Potential mechanisms of hypertension related cerebral dysfunction.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9197",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Organic Synthesis - A Nascent Relook",title:"Organic Synthesis",subtitle:"A Nascent Relook",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book ‘Organic Synthesis - A Nascent Relook’ is a compendium of the recent progress in all aspects of organic chemistry including bioorganic chemistry, organo-metallic chemistry, asymmetric synthesis, heterocyclic chemistry, natural product chemistry, catalytic, green chemistry and medicinal chemistry, polymer chemistry, as well as analytical methods in organic chemistry. The book presents the latest developments in these fields. The chapters are written by chosen experts who are internationally known for their eminent research contributions. Organic synthesis is the complete chemical synthesis of a target molecule. In this book, special emphasis is given to the synthesis of various bioactive heterocycles. Careful selection of various topics in this book will serve the rightful purpose for the chemistry community and the industrial houses at all levels.",isbn:"978-1-78985-944-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-943-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-626-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83193",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"organic-synthesis-a-nascent-relook",numberOfPages:248,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"03e0a3f9177c215d245ac49f0275e604",bookSignature:"Belakatte Parameshwarappa Nandeshwarappa",publishedDate:"May 27th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9197.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8710,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:11,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:30,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 18th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 19th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 18th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 6th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 6th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"261141",title:"Dr.",name:"Belakatte Parameshwarappa",middleName:null,surname:"Nandeshwarappa",slug:"belakatte-parameshwarappa-nandeshwarappa",fullName:"Belakatte Parameshwarappa Nandeshwarappa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261141/images/system/261141.png",biography:"Dr. B.P. Nandeshwarappa obtained his M.Sc., and a Ph.D. degree from Kuvempu University, Karnataka, India. He was a Postdoctoral fellow at the Institute of Fine Chemicals, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai. After Postdoctoral Research he moved to the Multinational Pharmaceutical Company Bangalore, where he worked as Research Associate for nearly three years. He has fourteen years of teaching experience. His research interests are centered on organic synthesis, process developments, and medicinal chemistry. His recent work involves the synthesis and biological activities of novel heterocyclic compounds. He has published many scientific papers in peer-reviewed journals and presented his research papers at national and international conferences, seminars, and workshops. Dr. B.P. Nandeshwarappa has edited five books, authored seven specialized books, and five book chapters. He has guided fifty-one dissertations for Postgraduate and currently guiding for Ph.D. Scholars. Dr. B.P. Nandeshwarappa received several awards like a young scientist, best poster presentation award in recognition for his outstanding contribution to education and research. He served as a member of the Board of studies, Board of examination, and different responsibilities at the university level. He is currently working as an Associate Professor at the Department of Studies in Chemistry, Davangere University, Davangere, India.",institutionString:"Davangere University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Davangere University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"85",title:"Organic Chemistry",slug:"organic-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"70397",title:"Design and Strategic Synthesis of Some β-Carboline-Based Novel Natural Products of Biological Importance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88483",slug:"design-and-strategic-synthesis-of-some-carboline-based-novel-natural-products-of-biological-importan",totalDownloads:713,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"β-Carboline compounds and their derivatives have attracted strong interest in medicinal chemistry due to their biological and pharmacological properties. Many bioactive β-carboline-based natural products have been found to be an important source of drugs and drug leads. β-Carboline has major players in natural products chemistry, which plays an important role in drug discovery. β-Carboline represents the core unit of several natural products, alkaloids, and bioactive compounds. The unusual and complex molecular architectures of natural products pose significant challenges to organic chemists and are a source of inspiration for the development of new organic reactions and innovative synthetic strategies. However, in many cases, β-carboline natural products are isolated in only minute quantities, and their constant supply from natural sources is problematic or virtually impossible. In addition, chemoselective derivatization of natural products themselves is usually quite difficult because of their sensitive and elaborate molecular structures, and access to their structural analogs is severely restricted in many cases. Since chemical synthesis is expected to be the only way to overcome these shortcomings, β-carboline natural products are rewarding synthetic targets for organic chemists. This chapter assimilates the reports pertaining to the synthetic applications of some β-carbolines for the synthesis of substituted and fused β-carbolines.",signatures:"Tejpal