1 | GGGGCAACTCTTCTCAGAATCC | 81–102 | 302 bp | ||
HSVd-R1 | GGGGCTCCTTTCTCAGGTAAGTC | 58–80 | |||
CEV-R | CCGGGGATCCCTGAAGGACTT | 58 | 78-98a | 371 bp | [75] |
CEV-F | GGAAACCTGGAGGAAGTCGAG | 99-119a | |||
HSVd-R | CCGGGGCTCCTTTCTCAGGTAAGT | 59-82b | 302 bp | ||
HSVd-F | GGCAACTCTTCTCAGAATCCAGC | 83-105b | |||
Real time-RT-PCR | |||||
Singleplex | |||||
CEVd −161 F | GTCCAGCGGAGAAACAGGAG | 60 | 181-200c | 105 bp | [74]* |
CEVd −258 R | AGAGAAGCTCCGGGCGA | 270-286c | |||
CEVd −187 P FAM | TCCTTCCTTTCGCTGCT | 212-228c | |||
HSVd-208 F | GAGACGCGACCGGTGG | 60 | 216-231d | 88 bp | |
HSVd-295 R | GCTCAAGAGAGGATCCGCG | 286-304d | |||
HSVd-226 P TET | TCACCTCTCGGTTCGTC | 234-250d | |||
Multiplex | |||||
CEVd-RTR_F | GTCGCCGCGGATCACT | 60 | 142–159 | 64 bp | [63] |
CEVd-RTR_R | CCAGCAGCGAAAGGAAGGA | 187–205 | |||
HSVd-RTR_F | GGAATTCTCGAGTTGCCGCA | 5–24 | 127 bp | ||
HSVd-RTR_R | CCGCGGCCCTCTCT | 118–131 | |||
CEVd-RTR_P | CCAGCGGAGAAACAG | 163–177 | — | ||
HSVd-RTR_P | CAACTCTTCTCAGAATCC | 85–102 | — | ||
CEVdF | GCGTCCAGCGGAGAAACA | 60 | 158–175e | 68 bp | [76] |
CEVdR | CAGCGACGATCGGATGTG | 226–208e | |||
CEVdTAQ | {FAM}-TCGTCTCCTTCCTTTCGCTGCTGG-{BHQ1} | 181–204e | |||
HSVdF | GCCTTCGAAACACCATCGA | 159–177f | 71 bp | ||
HSVdR | CACCGGTCGCGTCTCATC | 230–213f | |||
HSVdTAQ | {HEX}-CGTCCCTTCTTCTTTACCTTCTCCTGGCTC-{BHQ2} | 179–208f |
Primer sequences and their annealing temperature (Tm), primer/probe location, and expected size of PCR products for each primer pair when used to amplify CEVd and HSVd by RT-PCR and related tests (this is not a full or exclusive list).
The same primers have been also tested in multiplex Real time-RT-PCR test.
GenBank Accession no. NC-001464.
GenBank Accession no. NC-001351.
GenBank Accession no. CEVd-HQ284019.
GenBank Accession no. HSVd-KJ810553.
GenBank Accession no. U21126.
GenBank Accession no. GQ249348. R: antisense primer. F: sense primer.
Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies are currently becoming routinely applied in different fields of virus and viroids studies. These advanced technologies have therefore contributed to a revolution in both the detection and discovery of plant viruses and viroids [78, 79, 80, 81]. NGS has also provided an alternative method to identify viroids in the citrus cultivars. In other words, transcriptome sequencing has shown efficacy in citrus viroid diagnostics. Indeed, this method enabled the simultaneous identification of numerous viroids from various citrus samples, including CEVd and HSVd [82]. A deep sequencing approach, combined with bioinformatics analysis, is already being implemented for HSVd detection in
No naturally occurring durable resistance has been observed in most species, despite non-hosts for viroids exist. Therefore, the effective control methods for viroid diseases consist mainly of detection and eradication, and cultural controls [50].
