A summary of the “113” Alkaline-earth iridates AIrO3 (A=Ca, Sr, Ba)
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1602",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"New Achievements in Geoscience",title:"New Achievements in Geoscience",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"New Achievements in Geoscience is a comprehensive, up-to-date resource for academic researchers in geophysics, environmental science, earth science, natural resource managements and their related support fields. 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The discoveries of high-transition-temperature superconductivity in cuprates and the colossal magnetoresistance in manganites made the first-row (3d) transition-metal oxides (TMOs) with perovskite-related structures the central topics of condensed matter physics over the past four decades. The strong electron–electron correlations intrinsic for these narrow-band 3d-electron systems are believed to be at the heart of rich physics. Following the general wisdom based on the 3d TMOs, the third-row (5d) counterparts having a spatially much extended 5d orbitals were expected to have much reduced electron–electron correlations, U, and broaden bandwidth, W, i.e. U << W, leading to a Pauli paramagnetic metallic ground state, Figure 1(a). Such an expectation, however, was recently found to be violated in many 5d-electron iridium oxides (iridates), such as Sr2IrO4 [1], in which an antiferromagnetic insulating ground state was instead observed. Recent studies have revealed that such discrepancy originates from the inherently strong spin-orbit coupling (SOC) for these heavy 5d elements, which have a typical value of SOC, ζSO ≈ 0.3–0.5 eV, comparable with the magnitude of U and W, and thus cannot be treated as a negligible perturbation as in the 3d TMOs.
Since an unrealistically large U is required to open a Mott gap in Sr2IrO4, Figure 1(b), Kim et al. [2] proposed that the strong SOC splits the otherwise broad t2g band of the octahedral-site, low-spin Ir4+(5d 5) array into a filled, low-energy Jeff = 3/2 quartet band and a half-filled, high-energy Jeff = 1/2 doublet band, Figure 1(c, e). A moderate Hubbard U can then open a Mott gap, leading to the SOC-driven Jeff = 1/2 Mott insulating state, Figure 1(d). Subsequent experimental [3] and theoretical [4] investigations have confirmed such a novel Jeff = 1/2 state in the strong SOC limit. Since then, the 5d TMOs have emerged as a new paradigm for studying the strongly correlated electron physics with strong SOC. In particular, the iridates have attracted special attention in that the combination of relativistic SOC and electron–electron correlations has been proposed to generate more exotic, unprecedented quantum states of matters, such as the strong topological insulators, Weyl semimetal, quantum spin liquids, and even unconventional superconductors [5].
Schematic energy diagrams for the 5d5 (t2g5) configuration: (a) without SOC and U, (b) with an unrealistically large U but no SOC, (c) with SOC but no U, and (d) with SOC and U, (e) 5d level splitting by the crystal field and SOC. Adapted from Reference [
Since the importance of SOC was first recognized in Sr2IrO4, which is the
Although there are many publications dealing with an individual compound, a monograph that provides a comprehensive overview for these “113” alkaline-earth iridates is still lacking to our knowledge. Taking into account the growing research interests on these iridates, it is imminent to summarize the currently available knowledge in a single chapter. Thus, this chapter aims to bring together the available information in literature for these “113” iridates. In the following, we will give a comprehensive literature survey for each AIrO3, covering the materials’ synthesis, crystal structure, and major physical properties, as well as other interesting results such as the effects of chemical substitutions and theoretical investigations. Finally, we will give a brief concluding remark on the current research status and provide an outlook on the future research directions on these iridates.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
CaIrO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tpPv | \n\t\t\tAF insulator with TN = 110 K, stripe-type AF order with spin canting; | \n\t\t
Pv | \n\t\t\tPM semimetal with possible Dirac node protected by reflection symmetry | \n\t\t|
SrIrO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t6H | \n\t\t\tExchange enhanced PM metal with nFL behaviors due to proximity to a FM QCP | \n\t\t
Pv | \n\t\t\tPM semimetal with possible Dirac node protected by reflection symmetry | \n\t\t|
BaIrO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t9R | \n\t\t\tWeak FM insulator with a simultaneous CDW formation below Tc ≈ 180 K | \n\t\t
5H | \n\t\t\tWeak FM metal with Tc ≈ 50 K | \n\t\t|
6H | \n\t\t\tExchange enhanced PM metal with nFL behaviors due to proximity to a FM QCP | \n\t\t|
3C | \n\t\t\tFL PM metal | \n\t\t
A summary of the “113” Alkaline-earth iridates AIrO3 (A=Ca, Sr, Ba)
AF: Antiferromagnetic; PM: Paramagnetic; FM: Ferromagnetic; FL: Fermi liquid;
nFL: non Fermi liquid; CDW: Charge density wave; QCP: Quantum critical point
CaIrO3 has two different orthorhombic polymorphs, i.e. the layered pPv structure with space group
There are some discrepancies in literature regarding the synthesis of pPv CaIrO3 at ambient pressure. In the earlier studies [12, 22], it was reported that single-phase pPv phase cannot be obtained at ambient pressure through a solid-state reaction from CaCO3 and IrO2 in air. Recently, Harai et al. [27] reported that pure pPv CaIrO3 can be prepared by heating the stoichiometric mixture of CaO and IrO2 powders sealed in an evacuated silica tube at 1000°C over 20 h. On the other hand, since the pPv structure is a high-pressure phase, pPv CaIrO3 can be readily obtained by utilizing HPHT synthesis. For example, Ohgushi et al. [25] reported the synthesis of single-phase pPv CaIrO3 at 4 GPa and 1150°C.
Needle-shaped pPv CaIrO3 single crystals have been reported to grow out of the CaCl2 flux. By adopting a tenfold flux and a relatively low soaking temperature of 836 and 950°C, respectively, Sugahara et al. [28] and Hirai et al. [29] obtained tiny single crystals for the purpose of crystal-structure refinements. On the other hand, Ohgushi et al. [14] seems to grow sizable pPv CaIrO3 single crystals for anisotropic magnetic property measurements by employing a higher flux molar ratio (16:1) and a higher soaking temperature of 1200°C. However, our attempts by using the latter approach ended up with Ca2IrO4 rather than the pPv CaIrO3.
Because Pv CaIrO3 is a metastable phase, it cannot be synthesized via a solid-state reaction route at ambient pressure. Alternatively, Sarkozy et al. [12] reported the preparation of pure Pv phase by thermal decomposition at 650–700°C in air of the hydroxide intermediate CaIr(OH)6, which can be obtained according to the following wet-chemical reaction scheme:
By following this approach, we obtained nearly single-phase Pv CaIrO3 with a trace amount of IrO2 (0.2 wt.%) and Ca2IrO4 (1.3 wt.%) [30]. Recently, Kojitani et al. [31] determined a large positive Clapeyron slope for the pPv/Pv transition of CaIrO3, i.e. Pv structure is the high-temperature phase of pPv. Thus, Pv CaIrO3 can be obtained by transforming pPv phase at higher temperature under given pressures. For example, Ohgushi et al. [13] have reported the synthesis of single-phase Pv CaIrO3 at 1 GPa and 1450°C. In addition, thin films of Pv CaIrO3 have recently been epitaxially stabilized on various substrates [26, 32].
