Abstract
Approximately one million deaths are attributed to malaria every year. Latest reports of multi-drug treatment failure of falciparum malaria underscore the desideratum to understand the molecular substratum of drug resistance. The mutations in the digestive vacuole transmembrane protein Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (PfCRT) are mainly responsible for chloroquine resistance (CQR) in Plasmodium falciparum. Multiple mutations in the PfCRT are concerned in chloroquine resistance, but the evolution of intricate haplotypes is not yet well understood. P. falciparum resistance to chloroquine is the standard antimalarial drug and is mediated primarily by mutant forms of the PfCRT. In this chapter, we present the mechanism of action of the chloroquine, the structural changes of the gene after the mutations as well as different haplotypes of the PfCRT.
Keywords
- antimalarial resistance
- haplotype
- homology modeling
- mutations
- PfCRT
1. Introduction
The rapid advancement and spread of malaria parasite along with antimalarial resistance is becoming a critical disaster to the world health. Chloroquine resistance (CQR) originated in Southeast Asia and South America, more or less simultaneously, in late 1950s and subsequently spread to several other malaria-endemic countries [1]. PfCRT, a candidate gene for CQR, is present at the digestive vacuole membrane and it holds 10 putative transmembrane domains [2, 3]. Mutations in two genes, namely, the
Chloroquine was used as a synthetic drug in the early 1950s and 1970s [8]. The resistance to this drug was reported in Palian area of Cambodia nearer to Thai-Cambodia border as well as in Latin America. Subsequently the reported resistance to chloroquine in South Asia moved westward and during 1973, it was found to be present in North East region of India. Subsequently it spread to rest of India and beyond [9]. In 1950s, before the chloroquine resistance became widespread, it was the main drug which was cheap and having least toxicity as well as highly effective schizonticidal drug and also was effective against all the types of parasite species affecting human. But appearance of widespread resistance to chloroquine has contributed to resurgence of malaria in many countries of Asia including India [10].
By late 1980s, chloroquine became more or less obsolete for treating
In this chapter, we estimated certain scores of mutations such as (limbo, tango, and waltz score) to understand the changes that occur to the PfCRT protein after mutation with the help of homology modeling and single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP).
2. P. falciparum CRT as a target for antimalarial drug design
Earlier, the parasite proteins involved in the resistance mechanism of malaria were unknown, but currently, it is well understood that the mutations in the PfCRT gene are causally involved in various methods such as
3. Mechanism of PfCRT
The mechanism involved in resistance against quinoline containing compound CQ in
Current studies highlight an important gene connected to the resistance,
The mechanisms involved in the development of CQ resistance are also unclear. It is postulated that CQ resistance could arise as a consequence of any phenotypic and genotypic alteration(s), which reduces the concentration of the drug in the food vacuole of the parasite. This leads to a change in parasite biology and can lead to reduced uptake of the drug or enhanced CQ efflux from the cell or a combination of both resulting in reduced accumulation of drug inside the digestive vacuole of the parasite. It has been established that in CQ-resistant parasites, the accumulation of chloroquine inside the vacuole is significantly less than that in CQ-sensitive parasites [28, 29]. It was originally thought that this lack of accumulation was due to the result of an efflux mechanism, and P-glycoprotein was implicated as the pump responsible for the efflux. However subsequent studies have suggested that efflux rates of CQ-resistant and CQ-sensitive strains are similar. So it appears that CQ resistance involves a diminished level of drug uptake rather than, or as well as, enhanced efflux. Chloroquine-resistant parasites are known to get rid themselves of the drugs 40–50 times faster than sensitive parasites [30] but the biochemical basis of this efflux is not clear. The efflux of chloroquine and in fact the entire chloroquine-resistant phenotype can be reversed with Ca+ channel blockers such as verapamil and diltiazem [31]. This phenomenon is biologically very similar to multi-drug resistance (MDR) phenotype of mammalian tumor cells, where a wide spectrum of chemotherapeutic agents is expelled from the cells by a verapamil-sensitive pump [32–35]. Verapamil (VPL), which inhibits P-glycoprotein (encoded by mdr gene) mediated multi-drug resistance (MDR) in mammalian tumor cells, also partly reverses chloroquine resistance in malaria parasites grown
Another locus governing chloroquine resistance in a
Recently PfCRT, a gene with 13 exons, has been identified near cg2 on chromosome 7 [2]. This gene encodes, a transmembrane protein “PfCRT” in the digestive vacuole of malaria parasites. Sets of point mutations in PfCRT were associated with
The nature of these genetic polymorphisms and their relationship with drug-resistant strains has not been studied in Indian strains of
There is a divergence in the literature for the exact mechanism of PfCRT-producing CQR. One theory is that by using energy to transport CQ out of the DV, the protein mediates active drug efflux (similar to that of HuMDR1), which makes it away of its targets [71]. Mutations in the protein may alter its substrate specificity by using this model, which leads to greater CQ affinity for mutant isoforms.