Exocortis and cachexia are widespread diseases in the Mediterranean region. CEVd and HSVd have been reported in most Mediterranean countries and are among the most prevalent citrus viroids in the region [9]. The development of reliable diagnostic methods facilitated extensive surveys for CEVd and HSVd in different parts of the region. Both viroids were successively identified in many countries, including Morocco [89, 90, 91, 92], Cyprus [33], Spain [26], Egypt [43, 93], Italy [61, 94], Tunisia [46, 95], France [21], Syria [96], and Turkey [42].
In Morocco, exocortis and cachexia are among the major citrus viroid diseases [90, 91]. These diseases are prevalent in citrus orchards and can be found in all
Citrus viroids, including CEVd and HSVd, are distributed mainly by the introduction and propagation of infected budwoods, by top working, and by mechanical transmission [9, 11]. Both viroids are known for their ability to infect a large number of host plants [36]. CEVd and HSVd are destructive to certain citrus varieties and, can cause yield losses that may be as high as 34 to 76 percent depending on the combination viroid-rootstock-scion [21, 46]. The mechanisms through which CEVd and HSVd interact with their hosts and induce pathogenesis are beginning to be deciphered. In other words, the involvement of RNA-silencing and basic defense mechanisms following CEVd and HSVd infection has been highlighted [54, 56].
Once introduced and established in a country, both viroids can spread relatively rapidly because of their ability to be transmitted via mechanical means [9, 11]. Since CEVd and HSVd have a high resistance to heat, the chemical treatment appears to be the best method to disinfect CEVd- and HSVd-contaminated tools. For instance, a 0,25 to 0,5 and a 1 percent solution of sodium hypochlorite appears to be the best option to eliminate CEVd and HSVd, respectively, from contaminated hedging and budwood cutting tools [11, 98]. Like all citrus viroids, CEVd and HSVd seem to be successively eliminated from propagative material by shoot-tip grafting or by the deployment of nucellar budlines. Being extremely tolerant of heat, CEVd and HSVd have not been successfully eliminated from budwood by applying thermotherapy [9]. Certification programs must include measures to control viroid spread in nurseries [32]. The majority of rootstocks that are tolerant to the citrus tristeza virus [
Complicated interactions, including antagonism and synergy, occur between viroids coinfecting the same citrus host. These interactions may lead to different symptoms, canopy volumes, fruit yields, and commercial performance. Although no obvious physiological changes in citrus hosts have been described in mixed infections of CEVd and HSVd and both viroids do not induce severe symptoms in citrus [24, 99], their interaction was intriguing because they are commonly found simultaneously infecting different citrus cultivars and they have identical biological properties within the same host. The relationship between the two viroids has been investigated over 3 years (from 2011 to 2013). Results showed a positive correlation between CEVd and HSVd in specific tissues of two citrus cultivars (blood orange and Murcott mandarin). This result has been supported by three findings: titer enhancement, localization similarity, and lack of symptom aggravation under mixed-infection conditions. Compared to their concentrations under single-infection conditions, a significant increase in the CEVd and HSVd population has been observed under mixed-infection during 6 and only 1 season of the 12 monitored seasons, respectively. This result is somewhat surprising because no competition phenomenon for host resources occurs between the two viroids although they have the same biological functions and share identical cellular and subcellular spaces [27]. This issue merits consideration in future research.
Regarding the current situation of CEVd and HSVd in Morocco, this chapter provides a general overview of their spread in the Moroccan citrus-growing areas. Preventing the introduction and the establishment of exocortis and cachexia diseases in the Moroccan citrus orchards can be set up through the use of viroid-free (certified) planting material, disinfection of pruning tools, regular monitoring of citrus orchards to ensure early detection of both diseases, and by avoiding top working practice. This review pointers to new research avenues in exocortis and cachexia diseases in Morocco or elsewhere. These research fields could include for instance the characterization of CEVd and HSVd isolates, searching for secondary hosts, and developing sustainable control strategies. Investigating the prevalence of CEVd and HSVd infection in numerous natural host plants, and the characterization of the viroid sequence variants is valuable especially that a cross-transmission phenomenon between different hosts seems to be possible for HSVd [100].