Crystal structure of CaIrO3 polymorphs: (a) pPv and (b) Pv.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ca | \n\t\t\t4c | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.7492 | \n\t\t\t1/4 | \n\t\t\t0.40 | \n\t\t
Ir | \n\t\t\t4a | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.32 | \n\t\t
O1 | \n\t\t\t4c | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.0779 | \n\t\t\t1/4 | \n\t\t\t0.70 | \n\t\t
O2 | \n\t\t\t8f | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.3658 | \n\t\t\t0.4452 | \n\t\t\t0.79 | \n\t\t
Ir-O1 (×2) | \n\t\t\t1.978 | \n\t\t\tIr-O1-Ir | \n\t\t\t134.3 | \n\t\t||
Ir-O2 (×4) | \n\t\t\t2.066 | \n\t\t\tO1-Ir-O2 | \n\t\t\t86.3 | \n\t\t||
<Ir-O> | \n\t\t\t2.037 | \n\t\t\tO1-Ir-O2 | \n\t\t\t93.7 | \n\t\t||
Ir-Ir (×2) | \n\t\t\t3.1472 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir-Ir (×2) | \n\t\t\t3.651 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Refined positional parameters and selected bond lengths (Å) and bond angles (°) for pPv CaIrO3 from single-crystal XRD [28]: space group
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ca | \n\t\t\t4c | \n\t\t\t-0.01403 | \n\t\t\t0.05962 | \n\t\t\t1/4 | \n\t\t\t0.71 | \n\t\t
Ir | \n\t\t\t4b | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.27 | \n\t\t
O1 | \n\t\t\t4c | \n\t\t\t0.10487 | \n\t\t\t0.47110 | \n\t\t\t1/4 | \n\t\t\t0.92 | \n\t\t
O2 | \n\t\t\t8d | \n\t\t\t0.69257 | \n\t\t\t0.30488 | \n\t\t\t0.05602 | \n\t\t\t1.07 | \n\t\t
Ir-O1 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.006 | \n\t\t\tIr-O1-Ir | \n\t\t\t146.15 | \n\t\t||
Ir-O2 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.020 | \n\t\t\tIr-O2-Ir | \n\t\t\t144.95 | \n\t\t||
Ir-O2 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.038 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
<Ir-O> | \n\t\t\t2.021 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Refined positional parameters and selected bond lengths (Å) and bond angles (°) for Pv CaIrO3 from powder XRD[30]: space group
The Mott insulating nature of quasi-2D pPv CaIrO3 have motivated Ohgushi et al. [25] to metallize it via the carrier doping. They successfully prepared a series of hole-doped Ca1–
Temperature dependence of (a) resistivity ρ(T) and (b) magnetic susceptibility M/H for the two polymorphs of CaIrO3, pPv for post-perovskite and Pv for perovskite. Adapted from Reference [
Insulator–metal transition in pPv CaIrO3 induced by hole (Na+) and electron (Y3+) doping. (a, b) shows the temperature dependence of resistivity and magnetic susceptibility of Ca1–
In addition to the interest in fundamental physics, the CaIrO3 ceramics have also been investigated by Keawprak et al. [40] for the potential thermoelectric applications. They prepared both phases of CaIrO3 with spark plasma sintering technique and evaluated their thermoelectric properties from room temperature up to 1023 K. The highest dimensionless figure of merit (ZT) reaches 0.02 and 0.003 for Pv and pPv phase, respectively.
Depending on the synthesis conditions, SrIrO3 can form in two different structures, i.e. the monoclinically distorted 6H polytype and the orthorhombic GdFeO3-type Pv structure [8]. The former is a rare stoichiometric oxide exhibiting non-Fermi-liquid behaviours near a ferromagnetic quantum critical point [11]. The latter was recently found to be an exotic narrow-band semimetal that may harvest many topological and magnetic insulating phases [10, 41, 42].
The 6H phase can be readily prepared in the polycrystalline form at ambient pressure by sintering the stoichiometric mixture of SrCO3 and IrO2 (or Ir) at 900–1,100°C in air [8]. Single crystals of 6H phase with dimensions ~0.4 × 0.4 × 0.6 mm3 have been grown in Pt crucibles with the SrCl2 self-flux techniques [11]. The Pv phase is a HP form of SrIrO3. Longo et al. [8] performed the first HPHT syntheses and established the temperature–pressure phase diagram for the 6H-Pv transformation of SrIrO3. It was found that the 6H phase transforms to the Pv structure above 1,650°C at 2 GPa and above 700°C at 5 GPa. Recent HPHT syntheses of Pv SrIrO3 were usually performed at 1,000–1,100°C and 5–6 GPa [43, 44]. For these samples, Rietveld refinements on the powder XRD patterns evidenced the presence of ~3–4 wt.% IrO2 impurity. Since the Pv phase is metastable, it remains a challenge to obtain sizable bulk single crystals under HP conditions. However, Pv SrIrO3 films and superlattices have been stabilized at ambient pressure via applying the epitaxial strain with various techniques, including the metalorganic chemical vapour deposition [9], pulsed laser deposition [45], and reactive oxide molecular-beam expitaxy [42]. As discussed below, given the tolerance factor
In the original work by Longo et al., the oxygen positional parameters were not refined due to the low scattering of oxygen relative to Ir and Sr. Based on the neutron diffraction data, Qasim et al. [46] recently provided a full refinement on the crystal structure of 6H SrIrO3 with
Crystal structure of SrIrO3 polytypes: (a) 6H and (b) Pv.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Sr1 | \n\t\t\t4e | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.0092 | \n\t\t\t1/4 | \n\t\t\t0.0285 | \n\t\t
Sr2 | \n\t\t\t8f | \n\t\t\t0.0122 | \n\t\t\t0.6667 | \n\t\t\t0.0957 | \n\t\t\t0.0482 | \n\t\t
Ir1 | \n\t\t\t4a | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.0478 | \n\t\t
Ir2 | \n\t\t\t8f | \n\t\t\t0.9820 | \n\t\t\t0.6660 | \n\t\t\t0.84698 | \n\t\t\t0.0459 | \n\t\t
O1 | \n\t\t\t4e | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.4981 | \n\t\t\t1/4 | \n\t\t\t0.0584 | \n\t\t
O2 | \n\t\t\t8f | \n\t\t\t0.2411 | \n\t\t\t0.2649 | \n\t\t\t0.2603 | \n\t\t\t0.0287 | \n\t\t
O3 | \n\t\t\t8f | \n\t\t\t0.8112 | \n\t\t\t0.4077 | \n\t\t\t0.0474 | \n\t\t\t0.0572 | \n\t\t
O4 | \n\t\t\t8f | \n\t\t\t0.9407 | \n\t\t\t0.1544 | \n\t\t\t0.4087 | \n\t\t\t0.0535 | \n\t\t
O5 | \n\t\t\t8f | \n\t\t\t0.3238 | \n\t\t\t0.4204 | \n\t\t\t0.1058 | \n\t\t\t0.0586 | \n\t\t
Ir1-O3 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.038 | \n\t\t\tIr1-O3-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t149.6 | \n\t\t||
Ir1-O4 (×2) | \n\t\t\t1.987 | \n\t\t\tIr1-O4-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t158.8 | \n\t\t||
Ir1-O5 (×2) | \n\t\t\t1.994 | \n\t\t\tIr1-O5-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t149.3 | \n\t\t||
<Ir1-O> | \n\t\t\t2.006 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir2-O1 | \n\t\t\t2.100 | \n\t\t\tIr2-O1-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t82.5 | \n\t\t||
Ir2-O2 | \n\t\t\t2.055 | \n\t\t\tIr2-O1-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t85.1 | \n\t\t||
Ir2-O2 | \n\t\t\t2.040 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir2-O3 | \n\t\t\t1.974 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir2-O4 | \n\t\t\t1.957 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir2-O5 | \n\t\t\t2.051 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
<Ir2-O> | \n\t\t\t2.030 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir2-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t2.770 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Refined positional parameters and selected bond lengths (Å) and bond angles (°) for 6H SrIrO3 from neutron diffraction [46]: space group
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Sr | \n\t\t\t4c | \n\t\t\t-0.0068 | \n\t\t\t0.4687 | \n\t\t\t1/4 | \n\t\t\t0.019 | \n\t\t
Ir | \n\t\t\t4a | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.017 | \n\t\t
O1 | \n\t\t\t4c | \n\t\t\t0.0718 | \n\t\t\t0.0049 | \n\t\t\t1/4 | \n\t\t\t0.019 | \n\t\t
O2 | \n\t\t\t8d | \n\t\t\t0.2126 | \n\t\t\t0.2877 | \n\t\t\t-0.0369 | \n\t\t\t0.022 | \n\t\t
Ir-O1 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.015 | \n\t\t\tIr-O1-Ir | \n\t\t\t156.92 | \n\t\t||
Ir-O2 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.018 | \n\t\t\tIr-O2-Ir | \n\t\t\t156.22 | \n\t\t||
Ir-O2 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.018 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
<Ir-O> | \n\t\t\t2.017 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Refined positional parameters and selected bond lengths (Å) and bond angles (°) for Pv SrIrO3 from neutron diffraction [44]: space group
Physical properties of 6H SrIrO3 single crystal. Adapted from Reference [
Temperature dependence of (a) magnetic susceptibility and (b) resistivity of Pv SrIrO3. Adapted from Reference [
As the end member of the Ruddlesden–Popper series Sr
(a) LDA band structure of Pv SrIrO3 with Hubbard U = 2 eV and SOC, demonstrating the presence of the node near the U point of Jeff = 1/2 band near the Fermi level; (b) the phase diagram of Pv SrIrO3 in the U-SOC plane containing three phases: magnetic metal (MM), nonmangetic metal or semimetal (M/SM), and magnetic insulator (MI). Adapted from Reference [
Recent angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy on Pv SrIrO3 films by Nie et al. [42] has uncovered such an exotic semimetallic state with very narrow bands near the Fermi surface consisting of heavy hole-like pockets around (±π, 0) and (0, 0) and light electron-like pockets at (±π/2, ±π/2). Surprisingly, the bandwidth of Pv SrIrO3 is found to be narrower than that of Sr2IrO4, in contrary to the general expectations of broaden bandwidth with increasing dimensionality [7]. Since the semimetallic ground state has been confirmed experimentally, it is of particular interest to achieve the proposed topological and/or magnetic states via tuning the SOC, U, and/or lattice symmetry. In this regard, Matsuno et al. [45] have made an important step towards these exotic phases; they tailored a spin-orbit magnetic insulator out of the semimetallic state via controlling the dimensionality of [(SrIrO3)m, SrTiO3] superlattices. By utilizing HPHT synthesis, we prepared a series of Sn-doped SrIr1–
At ambient pressure, BaIrO3 crystallizes in the nine-layer (9R) polytype. It is the first known ferromagnetic insulator with
The ambient-pressure 9R phase can be readily obtained by sintering the stoichiometric mixtures of BaCO3 and Ir at 1,000°C in air. The sample should be cooled down slowly for the last sintering in order to ensure an oxygen stoichiometry [54]. Single crystals have been reported to grow out of the BaCl2 flux at a relatively low temperature of 1,000 K [18]. HPHT synthesis is needed for all the other polytypes [19, 21, 55, 56]. For the HP syntheses around 1,000°C, the 9R polytype is stable up to 3 GPa, the 5H phase exists only in a narrow pressure range around 4 GPa, the 6H phase is stabilized in a wide pressure range from 5 to ~20 GPa, and the 3C phase was finally obtained at 25 GPa. We have employed the two-stage (Walker- or Kawai-type) multianvil systems for the HPHT syntheses. During the HPHT experiments, the sample was first compressed to the desired pressure by eight truncated tungsten carbide anvils, and then the temperature was increased to ~1,000°C and kept for 30 min before quenching to room temperature. The resultant samples were recovered after releasing pressure and then subjected to various characterizations at ambient pressure.