One more hypothesis is that PfCRT facilitates the diffusion of the charged drug species (which is also known as “charged drug leak” hypothesis; [72, 73]). Inside the acidic DV, the drug molecules present are charged as compared to the outside of the DV, which neglects the drug binding. The charged molecules require some kind of carrier as they cannot pass through the hydrophobic environment of a membrane. A benefit of this suggestion is that it provides an explanation for the significance of the K76T mutation. In this mutation, the lysine in wild-type CQS isoforms has a basic side group having positive charge that repels protonated CQ, while the neutral threonine allows for an open pore through which charged CQ may pass.
Another mechanism is there based on the pH alterations of the DV, which may be influenced by PfCRT. It has been shown that CQR parasites have a more acidic DV than CQS parasites by calculating the pH of the DV [74], which is very surprising because at low pH weak base partitioning would predict increased drug accumulation. However, the rates of hematin aggregation and hemozoin formation are increased at acidic pH; as a result, it would reduce the quantity of target available for CQ binding [2]. The amount of surplus unbound drug may alter the equilibrium of passive drug accumulation [73] or may be transported out of the DV by mutant PfCRT [75].
4. Structure of P. falciparum CRT and its mutants
The PfCRT gene identified as the determinant gene for CQR gene since the genetic cross between a CQR clone of Indochina (Dd2) and a CQS clone of Honduras (HB3) [57]. The PfCRT protein is of 48.6 kDa, which contains 424 amino acids encoded by a 13 exon gene in the chromosome having 36-kb segment (Figure 1) [2]. It may catalyze chloroquine quinine flux with H+ across the digestive vacuole membrane having with 10 putative TMSs [76]. Nessler et al. observed activate various endogenous transporters in frog oocytes, which helps in transporting quinoline drugs including quinine and quinidine [77]. The drug specificity that determines levels of accumulation is because of the mutations in TMSs 1, 4, and 9 alter, which builds an idea of these TMSs play a role in substrate binding [78]. The substrates responsible for PfCRT mutants are chloroquine-resistant reversers [79].
Rapid progressions of chloroquine resistance (CQR) have activated the identification of some other genetic target(s) in genome of
The protein is a member of the drug metabolite transporter (DMT) superfamily (TC #2.A.7) [82]. PfCRT contains drug/metabolite transporter domain. This domain is found in protein which is engaged in pectinase, cellulase, and blue pigment regulation. In plasmodium species, the PfCRT is situated at the intra-erythrocytic digestive vacuole. Mutations in this protein present verapamil-reversible chloroquine resistance to
5. Analysis of single nucleotide variants scores
Three parameters have been considered for the estimation of structural changes of the PfCRT gene such as aggregation prediction (TANGO), amyloid prediction (WALTZ), and chaperone-binding prediction (LIMBO). SNPeffect 4.0: online prediction of molecular and structural effects of protein-coding variants was used for the study [83]. The three different positions of PfCRT gene were mutated manually in the protein sequence, that is, at 74, 75, and 76 positions. The mutated and the wild-type proteins were further processed using the SNPeffect software to calculate the difference in TANGO, WALTZ, and LIMBO score. The TANGO score obtained for the mutation of M74I, N75E, and K76T is given in Figure 2. The WALTZ scores of the wild type and the mutants are given in Figure 3. The LIMBO scores are given in Figure 4.
6. The multiple haplotypes of PfCRT
In South America and southeast Asia, the CQR
Cooper et al. revealed that 21 exclusive CQR PfCRT protein sequences are identified from field isolates and two additional haplotypes have been created using CQ selective pressure on the 106/1 parasite line in laboratory [3]. It is impossible to differentiate the CQR foci or the genetic variations of the subsequent involved in one origin without understanding performing the whole analysis of the PfCRT sequence and its surrounding loci by means of microsatellite typing. Johnson et al. developed four unique CQS haplotypes using the drug selection procedures of a laboratory [85].
Based on different geographical locations, the existence of the three PfCRT haplotypes revealed. According to Su et al. and Wootton et al. the first and the oldest resistant haplotype is CVIETIHSESII (amino acids 72–73–74–75–76–77–97–220–271–326–356–371), which exists in the FCB line of southeast Asia and is found in African isolates such as RB8, with consistency of spreading the CQR from Asia to Africa [5, 61]. The second haplotype is CVIETIHSESTI, which is found in the 102/1 Sudan strain, illustrated the characteristics of the isolates such as Dd2 from Thailand, and is newly explained the PH4 isolate from Morong, Philippines [2, 6]. An older PfCRT haplotype is CVIET found in South America, which implies that it may be because of the traveler who recently traveled to the location [86]. The third haplotype is detected in the INDO19, FCQ22, and 7G8 isolate line from Thailand, Papua New Guinea, and Brazil, respectively, and is reported as SVMNTIHSQDLR [2, 6, 7].
Different mutations in the PfCRT gene which change the nucleotide sequence into different genes and form different haplotypes are very general with the incidence of chloroquine resistant (CQR) [87].
7. Conclusion
The haplotype variations of PfCRT broadly classified into three groups, namely southeast Asian, Latin America, and Papua new guinea. This is used as a marker in the study of
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