Studying functional genomics through transcriptomic analysis and/or proteomic approaches in citrus-CEVd/HSVd interaction would be an interesting approach to shed more light on the full mechanisms underlying the complex and varied events associated with such interactome, and thus contribute to the development of novel diagnostic methods and plant protection strategies. This further advanced research will expand our understanding of CEVd and HSVd epidemiology and the mechanisms behind their spread across the world in general and Morocco in particular, and could potentially help in devising innovative management strategies of both viroids.
This research was financially supported by INRA Institute (CRRA de Oujda; Qualipole de Berkane) and the Phytopathology Unit of the Department of Plant Protection, Ecole Nationale d’Agriculture de Meknes.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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These techniques are validated using data collected in the frame of different European and NATO projects.",book:{id:"4818",slug:"mine-action-the-research-experience-of-the-royal-military-academy-of-belgium",title:"Mine Action",fullTitle:"Mine Action - The Research Experience of the Royal Military Academy of Belgium"},signatures:"Olga Lucia Lopera Tellez, Alexander Borghgraef and Eric Mersch",authors:[{id:"176830",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:"Lucia",surname:"Lopera Tellez",slug:"olga-lopera-tellez",fullName:"Olga Lopera Tellez"}]},{id:"55000",doi:"10.5772/66691",title:"Remote Sensing for Non‐Technical Survey",slug:"remote-sensing-for-non-technical-survey",totalDownloads:1486,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter describes the research activities of the Royal Military Academy on remote sensing applied to mine action. Remote sensing can be used to detect specific features that could lead to the suspicion of the presence, or absence, of mines. Work on the automatic detection of trenches and craters is presented here. Land cover can be extracted and is quite useful to help mine action. We present here a classification method based on Gabor filters. The relief of a region helps analysts to understand where mines could have been laid. Methods to be a digital terrain model from a digital surface model are explained. The special case of multi‐spectral classification is also addressed in this chapter. Discussion about data fusion is also given. Hyper‐spectral data are also addressed with a change detection method. Synthetic aperture radar data and its fusion with optical data have been studied. Radar interferometry and polarimetry are also addressed.",book:{id:"4818",slug:"mine-action-the-research-experience-of-the-royal-military-academy-of-belgium",title:"Mine Action",fullTitle:"Mine Action - The Research Experience of the Royal Military Academy of Belgium"},signatures:"Yann Yvinec, Nada Milisavljevic, Charles Beumier, Idrissa\nMahamadou, Dirk Borghys, Michal Shimoni and Vinciane Lacroix",authors:[{id:"133433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yann",middleName:null,surname:"Yvinec",slug:"yann-yvinec",fullName:"Yann Yvinec"}]},{id:"55272",doi:"10.5772/67007",title:"Ground‐Penetrating Radar for Close‐in Mine Detection",slug:"ground-penetrating-radar-for-close-in-mine-detection",totalDownloads:2835,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In this chapter, two of the major challenges in the application of ground‐penetrating radar in humanitarian demining operations are addressed: (i) development and testing of affordable and practical ground penetrating radar (GPR)‐based systems, which can be used off‐ground and (ii) development of robust signal processing techniques for landmines detection and identification. Different approaches developed at the Royal Military Academy in order to demonstrate the possibility of enhancing close‐range landmine detection and identification using ground‐penetrating radar under laboratory and outdoor conditions are summarized here. Data acquired using different affordable and practical GPR‐based systems are used to validate a number of promising developments in signal processing techniques for target detection and identification. The proposed approaches have been validated with success in laboratory and outdoor conditions and for different scenarios, including antipersonnel, low‐metal content landmines, improvised explosive devices and real mine‐affected soils.",book:{id:"4818",slug:"mine-action-the-research-experience-of-the-royal-military-academy-of-belgium",title:"Mine Action",fullTitle:"Mine Action - The Research Experience of the Royal Military Academy of Belgium"},signatures:"Olga Lucia Lopera