Crystal structure of the BaIrO3 polytypes: (a) 9R, (b) 5H, (c) 6H, and (d) 3C.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ba1 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t0.7779 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.2501 | \n\t\t\t0.42 | \n\t\t
Ba2 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t0.3686 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.0720 | \n\t\t\t0.42 | \n\t\t
Ba3 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t0.1515 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.4224 | \n\t\t\t0.42 | \n\t\t
Ir1 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t0.0845 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.1766 | \n\t\t\t0.16 | \n\t\t
Ir2 | \n\t\t\t2a | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.16 | \n\t\t
Ir3 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t0.4657 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.3230 | \n\t\t\t0.16 | \n\t\t
Ir4 | \n\t\t\t2d | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t0.33 | \n\t\t
O1 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t0.2926 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.2287 | \n\t\t\t0.33 | \n\t\t
O2 | \n\t\t\t8j | \n\t\t\t0.0507 | \n\t\t\t0.2421 | \n\t\t\t0.2617 | \n\t\t\t0.33 | \n\t\t
O3 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t0.8931 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.0994 | \n\t\t\t0.33 | \n\t\t
O4 | \n\t\t\t8j | \n\t\t\t0.1164 | \n\t\t\t0.2362 | \n\t\t\t0.0839 | \n\t\t\t0.33 | \n\t\t
O5 | \n\t\t\t8j | \n\t\t\t0.4036 | \n\t\t\t0.2291 | \n\t\t\t0.4040 | \n\t\t\t0.33 | \n\t\t
O6 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t0.6427 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.4240 | \n\t\t\t0.33 | \n\t\t
Ir1-O1 | \n\t\t\t2.049 | \n\t\t\tIr1-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t2.618 | \n\t\t||
Ir1-O2 (×2) | \n\t\t\t1.979 | \n\t\t\tIr3-Ir4 | \n\t\t\t2.627 | \n\t\t||
Ir1-O3 | \n\t\t\t2.001 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir1-O4 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.032 | \n\t\t\tIr1-O1-Ir3 | \n\t\t\t157.3 | \n\t\t||
<Ir1-O> | \n\t\t\t2.01 | \n\t\t\tIr1-O2-Ir3 | \n\t\t\t164.0 | \n\t\t||
Ir2-O3 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.038 | \n\t\t\tIr1-O3-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t80.8 | \n\t\t||
Ir2-O4 (×4) | \n\t\t\t2.034 | \n\t\t\tIr1-O4-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t80.1 | \n\t\t||
<Ir2-O> | \n\t\t\t2.04 | \n\t\t\tIr3-O5-Ir4 | \n\t\t\t81.4 | \n\t\t||
Ir3-O1 | \n\t\t\t1.978 | \n\t\t\tIr3-O6-Ir4 | \n\t\t\t80.0 | \n\t\t||
Ir3-O2 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.037 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir3-O5 (×2) | \n\t\t\t1.955 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir3-O6 | \n\t\t\t2.057 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
<Ir3-O> | \n\t\t\t2.02 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir4-O6 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.030 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir4-O5 (×4) | \n\t\t\t2.035 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
<Ir4-O> | \n\t\t\t2.03 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Refined positional parameters and selected bond lengths (Å) and bond angles (°) for 9R BaIrO3 from neutron diffraction [54]: space group
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ba1 | \n\t\t\t2c | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t
Ba2 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t-0.191 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.7139 | \n\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t
Ba3 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t-0.247 | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t0.8886 | \n\t\t\t0.9 | \n\t\t
Ir1 | \n\t\t\t2a | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t
Ir2 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t-0.4529 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.8215 | \n\t\t\t1.0 | \n\t\t
Ir3 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t-0.6046 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.5920 | \n\t\t\t2.4 | \n\t\t
O1 | \n\t\t\t8j | \n\t\t\t0.053 | \n\t\t\t0.72 | \n\t\t\t0.7002 | \n\t\t\t2.3 | \n\t\t
O2 | \n\t\t\t8j | \n\t\t\t-0.0093 | \n\t\t\t-0.770 | \n\t\t\t0.1085 | \n\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t
O3 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t0.703 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.303 | \n\t\t\t4.0 | \n\t\t
O4 | \n\t\t\t4i | \n\t\t\t0.217 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.0607 | \n\t\t\t0.6 | \n\t\t
O5 | \n\t\t\t2d | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t
O6 | \n\t\t\t4f | \n\t\t\t0.75 | \n\t\t\t0.75 | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t3.9 | \n\t\t
Ir1-O2 (×4) | \n\t\t\t2.029 | \n\t\t\tIr2-Ir3 | \n\t\t\t2.735 | \n\t\t||
Ir1-O4 (×2) | \n\t\t\t1.898 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
<Ir1-O> | \n\t\t\t1.985 | \n\t\t\tIr2-O1-Ir3 | \n\t\t\t84.0 | \n\t\t||
Ir2-O1 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.12 | \n\t\t\tIr1-O2-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t165.1 | \n\t\t||
Ir2-O2 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.23 | \n\t\t\tIr2-O3-Ir3 | \n\t\t\t79.1 | \n\t\t||
Ir2-O3 | \n\t\t\t2.038 | \n\t\t\tIr1-O4-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t160.3 | \n\t\t||
Ir2-O4 | \n\t\t\t2.105 | \n\t\t\tIr3-O5-Ir3 | \n\t\t\t180 | \n\t\t||
<Ir2-O> | \n\t\t\t2.072 | \n\t\t\tIr3-O6-Ir3 | \n\t\t\t180 | \n\t\t||
Ir3-O1 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.004 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir3-O3 | \n\t\t\t2.11 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir3-O5 | \n\t\t\t1.994 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
<Ir3-O> | \n\t\t\t2.017 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Refined positional parameters and selected bond lengths (Å) and bond angles (°) for 5H BaIrO3 from neutron diffraction [19]: space group
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ba1 | \n\t\t\t4e | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t-0.0052 | \n\t\t\t1/4 | \n\t\t\t0.3 | \n\t\t
Ba2 | \n\t\t\t8f | \n\t\t\t0.0078 | \n\t\t\t0.3349 | \n\t\t\t0.0912 | \n\t\t\t0.25 | \n\t\t
Ir1 | \n\t\t\t4a | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.4 | \n\t\t
Ir2 | \n\t\t\t8f | \n\t\t\t0.9936 | \n\t\t\t0.3323 | \n\t\t\t0.8442 | \n\t\t\t0.27 | \n\t\t
O1 | \n\t\t\t4e | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.499 | \n\t\t\t1/4 | \n\t\t\t-0.2 | \n\t\t
O2 | \n\t\t\t8f | \n\t\t\t0.2180 | \n\t\t\t0.2390 | \n\t\t\t0.2427 | \n\t\t\t-0.2 | \n\t\t
O3 | \n\t\t\t8f | \n\t\t\t0.036 | \n\t\t\t0.846 | \n\t\t\t0.0852 | \n\t\t\t-0.2 | \n\t\t
O4 | \n\t\t\t8f | \n\t\t\t0.286 | \n\t\t\t0.087 | \n\t\t\t0.049 | \n\t\t\t-0.2 | \n\t\t
O5 | \n\t\t\t8f | \n\t\t\t0.809 | \n\t\t\t0.090 | \n\t\t\t0.103 | \n\t\t\t-0.2 | \n\t\t
Ir1-O3 (×2) | \n\t\t\t1.93 | \n\t\t\tIr1-O3-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t164.4 | \n\t\t||
Ir1-O4 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.02 | \n\t\t\tIr1-O4-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t151.4 | \n\t\t||
Ir1-O5 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.01 | \n\t\t\tIr1-O5-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t153.6 | \n\t\t||
<Ir1-O> | \n\t\t\t1.99 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir2-O1 | \n\t\t\t2.19 | \n\t\t\tIr2-O1-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t76.4 | \n\t\t||
Ir2-O2 | \n\t\t\t2.22 | \n\t\t\tIr2-O1-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t75.1 | \n\t\t||
Ir2-O2 | \n\t\t\t2.23 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir2-O3 | \n\t\t\t2.10 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir2-O4 | \n\t\t\t2.09 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir2-O5 | \n\t\t\t2.11 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
<Ir2-O> | \n\t\t\t2.16 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||