Tellez and Bart Scheers",authors:[{id:"176830",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:"Lucia",surname:"Lopera Tellez",slug:"olga-lopera-tellez",fullName:"Olga Lopera Tellez"}]},{id:"54115",doi:"10.5772/65784",title:"Positioning System for a Hand-Held Mine Detector",slug:"positioning-system-for-a-hand-held-mine-detector",totalDownloads:1192,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Humanitarian mine clearance aims at reducing the nuisance of regions infected by explosive devices. These devices need to be detected with a high rate of success while keeping a low false alarm rate to reduce time losses and personnel’s fatigue. This chapter describes a positioning system developed to track hand-held detector movements in the context of close-range mine detection. With such a system, the signals captured by the detector over time can be used to build two- or three-dimensional data. The objects possibly present in the data can then be visually appreciated by an operator to detect specific features such as shape or size or known signatures. The positioning system developed in the framework of the HOPE European project requires only a camera and an extra bar. It adds few constraints to current mine clearance procedures and requires limited additional hardware. The software developed for calibration and continuous acquisition of the position is described, and evaluation results are presented.",book:{id:"4818",slug:"mine-action-the-research-experience-of-the-royal-military-academy-of-belgium",title:"Mine Action",fullTitle:"Mine Action - The Research Experience of the Royal Military Academy of Belgium"},signatures:"Charles Beumier and Yann Yvinec",authors:[{id:"133433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yann",middleName:null,surname:"Yvinec",slug:"yann-yvinec",fullName:"Yann Yvinec"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55272",title:"Ground‐Penetrating Radar for Close‐in Mine Detection",slug:"ground-penetrating-radar-for-close-in-mine-detection",totalDownloads:2836,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In this chapter, two of the major challenges in the application of ground‐penetrating radar in humanitarian demining operations are addressed: (i) development and testing of affordable and practical ground penetrating radar (GPR)‐based systems, which can be used off‐ground and (ii) development of robust signal processing techniques for landmines detection and identification. Different approaches developed at the Royal Military Academy in order to demonstrate the possibility of enhancing close‐range landmine detection and identification using ground‐penetrating radar under laboratory and outdoor conditions are summarized here. Data acquired using different affordable and practical GPR‐based systems are used to validate a number of promising developments in signal processing techniques for target detection and identification. The proposed approaches have been validated with success in laboratory and outdoor conditions and for different scenarios, including antipersonnel, low‐metal content landmines, improvised explosive devices and real mine‐affected soils.",book:{id:"4818",slug:"mine-action-the-research-experience-of-the-royal-military-academy-of-belgium",title:"Mine Action",fullTitle:"Mine Action - The Research Experience of the Royal Military Academy of Belgium"},signatures:"Olga Lucia Lopera Tellez and Bart Scheers",authors:[{id:"176830",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:"Lucia",surname:"Lopera Tellez",slug:"olga-lopera-tellez",fullName:"Olga Lopera Tellez"}]},{id:"55688",title:"The Special Case of Sea Mines",slug:"the-special-case-of-sea-mines",totalDownloads:2194,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In this chapter, work carried out at the Royal Military Academy regarding sea mines and mine countermeasures is summarized. Three sensors used for the detection and identification of sea mines are studied here: sonar, gradiometer and infrared camera. These sensors can be applied to detect different types of sea mines. Some signal and image processing techniques developed to extract relevant information for the detection of underwater objects are presented in this chapter. These techniques are validated using data collected in the frame of different European and NATO projects.",book:{id:"4818",slug:"mine-action-the-research-experience-of-the-royal-military-academy-of-belgium",title:"Mine Action",fullTitle:"Mine Action - The Research Experience of the Royal Military Academy of Belgium"},signatures:"Olga Lucia Lopera Tellez, Alexander Borghgraef and Eric Mersch",authors:[{id:"176830",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:"Lucia",surname:"Lopera