Ir2-Ir2 | \n\t\t\t2.710 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Refined positional parameters and selected bond lengths (Å) and bond angles (°) for 6H BaIrO3 from powder XRD [19]: space group
The small tetragonal distortion of the 3C BaIrO3 phase is unexpected; we should have a cubic phase as found for BaRuO3 formed under high pressure. Such a distortion to tetragonal symmetry by cooperative rotations of the IrO6/2 octahedra about the
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ba | \n\t\t\t4b | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t1/4 | \n\t\t\t0.72 | \n\t\t
Ir | \n\t\t\t4c | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.49 | \n\t\t
O1 | \n\t\t\t4a | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1/4 | \n\t\t\t0.8 | \n\t\t
O2 | \n\t\t\t8h | \n\t\t\t0.2313 | \n\t\t\t0.7313 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.8 | \n\t\t
Ir-O1 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.023 | \n\t\t\tIr-O1-Ir | \n\t\t\t180 | \n\t\t||
Ir-O2 (×2) | \n\t\t\t2.023 | \n\t\t\tIr-O2-Ir | \n\t\t\t171.1 | \n\t\t||
<Ir-O> | \n\t\t\t2.023 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Refined positional parameters and selected bond lengths (Å) and bond angles (°) for 3C BaIrO3 from powder XRD [21]: space group
(a) Temperature dependence of resistivity for 9R BaIrO3 for two major crystallographic directions. The first inset shows details of c-axis conductivity and the second the sharp peak in dlnρ/d(1/
The observation of weak ferromagnetism and insulating ground state in the 9R BaIrO3 has attracted renewed interest in recent years in light of the SOC-driven Mott insulating state for iridates. As for the nature of the weak ferromagnetism, there also exist long-standing discrepancies. Experimentally, a tiny Ir moment of ~0.03 μB/Ir was observed below
Although the atomic-like nature of Ir local moment in 9R BaIrO3 was found to be extremely stable against temperature, pressure, and chemical substitutions [52, 61], these external stimuli can easily lead to a breakdown of the weak ferromagnetism and nonmetallic ground state. For example, Cao et al. [62] grown a series of Sr-doped Ba1-xSrxIrO3 single crystals and found that the chemical pressure applied via Sr doping drastically suppresses
Temperature dependence of magnetic susceptibility χ(
A schematic phase diagram of the BaIrO3 polytypes showing the evolution of magnetic transition temperautre
We have summarized in this chapter the current knowledge on the materials’ synthesis, crystal structure, and physical properties of the “113” alkaline-earth iridates AIrO3 (A = Ca, Sr, Ba), which display a rich variety of crystallographic and electronic states that are of great current research interest. For CaIrO3, it can form in either the layered pPv or the orthorhombic Pv structure, and thus serves as an important analogue of MgSiO3 to investigate the Pv/pPv transformation in the Earth’s lowermost mantle in geosciences. Corresponding to different crystal structures, their electronic ground states differ sharply: the pPv phase is an antiferromagnetic Mott insulator with
We are grateful to J.-Z. Zhou, J. B. Goodenough, José Alonso, Y. Uwatoko, and M. Akaogi for collaborations on work related to this review. This work is supported by the National Basic Research Program of China (Grant No. 2014CB921500), the National Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 11304371, 51402019), and the strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. XDB07020100).
Justice has been studied in several organizational disciplines, the most important being ethics and human resource management. But this is not all the picture, as justice has also been studied in some research that fundamentally tries to show how to design systems and decision processes with justice in the core of their formal and informal elements. Trust has been considered the best intangible asset that serves as an invisible glue that sets together people and organizations to coordinate for common goals. Trust is necessary to be in place between people in organizations and between organizations and their stakeholders. Being an intangible, the mechanisms to generate and promote trust are hidden; therefore trust is not possibly exchanged as a normal asset, and in fact, organizations that “buy” trust from their stakeholders usually do not generate anything close to it. The mere fact of entering in a conventional exchange involving trust (try buying with money trust) removes the motives that people hold when willing to trust others, and even poses red flags that motivate just for the opposite. Trust, when in place, allows performance as a consequence for the long run, promoting socially sustainable organizations.
The relationship between trust and justice has been also considered crucial, as both are aspects that involve social interaction, better fulfillment, and increasing alignment of people’s and organizational goals (goal congruence). Many researches in management have concentrated on these two elements, and how both can mutually affect each other. In this chapter I am going to devote time to propose a way of how both are important and should be brought together to promote long run organizational performance and sustainability.
I proceed to study first trust, then justice and eventually the interaction of both, to conclude which may be a good approach to understand both in terms of implications in organizational management. Finally, I end up stressing the importance of ethics and specifically see how ethics come in the form of showing trust and justice to be the crucial embedded aspects of ethical relationships.
Including the ethical dimensions of justice and trust into organizational relationship and coordination allow going beyond the social and psychological characteristics already posed. Then, ethics, or the principles that guide and serve as basis of what should be done, make justice and trust the two intangibles that are the most important in organizational relationships and therefore in the long-run survival of organizations as a social system of coordination, relationships, interactions, and worth exchanges.
Trust has been an elusive concept that has been studied in many fields, most importantly in economics and management. From an economic perspective it is the necessary intangible glue that makes people exchanges progress in a smoother way. Trust should be built to make coordination last, but economists discovered that it is not a commodity that has its own market to be exchanged. This implies that trust has value but there is no price of acquisition, so it is generated in a way that incorporates personal morality and the willingness to do good for ourselves and, in case of trust, for the others. Arrow, a preeminent Nobel awarded economist arrived to this conclusion, as we will show below [1]. In the “Limits of Organization” in fact what Arrow is showing is more the “limits of the markets” to organize interaction, as precisely organizations as a coordination mechanism, involving trust, is what go beyond the pure market reasoning of facilitating exchanges in a pure monetary basis.
Trust is needed when people as consumers decide over a set of potential options, as they eventually chose one option that they trust. But also, into organizations to make people rely on other people assessments and opinions, when they cannot arrive to one personal opinion due to lack of information or expertise. Or complementary to this, when people rely on other’s information to form their own opinion.
Justice is both a cause and effect of some specific characteristics that are incorporated into relationships, their process and distributions. Studied as the main moral virtue of character, the mother of moral virtues, it makes people pursue their own good and the overall good of the organization and its participants. Both concepts, trust and justice, are crucial in the ethical dimension of business interactions and relationships.
In the next sections, I am going to study both of them separately and then explain the relationship between the two, to generate socially and economically sustainable organizations. I am going to stress that trust and justice should incorporate their ethical dimension as these are the ones that allow nurturing interactions between people and between people and organizations for the final end people have, which implies fulfilling themselves through their purposes and mutual supporting.
Trust has been studied in several organizational disciplines, the most important ones being economics and management. Trust is not an easy intangible to study. All incumbents in organizations are talking about trust generation as one of the crucial aspects to be promoted to generate involvement in coordination for the common goals, and specifically, a long-term coordination. Brands talk about trust generation and use brand ambassadors for that purpose. Organizations talk about generating trust and care for their employees first and the rest of the stakeholders afterwards. So, all management disciplines talk about trust as the most necessary intangible to be incorporated in their relationships with clients, workers, and all the stakeholders. Trust should be built and not destroyed; these two objectives are clear and widely shared. But how to achieve those goals? This is a complete personal career in any managerial field, no matter which discipline, no matter which organization. All managers care about this but are not sure how to implement it successfully. Another aspect of trust is that it is hard to build and easy to lose in any reputational dispute, so it is not only that trust is important, but managing any short-term reputational effects over the trust that has been long term generated, is also very important (i.e. it is important to note that as people have their own perceptions of trust, managing them is important, and making them close to factuals).
One of the scholars worried about trust has been Kenneth Arrow. In his book “The Limits of Organization”, Arrow considers trust as the necessary glue of economic systems. Trust, according to Arrow, is elusive and non quantificable, and without trust desired transactions do not occur [1]. In fact, he considers that trust is in the boundaries between authority and responsibility, as a crucial aspect that has value but not clearly an exact and known transactional price. Therefore, in Arrow’s words, if you have to purchase trust, you are not really sure about what you have really bought. In fact, we can even say that when you try to put trust as a mere exchange good, what happens is that at some point you force people to concentrate in mere motivations that imply short-term win/lose analyses. Then the prophecy self-fulfills and finally you have people that usually mistrust the rest and only focus on the short term.
So, if trust is not a commodity this means that cannot be easily transacted. Thus, it is difficult to know how to generate and destroy trust which makes more important its study as a worth ethical characteristic of economic and organizational systems. And on top of that, trust is unavoidable in exchanges and coordination, if we want it to last, so the fact is that trust is not exchangeable easily but at the same time it is a must.
In fact, organizations that try to buy trust among their employees are paving the way to precisely generate the opposite. Why? Because, people are easily aware that the interest of the organization is instrumentally using trust as an excuse for something else, so not being transparent of their real interest and purpose, so ending up generating just the opposite: distrust. So, looking for trust generation should bring something genuine in place so people could think it is for the best of all, not merely a few or for some spurious organizational interest.
Arrow was a preeminent economist, and his last work was devoted precisely to the nature and value of trust, that he considered an ethical concept, to be necessary in economic interactions. He considers trust to be the most efficient lubricant in social interactions as it allows to save lots of resources. Therefore, he looks at trust as an ethical aspect with real pragmatic value, so, trust is not only a nice thing to have in organizations but a necessary ethical requisite. Markets and ethics are confluent, and this confluence needs specific attention and implementation. In the end morality is unavoidable to get markets that work [2]. You should be more or less confident that persons interacting in a market generally act in a morally sound way and so should build relationships that make them trust each other. From the point of view of an economist, Arrow considered trust as a social norm based on morality, that equals transparency, integrity, and honesty to make reciprocal social interactions follow the right path to bring good for everyone. The fact that Arrow considers trust, and ethics (as the broader recipient of the first), as the foundational aspects that make organizational deals work, is seeing trust as the cause of worth relationships in business.
To put it simply, trust in its minimal approach implies 1) two persons, the trustor and the trustee, 2) evaluation from trustor to decide whether to follow the trustee advice in something of his or her interest, 3) an act from the trustee that shows whether the trustee honors or betrays the trustor’s trust on him or her, and 4) an evaluation of the interaction from the trustor of whether it has been worth to trust the trustee.
Following this simple trusting mechanism, several definitions of trust have been posed from the researchers’ community. There is a broad conceptual definition of trust that summarizes the concept in a meaningful way. According to Zand, trust is composed by the “actions that increase one’s vulnerability to another whose behavior is not under one’s control in a situation which the penalty one suffers if the other abuses that vulnerability is greater than the benefit one gains if the other does not abuse this vulnerability” [3]. So, there is something to lose from the trustor’s perspective. Also, not honoring trust from the trustee can have some short-term surplus gain compared to honoring it (so trustee is better off when not honoring trust compared to honoring it), because otherwise, there is simply a win-win game, without any need for trust to be in place. Of course in this situation of win-win, the trust specific interaction does not exist, but it could happen that trust over that person in general exists anyway, the issue is that the trust interaction does not start, or it is not even necessary when everyone earns trusting the other, usually, trusting in a specific moment in time, should imply having some tradeoff, so there is something to lose when the trustee honors trust compared to some gain for taking advantage of not honoring it. The same happens for the trustor that she/he is worse off in case the trustee does not honor the trust compared to honoring it.
So, first, there is the decision to trust, and enter into a trustworthiness evaluation (from the trustor about the trustee), and afterwards the decision to honor the trust (from the trustee). Of course, for trust to last, both parties (specially the trustor) should evaluate how worth has been the actual interaction and therefore as a consequence how probable it is to trust the other party again. Meaning, how probable is to enter into a long-lasting trust, that is the glue that is needed in Arrow’s terms [4].
But which is the process of trust generation, and which the process of mistrust generation or trust destruction? More recently, organizational scholars have tried to see trust as a sequence of personal dynamics that involve at least two parties, in which, one of the two (trustor) decides whether to assign to the other party (trustee) the required trustworthiness. In case the required trustworthiness is assessed and the trustor considers it enough, then this makes the trustor trust the trustee. As Dietz believes, there is a basic dynamic, common to all trust encounters, in which “an assessment of the other party’s trustworthiness which informs a preparedness to be vulnerable that, in genuine acts of trust, leads to a risk-taking act” [5, p. 215]. Then, trust, looked at this way, is a consequence of trustworthiness (defined as a perception of trust placed on a person who is evaluated as to whether he or she deserves to be trusted or not).
So, trust is a consequence of trustworthiness which acts then as a cause. So, it is a risk-taking activity that involves some time of perceptional process of the trustor about the trusted party (trustee).
Some researchers consider that there are several types of trust, for instance rational calculative trust, altruistic trust, or blind trust, or also depending on the parties, if these are two individuals, the trust is labeled “personal trust,” or in case of involving organizations, then it is called “institutional trust” [6].
But, other scholars, like Dietz, suggest that trust can be considered as general trust experience process that, depending on the individual and group characteristics, may differ in how this universal trust experience or process occurs, and which steps are more or less prevalent when compared to the others. This group of scholars consider that different evaluations of trustworthiness, cognitions, and actions of trust will thus originate different effects coming from the trust experience [5].
Then, trust is a choice? Not always, as people may be obliged to enter into trust, as maybe they are interdependent to the other party. In this situation there is no decision of trusting the trustee, so this specific condition is not there, but still the rest of the trust process remains. In this case, trust is not a decision, but the process of generating trust should occur for sure. So risk and interdependence are intrinsic elements of trust, the definition then being more a general one, so trust is ‘the willingness to be vulnerable in conditions of risk and interdependence’ [7]. Considering trust this way, trust is not a cooperative behavior or a choice of taking some risk, but instead a situation in which risk and interdependence may generate necessarily an evaluation that once is positive, conduces to trust generation, and then, implies cooperation and taking the risk.
But one caution here, the mere existence of risk and interdependence may not need trust process to occur. In some cases there is only the need to calculate to arrive to a decision; then, it is not easy if this can be considered “calculative trust” or really trust is not even in place nor needed [8]. Boundaries of the concept of trust still exist and there is not a complete agreement between researchers.
In all instances, even if trust is a decision or a situation in which there is some obligation to be interdependent with some other party, trust requires an evaluation from the trustor about the trustworthiness of the trustee. This trustworthiness is a construct formed by the perceptions of some trustee’s aspects, that were revised in an integrative paper by Mayer, Davis, and Schoorman [9].