Tellez",slug:"olga-lopera-tellez",fullName:"Olga Lopera Tellez"}]},{id:"53185",title:"Testing and Evaluating Results of Research in Mine Action",slug:"testing-and-evaluating-results-of-research-in-mine-action",totalDownloads:1122,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter summarizes the experience of the Royal Military Academy in testing and evaluating new tools for mine action. It first underscores the importance of testing and evaluating new methods in general and in mine action in particular. Some recommendations are given to help the design of test protocols: defining carefully the objectives of the test and what is to be measured, the importance of blind and double‐blind tests, choosing between realism and statistical relevance, the importance of how to display the results, etc. These recommendations are illustrated by real‐life examples, mainly from test and evaluation of detectors of mines in which RMA has been involved. A test protocol is detailed. It is the one that RMA designed and used to evaluate a detector that was proven to be useless and that led to the criminal conviction of its designer in the United Kingdom. Sources of available test protocols and test reports are also listed.",book:{id:"4818",slug:"mine-action-the-research-experience-of-the-royal-military-academy-of-belgium",title:"Mine Action",fullTitle:"Mine Action - The Research Experience of the Royal Military Academy of Belgium"},signatures:"Yann Yvinec",authors:[{id:"133433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yann",middleName:null,surname:"Yvinec",slug:"yann-yvinec",fullName:"Yann Yvinec"}]},{id:"53260",title:"Unmanned Ground and Aerial Robots Supporting Mine Action Activities",slug:"unmanned-ground-and-aerial-robots-supporting-mine-action-activities",totalDownloads:1264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"During the Humanitarian‐demining actions, teleoperation of sensors or multi‐sensor heads can enhance-detection process by allowing more precise scanning, which is useful for the optimization of the signal processing algorithms. This chapter summarizes the technologies and experiences developed during 16 years through national and/or European‐funded projects, illustrated by some contributions of our own laboratory, located at the Royal Military Academy of Brussels, focusing on the detection of unexploded devices and the implementation of mobile robotics systems on minefields.",book:{id:"4818",slug:"mine-action-the-research-experience-of-the-royal-military-academy-of-belgium",title:"Mine Action",fullTitle:"Mine Action - The Research Experience of the Royal Military Academy of Belgium"},signatures:"Yvan Baudoin, Daniela Doroftei, Geert de Cubber, Jean‐Claude\nHabumuremyi, Haris Balta and Ioan Doroftei",authors:[{id:"176831",title:"Dr.",name:"Yvan",middleName:null,surname:"Baudoin",slug:"yvan-baudoin",fullName:"Yvan Baudoin"}]},{id:"52464",title:"InSAR Coherence and Intensity Changes Detection",slug:"insar-coherence-and-intensity-changes-detection",totalDownloads:1696,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This research aims at differentiating human-induced effects over the landscape from the natural ones by exploiting a combination of amplitude and phase changes in satellite radar images. At a first step, ERS and Envisat data stacks are processed using COS software developed by the company SARMAP. Various features related to amplitude and phase as well as to their changes are then extracted from images of the same sensor. Combinations of the features extracted from one image, from several images of one sensor as well as from different sensors are performed to derive robust indicators of potential human-related changes. Finally, possibilities of exploiting and integrating other types of information sources such as various reports, maps, historical or agricultural data, etc. in the combination process are analyzed to improve the obtained results. The outcomes are used to evaluate the potential of this method applied to Sentinel-1 images.",book:{id:"4818",slug:"mine-action-the-research-experience-of-the-royal-military-academy-of-belgium",title:"Mine Action",fullTitle:"Mine Action - The Research Experience of the Royal Military Academy of Belgium"},signatures:"Damien Closson and Nada Milisavljevic",authors:[{id:"13897",title:"Dr.",name:"Damien",middleName:null,surname:"Closson",slug:"damien-closson",fullName:"Damien Closson"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1371",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. Carvajal-Gámez, Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa and Alberto J. 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