When assessing trustworthiness people evaluate the following three aspects of the trustee: ability, benevolence, and integrity. However, in a more recent paper about trust quoting this research by Mayer et al., it has been argued that “the Mayer et al. definition misses an important aspect of trust, though: in order for the situation to be meaningful, the potential trustee has to have something to gain by performing an action that is not favorable to the interests of the trustor. If not, the interests of the two people are perfectly aligned and thus, in general, there should be no problem” (8, p3). Meaning again, that boundaries of trust are still there in discussion. This latest boundary incorporates, then, the avoidance of trustee’s opportunistic behavior, seen from the perspective or assessment of the trustor [10]. This evaluation of the trustworthiness of the trustee is done in some specific situation, that is, the specific “trust encounter” or in other words, the trust exchange.
This vision of trust being a consequence of trustworthiness incorporates morals, and each of the three aspects go parallel to the Aristotle concepts incorporated into his book Rhetoric. Ability corresponds to Aristotle’s concept of “intelligence.” integrity to Aristotle’s “character,” and benevolence to Aristotle’s “goodwill”. Then, the Aristotle concept of persuasion that would imply making appealing what a trustee says to convince others of being trusted is linked to the building blocks of the trustworthiness concept, a very successful construct in the literature of organizational trust.
In general, when trusting someone implies an assessment about this person’s consistency (sometimes even we think that this person in that matter is even more consistent than ourselves), to actually make this person capable of putting into practice what is good for all (also ourselves) according to his or her system of values. Then what we in the end trust is his or her capacity to do that, to act in that specific ethical way. In consequence, we think that the trustee is a person that shows the integrity between his or her actions and values and does this for the good of the ones involved in the relationship or also for the entire organization (in case of he or she acting on its behalf). Then trust is linked to believing from the trustor’s perspective that the trustee is a virtuous person and so pursues the good. Here comes the ethical part of trust, that is, the trustee’s capability of making right choices about what is good to be pursued. Right choices imply deciding over which objectives area good, and it is here when justice comes to place into the trust equation. As being good and right implies being just. So, looking at the ethical dimension of trust, this implies we trust someone because we consider she or he is the one that is just when deciding, and therefore incorporates in the decision-making, standards of just behavior. We trust in his or her justice standards.
In conclusion, we trust someone because the choices he or she usually makes are leading to generate just outcomes; therefore this person shows up justice standards and learns and evolves to individually increase these justice standards over time. We are going to examine justice as the moral virtue that managers need to put in place to generate trust. Managers should include justice into their decision-making process to generate trustworthiness and therefore trust among organizational relationships between individuals and between individuals and the organization.
But first, I should examine justice as a crucial concept in many disciplines, including management, to finally look into the concepts that are worth to be built-in trust generation.
Justice has been studied in several organizational disciplines, the most important ones being ethics and human resource management. But these are not the only ones. Justice is studied in management control systems to show that managers should design systems and decision processes with justice in mind (formal and informal management control systems with justice incorporated) [11]. Justice is also the basis for the full theory of law, and it is also a social norm, in the discipline of sociology. In ethics or normative theories justice is considered a virtue or a mandatory set of requisites for a worth societal scheme. I am going to revise all the concepts of justice and how they have been integrated to some extent.
Organizational justice has started some decades ago, with the study of the perceptions of justice that people have regarding aspects related to processes, distributions, relationships, and information. Under the label of ‘organizational justice’, perceptions of justice from organizational participants have been rated to decide whether the organization or the manager is fair or not. Organizational justice is formed by four justice types: distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal, depending on the aspect of perceptions people focus on. Distributive justice refers to the perception of what people receive, as rewards or resources, tangible or intangible. Procedural justice asks about the perceptions regarding the processes to arrive at any decision that people consider may generate some effect upon them. Informational justice refers to the fairness people perceive about the information a manager shares and delivers in the process of deciding. And interpersonal justice measures fairness of the treatment received by a decision-maker in decision processes that affect the recipient. Research has linked organizational justice and close constructs to many desired performance effects in organizations [12]. Recently in the actual investigations around sharing economy, organizational justice has been found as a requisite to build socially sustainable organizations over time, as it serves as an antecedent of knowledge sharing among organizational participants [13].
The entire field of organizational justice has usually evolved through empirical enquiry. Researchers have studied perceptions and how people react to these aspects of distributions, procedures, information, and interpersonal treatment. The underpinning of this reasoning relies on Adams’ equity theory [14]. Adam’s equity theory states that people compare their own ratios of output and input with the same ratios of others, which is similar to Aristotle’s concept of merit. Of course, there are other underlying mechanisms for people to judge fairness, in which people assess what they actually receive compared to what they think they “ought to” receive [15]. In this last one, some ethical standards about what should be are necessary. In this respect the worries are not about deciding between ethical standards and which are sounder, but in understanding that people when assessing fairness have implicit in mind some ethical standards. Both approaches are based on psychology, and some way of looking at justice as a subjective aspect of people’s thinking, without caring about which should be the good justice for everyone, or the good thinking of justice or ways to compare which thinking of justice is better suited than the other to generate the good.
But some questions still remain unanswered, as, for instance, are some concepts of justice better than others? Is there a way to decide which justice is better suited to generate the good? And this is the type of questions answered by ethic theories. Ethics is concerned about what is good and what is better. The ethical individual reasoning, subjective in nature, that makes people assess something to be fair or not, treats justice as a black box, subjective and personal, and does not care about the actual black box, containing some specific justice definition or standards. In fact, it presumes all individual standards of justice are equally good. But, here is when ethical reasoning enters into the picture to underline that some justice norms are a central requirement to create good societies for everyone, and therefore, justice is the foundation for a correct functioning of society that aims at providing high levels of happiness and common good to its constituent members [16, 17].
Therefore, once entering into the philosophy and ethical domains, some concepts like justice norms and justice standards appear to be defined, and along with them, specific ways to reason which requirements are needed to generate the best conditions for justice, that in turn may be the foundations of the good and the better.
There is an ongoing discussion of whether justice is a fact or more an ideal to be attained, so a desirable value. And in fact, justice may be, to some extent, both. Of course, justice is not only what people thinks is just, as people can be misled. But justice is also not only what some ethical standards think it is.
Both aspects of justice are important and correspond to different concerns. Normative research remains into the “ought to” type of reasoning that does not attempt to discover at all “what actually is”. The same with looking at what people perceive as just. This can indicate whether some justice is in place and, of course, can be an indicator of what people think regarding justice, but these perceptions cannot be a guide to generate norms of what “ought to be” and following implementations. All of these have their own role, as perceptions of justice indicate the actual state of justice implementation and justice while the “ought to be” justice should guide what reasonably people should follow to achieve a long-run just result in their interactions.
But people’s actual subjective thinking of what ought to be is also linked to the ethical reasoning of what ought to be. Some research has focused on interconnecting both types of queries, to find out whether people’s concepts of justice are actually aligned to the notions ethicists claim justice to be. From existing data, we know that favorability tend to be correlated to positive perceptions of justice of actual outcomes received, meaning that we believed we deserve (and find it just), the outputs that favor us. In specific distributions, people tend to value just what they positively receive (as they believe they deserve it) and unjust when they are not receiving anything (as they think they deserve it), even if in the normative sense it does not follow justice requirements. This is even stronger in some real and actual situations and not some hypothetical ones. In the hypothetical people tend to be more prompt to actually match what they think about justice ought to be and what theories reason justice ought to be.
Both types of justice, perceptions of fairness and justice as a virtue or ideal for systems and decision-making processes, have some connections and attempts of integration. In fact, moral motives are a very strong psychological motivation to care about justice, even if there is nothing to gain personally in this specific caring. It means people see justice as a moral value and not just a means to achieve selfish ends. Some research asks respondents how they perceive the work behavior “ought to be” and how they perceive “actually is.” And surprisingly these are not that far away. This means that, first, as my actual subjective “ought” thinking is not far from the philosophical normative theories, and as I try to be consistent with this, in the end what I do tends to get closer to what I should do, over time. And when asked about perceptions I tend to be consistent on what I think it should be and what I think it actually is regarding what it should be.
Then not all organizational groups think the same; for instance managers think they are implementing justice following this “ought to be” standard, whereas the rest of the organization thinks differently, as they report managers acted differently from what they ought to [18]. All stated before is important, as understanding normative theories people adhere to can improve predictions. And for ethicists, empirical studies about perceptions can also indicate the behavioral and perceptual constraints of justice desired ideals, and how far or close to the standards people think the others and themselves are.
But we should also be aware that differences exist even if researchers come from a similar background. Justice studied from the perspective of organizational justice differs from justice studied from a behavioral sciences perspective. Organizational justice research has assumed individuals are motivated for selfish reasons and by social identities, while behavioral ethics has usually focused on internalized moral convictions and duties and on moral identities. So, justice has different underlying concepts even if the mainstream approach is from a psychological background and through empirical studies. Then it seems justice take several approaches because the questions to answer differ and the visions of humans differ as well.
There is also a paper summarizing justice concepts and providing a useful way to integrating inquiries in a meaningful way in organizational contexts [19]. In this it is explained that a full concept of justice across disciplines would be difficult to incorporate and arrive at. But, instead, we should be aware of the matters and questions around justice that are responded following each approach.
Investigation of perceptions alone cannot replace reflection and discussion about justice. Many situations in organizations reflect this. Imagine the case of an organization in which employees experience a really bad environment, even if they are given voice to express it. And this given voice has not positively converted into a real change. When they are asked about “procedural justice” they rate it high. However procedural justice is upheld, the voice they are actually given has no real impact on their actual working conditions. So, managing group’s perceptions of justice without addressing real issues of power distribution and safety at the workplace could be judged as unjust from a beholder perspective or from an ethical point of view, even if the worker is rating justice high.
This late example does not mean that perceptions of justice are not important, if correctly managed for the good purposes and for the change towards a greater justice environment. In fact, if we just follow a normative approach without caring for actual perceptions about justice, this dogmatic approach can generate unhappiness in case people’s preferences are not incorporated to some extent, or people feel they are not capable to follow the normative approach in place. And moreover, some existing normative approaches are a close system and are simply obsolete. Many normative systems are closer to societal norms at some past point in time rather than being a truly humanistic approach for promoting the rights of all. It should be important to create a paved way to change the current norms for some better ones, in all instances. Discussions in normative approaches cannot be avoided in any instance. Even claiming around legality, when legal norms are outdated, is even worse, as in some moments in time, some norms in institutions followed strictly the legality and were totally unjust (i.e. apartheid). So thankfully, societies evolve in terms of updating their normative and legal systems to improve justice over time. Another aspect in terms of normative approaches is that in some specific instances, competing normative approaches exist when solving specific ethical dilemmas, and so, it is not clear which is the best one to choose.
In summary, justice has been studied as a social norm in sociology; as a minimum set of rights or duties in law; as a perception of specific instances regarding distributions, procedures, information, and treatment; in organizational justice; and as a moral motivation in behavioral sciences. All are valid and useful concepts around justice worth taking into account, even if some are invalid or useless because they have become outdated or show incompatible visions of human beings.
With respect to the questions responded and the methods used, organizational justice is concerned with the perceptions of justice from the individual point of view, the group point of view, or the beholder point of view, as a psychological construct. Organizational justice addresses questions regarding why people care about justice, how people judge justice, and which are the effects of justice or injustice perceptions.
The questions aimed at being responded in normative justice theories are concerned with justice as an ideal, precisely trying to figure out what a just society is and should be and what is and should be a just person. Responding to these questions could characterize how should be individuals and socities as to be considered just. Or similarly, knowing the requirements for just leaders, companies and society. This then responds also to the additional query of why justice is important. There are connections between both, as it is presumed that in good (therefore just) societies or organizations, people can develop also personal justice skills and so become fairer over time.
Usually the concepts of justice useful in management implementation are the ones concerned with design of systems and their use, which take a normative approach, and also measuring perceptions of actual justice, once these systems are used and implemented. This is nicely explained in this research that proposes a model of formal and informal justice and how when they are present, generate a greater alignment between the interests of stakeholders, and then build the way to increase justice perceptions of individuals under those systems [20].
In the next section I am incorporating practical wisdom as the required virtue of knowledge that Aristotle incorporates as crucial for organizational decision-makers. This is also a point to be made as practical wisdom is a necessary requirement for taking commonsensical decisions in specific organizational situations and arrangements and so, part of situational knowledge that a decision maker faces when deciding over anything today that has huge consequences in the long term.
It is important to notice that apart from justice, there is another virtue (the main virtue of knowledge, in Aristotelian terms) that has been considered important in managerial decision-making, and this is practical wisdom [21]. Even if some research has given more importance to this virtue than to justice, in fact there are virtues of a different type. Justice is a moral virtue concerned with what is a good objective to pursue, so it comes first. And afterwards, practical wisdom is the process of implementing that objective to improve the chances of success. Also, when there are several possible good (so just) objectives to choose among, practical wisdom assists to determine which is (or are) the best suited to prosper.
Thus, justice is a moral virtue, and therefore informs about which options are good, and practical wisdom is the virtue associated with the process of decision making; once good options (just options) are in place, practical wisdom is necessary for implementing them, so to build the process to be followed for that implementation. Therefore, practical wisdom is not really useful to discuss about the morality but helps to follow a rationalistic approach of implementing the good and just option in place, or to choose details to make proper just alternatives when several of them are available.
In short, justice is the main moral virtue that allows us to have sound objectives in organizations. Once there are alternatives that accomplish justice requirements, situational knowledge, specific for real life implementation, requires managers with practical wisdom. This practical wisdom is the virtue associated with the practical knowledge to apply specific courses of action that have proven possible in specific situations. This process is clearly explained in this article and proves to be generating learning processes of acquiring practical wisdom over time [22]. It seems that as practical wisdom and justice, put together, help to align people’s goals with the organization, this can also be seen as a limit for the need of trust in terms of specific transactions, as the general trust on the virtues of the decision maker, which in turn increases this alignment over time, goes for a lesser need of specific transactional trust.
But, it is the combination of practical wisdom as the principal virtue of situational knowledge, and justice as the moral prevalent virtue in social systems and interpersonal relationships for the good, that makes the organization fulfill its endeavor and be socially and economically sustainable over time [23].
From the trust literature and the seminal ethical literature, we have arrived at the conclusion that justice is a generator of trustworthiness, and therefore potential trust. Justice in this vein is one of the components that are incorporated into the assessment of trustworthiness of the trustee from the trustor’s point of view.
Trust is not a considered a virtue, but it is considered an ethical fundamental concept, that is referred as an intangible asset that serves as a glue to increase efficiency of human interaction at the market and organizational level. Also, trust is a result of trustworthiness evaluation, meaning that, to trust someone, first the trustor needs to evaluate whether the trustee deserves to be trusted or not. As a characteristic of the trustee, trustworthiness also has many ethical elements, mainly involving justice and fairness. Then, trustor should judge the trustee fair to enter into the trusting process; otherwise it is difficult that trust could be built over time. And this can happen in both voluntary and forced trust events in which risk is involved and interdependence exists between the trustor and the trustee.
Justice as a requisite then is an antecedent of trustworthiness and also an antecedent of systems requisites to generate future fairness perceptions, that are also necessary to generate future trustworthiness, once some trust interaction has started. Therefore, justice is both an antecedent and a consequence of trust in someone.
In organizations justice has been considered as a construct based on perceptions, on the form of organizational justice that is the aggregation of perceptions of how fair are procedures, distributions, relationships, and information. It has also been studied as being part of formal systems and system’s use (what has been labeled as informal systems). Following this late definition, a seminal paper in the literature of management control systems and justice has considered that there are two types of justice, the formal justice (attached to system design) and informal justice (attached to system use or managerial use of the system, which is the same). Then informal justice is linked to the informal organization and formal justice to the formal organization. Both formal and informal justice have a positive effect over goal congruence, meaning that people that perceive the system and its use are fair tend to increase their alignment between their individual goals and organizational goals over time. So, justice tends to increase the alignment of interests between the institutions and participants [11]. Even if in terms of justice, it seems that informal justice has more potential to actually change the system and generate greater improvements over time rather than formal justice alone, the use following justice criteria seems more appropriate to learn and suggest improvements [24]. So, the ethical or virtuous use of the systems (which mainly should be just) generates greater alignment of goals and greater overall future fairness compared to the mere implementation of formal justice in a mechanical way.
Additional research on the matter uses this underlying relationship between justice and goal congruence, and incorporates also the trust in managers variable [25]. In this model, ex-ante justice (formal and informal), trust in managers, and interest alignment between participants are shown to generate future perceptions of justice over time. This means that when managers use the system following justice requirements, people trust them, their interests are more aligned with the organization, and finally justice is generated also in the long term. This is creating a virtuous cycle, as once this starts, this new justice perceptions reinforce future trust generation, helping to improve the system and its use over time.
Goal congruence or interest alignment on its own, when high also makes people increase fairness perceptions, meaning that it increases how they perceive the justice in all organizational dimensions (distributions, processes, information, and personal treatment). Then, once informal justice is in place, it generates a positive effect trusting managers, and this in turn has a positive effect in future perceptions of fairness that following this virtuous circle feeds again the process of trust generation. The previous virtuous circle, once in place reinforces the alignment between the interests of the organization and stakeholders, increasing the willingness of a shared meaningful purpose.
Trust is the most desired intangible to be generated in economic exchanges. Trust functions to bring ethics into the market interactions and into the organizational relationships, which is considered the best way to increase efficiency. The big characteristic of trust is that it increments efficiency but in nature is a moral aspect that cannot be traded. In fact, thinking of its tradability makes it clear that we are trading something that we can assure is not trust at all [1]. So, ethics should be incorporated into this with a genuine interest for the good, and when doing so, it is trust, this ethical intangible, that eventually makes the economic world function smoothly and with ease.
But trust needs to be generated, and fundamentally foundations of trust rely on how trust is generated and so, how one party (trustor) makes a specific assessment to what extent the other party (trustee) deserves to be trusted or not. Fundamentally this assessment is based on ability, integrity. and benevolence, psychological characteristics that are found also in the Aristotelian Rhetoric, being there labeled intelligence, character, and goodwill.
The first (ability) is more linked to technical skills and expertise (I am trusting your ability to perform efficiently and effectively some specific tasks and duties), but the other two (character and goodwill) are mainly linked to building the specific virtuous aspects of managers. And which are the aspects of managers that generate trust? Managers generate trust when acting according to what they say and based on a system of values that incorporate virtues, justice being the mother of moral virtues, central to generate the good in organizations. Therefore, managers generate trust when the ones that are affected by their decisions judge they are going to act according to justice for the good of all, not for selfish interests. This good, then, can be judged by the ones that have trusted managers, in terms of justice perceptions related to processes, information, relationships, and outcomes. Once these perceptions are present can feed new trust interactions, which in turn affect future generation of trust and trustworthiness. Justice is an antecedent of trustworthiness, and future justice is an antecedent of future trustworthiness. Thus, the loop generated is clear, and the virtuous circle is clear too. Both trust and justice are crucial ethical dimensions in organizational relationships to serve as the long-term fuel to build social and economic sustainable institutions. Trust cannot be generated out of the blue; instead it needs strong justice implementation and performance to start being generated. Once the virtuous circle is implemented it should be fueled over time, as learning to be fairer is a path of improving character and goodwill of managers that never ends. Ethical standards and justice standards evolve, and managers should evolve too. This learning is necessary to allow trust to increase, as if the process of increasing trust is not in place the process of destroying has, for sure, started.
I acknowledge the invaluable help of my colleagues at Open University of Catalonia and IESE Business School for our discussions on the topics of this chapter, mainly Josep Maria Rosanas, my advisor and colleague with whom I have shared uncountable hours of conversation and fruitful debates.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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Bağlarkayası-2010 Trench, Tuz Gölü Fault Zone, Central Anatolia, Turkey",slug:"paleoseismological-three-dimensional-virtual-photography-method-a-case-study-ba-larkayas-2010-trench",totalDownloads:3e3,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:null,book:{id:"2227",slug:"tectonics-recent-advances",title:"Tectonics",fullTitle:"Tectonics - Recent Advances"},signatures:"Akın Kürçer and Yaşar Ergun Gökten",authors:[{id:"140276",title:"Dr.",name:"Akın",middleName:null,surname:"Kürçer",slug:"akin-kurcer",fullName:"Akın Kürçer"},{id:"144563",title:"Prof.",name:"Yaşar Ergun",middleName:null,surname:"Gökten",slug:"yasar-ergun-gokten",fullName:"Yaşar Ergun Gökten"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64562",title:"Electrical Resistivity Tomography: A Subsurface-Imaging Technique",slug:"electrical-resistivity-tomography-a-subsurface-imaging-technique",totalDownloads:3152,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is a popular geophysical subsurface-imaging technique and widely applied to mineral prospecting, hydrological exploration, environmental investigation and civil engineering, as well as archaeological mapping. This chapter offers an overall review of technical aspects of ERT, which includes the fundamental theory of direct-current (DC) resistivity exploration, electrode arrays for data acquisition, numerical modelling methods and tomographic inversion algorithms. The section of fundamental theory shows basic formulae and principle of DC resistivity exploration. The section of electrode arrays summarises the previous study on all traditional-electrode arrays and recommends 4 electrode arrays for data acquisition of surface ERT and 3 electrode arrays for cross-hole ERT. The section of numerical modelling demonstrates an advanced version of finite-element method, called Gaussian quadrature grid approach, which is advantageous to a numerical simulation of ERT for complex geological models. The section of tomographic inversion presents the generalised standard conjugate gradient algorithms for both the l1- and l2-normed inversions. After that, some synthetic and real imaging examples are given to show the near-surface imaging capabilities of ERT.",book:{id:"8361",slug:"applied-geophysics-with-case-studies-on-environmental-exploration-and-engineering-geophysics",title:"Applied Geophysics with Case Studies on Environmental, Exploration and Engineering Geophysics",fullTitle:"Applied Geophysics with Case Studies on Environmental, Exploration and Engineering Geophysics"},signatures:"Bing Zhou",authors:null},{id:"37864",title:"Role of the NE-SW Hercynian Master Fault Systems and Associated Lineaments on the Structuring and Evolution of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Basins of the Alpine Margin, Northern Tunisia",slug:"role-of-the-ne-sw-hercynian-master-fault-systems-and-associated-lineaments-on-the-structuring-and-ev",totalDownloads:8162,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:null,book:{id:"2227",slug:"tectonics-recent-advances",title:"Tectonics",fullTitle:"Tectonics - Recent Advances"},signatures:"Fetheddine Melki, Taher Zouaghi, Mohamed Ben Chelbi, Mourad Bédir and Fouad Zargouni",authors:[{id:"39860",title:"Dr.",name:"Taher",middleName:null,surname:"Zouaghi",slug:"taher-zouaghi",fullName:"Taher Zouaghi"},{id:"147368",title:"Dr.",name:"Fetheddine",middleName:null,surname:"Melki",slug:"fetheddine-melki",fullName:"Fetheddine Melki"}]},{id:"43258",title:"Speedy Techniques to Evaluate Seismic Site Effects in Particular Geomorphologic Conditions: Faults, Cavities, Landslides and Topographic Irregularities",slug:"speedy-techniques-to-evaluate-seismic-site-effects-in-particular-geomorphologic-conditions-faults-ca",totalDownloads:3017,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"3059",slug:"engineering-seismology-geotechnical-and-structural-earthquake-engineering",title:"Engineering Seismology, Geotechnical and Structural Earthquake Engineering",fullTitle:"Engineering Seismology, Geotechnical and Structural Earthquake Engineering"},signatures:"F. Panzera, G. Lombardo, S. D’Amico and P. Galea",authors:[{id:"52181",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastiano",middleName:null,surname:"D'Amico",slug:"sebastiano-d'amico",fullName:"Sebastiano D'Amico"},{id:"58678",title:"Dr.",name:"Pauline",middleName:null,surname:"Galea",slug:"pauline-galea",fullName:"Pauline Galea"},{id:"167864",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Lombardo",slug:"giuseppe-lombardo",fullName:"Giuseppe Lombardo"},{id:"167865",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Panzera",slug:"francesco-panzera",fullName:"Francesco Panzera"}]},{id:"64060",title:"Advance Wave Modeling and Diffractions for High-Resolution Subsurface Seismic Imaging",slug:"advance-wave-modeling-and-diffractions-for-high-resolution-subsurface-seismic-imaging",totalDownloads:1161,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Seismic modeling and Imaging for the small-scale feature in a complex subsurface geology such as salt deposit, fracture reservoir, and Carbonate is not casual because of propagated wave affected by many objects once it hits the geologic structure in the subsurface. The principal goal of newly developed seismic modeling & imaging is to get a subsurface image of structural features with greatest sharpness or resolution. Using model dataset the Sigsbee and Marmousi, we illustrate the accuracy of conventional and advance wave modeling techniques. However, in conventional a Finite difference (FD) algorithm is used to generate the data and in advanced wave modeling, the low-rank (LR) approximation is used to acquire zero-offset configuration data. A field dataset from Malaysian basin is re-processed and imaged using diffraction imaging which shows an enhancement in structural interpretation. Furthermore, the results gained from the proposed modeling and imaging approach significantly enhance the bandwidth of the imaged data. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. 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Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. 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