Singh Chundawat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70397",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70397",authors:[{id:"290827",title:"Dr.",name:"Tejpal Singh",surname:"Chundawat",slug:"tejpal-singh-chundawat",fullName:"Tejpal Singh Chundawat"}],corrections:null},{id:"69830",title:"Synthesis of s- and p-Element Organosiloxanes by Mechanochemical Activation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89853",slug:"synthesis-of-s-and-p-element-organosiloxanes-by-mechanochemical-activation",totalDownloads:460,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The interaction of some organosilicon compounds with oxides, hydroxides, and organic derivatives of s- (beryllium, magnesium, calcium) and p-elements (boron, aluminum, gallium, and tin) under conditions of mechanochemical activation was studied. Based on polyphenylsilsesquioxane and boric acid, the conditions for the synthesis of polyelementorganosiloxanes were selected, which included the activation time, carrier rotation speed, and the ratio of the nozzle mass to the payload mass. The influence of the nature of the heteroatom and the organic substituent of the heteroatom on the process has been studied. The effect of organic substituents at the silicon atom and the functionality of the organosilicon derivative on the mechanochemical interaction with acetylacetonates of boron difluoride and tin dichloride were also studied. The mechanisms of solid-phase reactions are proposed.",signatures:"Vitaliy Viktorovich Libanov, Alevtina Anatol’evna Kapustina and Nikolay Pavlovich Shapkin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69830",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69830",authors:[{id:"304678",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vitaliy Viktorovich",surname:"Libanov",slug:"vitaliy-viktorovich-libanov",fullName:"Vitaliy Viktorovich Libanov"},{id:"308856",title:"Prof.",name:"Alevtina Anatol’evna",surname:"Kapustina",slug:"alevtina-anatol'evna-kapustina",fullName:"Alevtina Anatol’evna Kapustina"},{id:"308857",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay Pavlovich",surname:"Shapkin",slug:"nikolay-pavlovich-shapkin",fullName:"Nikolay Pavlovich Shapkin"}],corrections:null},{id:"71417",title:"Recent Advances in Mechanochemical Organic Synthesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90897",slug:"recent-advances-in-mechanochemical-organic-synthesis",totalDownloads:985,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this review, the recent advances in mechanochemical organic synthesis are presented. These include variety of chemical reactions, organic functional group transformations, organic catalytic processes, and photochemical reactions which were not carried in mechanochemical conditions before.",signatures:"Davor Margetić and Vjekoslav Štrukil",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71417",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71417",authors:[{id:"302484",title:"Dr.",name:"Davor",surname:"Margetić",slug:"davor-margetic",fullName:"Davor Margetić"},{id:"309142",title:"Dr.",name:"Vjekoslav",surname:"Štrukil",slug:"vjekoslav-strukil",fullName:"Vjekoslav Štrukil"}],corrections:null},{id:"67962",title:"Approaches to the Total Synthesis of Puupehenone-Type Marine Natural Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87927",slug:"approaches-to-the-total-synthesis-of-puupehenone-type-marine-natural-products",totalDownloads:888,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Puupehenones have been isolated from the marine sponge Chondrosia chucalla, which belong to a growing family of natural products with more than 100 members. These marine natural products have attracted increasing attention mainly due to their wide variety of biological activities such as antitumor, antiviral, and anti-HIV, and thus offer promising opportunities for new drug development. This chapter covers the approaches to the total synthesis of puupehenone-type marine natural products including puupehenol, puupehenone, puupehedione, and halopuupehenones. The routes begin with the construction of their basic skeletons, followed by the modification of their C- and D-rings. The contents are divided into two sections in terms of the key strategies employed to construct the basic skeleton. One is the convergent synthesis route with two synthons coupled by nucleophilic or electrophilic reaction, and the other is the linear synthesis route with polyene series cyclization as a key reaction.",signatures:"Yan-Chao Wu, Yun-Fei Cheng and Hui-Jing Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67962",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67962",authors:[{id:"235439",title:"Prof.",name:"Hui-Jing",surname:"Li",slug:"hui-jing-li",fullName:"Hui-Jing Li"},{id:"270416",title:"Prof.",name:"Yan-Chao",surname:"Wu",slug:"yan-chao-wu",fullName:"Yan-Chao Wu"},{id:"302669",title:"Mrs.",name:"Yun-Fei",surname:"Cheng",slug:"yun-fei-cheng",fullName:"Yun-Fei Cheng"}],corrections:null},{id:"71379",title:"N,N-Dialkyl Amides as Versatile Synthons for Synthesis of Heterocycles and Acyclic Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90949",slug:"-em-n-em-em-n-em-dialkyl-amides-as-versatile-synthons-for-synthesis-of-heterocycles-and-acyclic-syst",totalDownloads:615,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"N,N-Dialkyl amides such as N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMA), are common polar solvents, finds application as a multipurpose reagent in synthetic organic chemistry. They are cheap, readily available and versatile synthons that can be used in a variety of ways to generate different functional groups. In recent years, many publications showcasing, excellent and useful applications of N,N-dialkyl amides in amination (R-NMe2), formylation (R-CHO), as a single carbon source (R-C), methylene group (R-CH2), cyanation (R-CN), amidoalkylation (-R), aminocarbonylation (R-CONMe2), carbonylation (R-CO) and heterocycle synthesis appeared. This chapter highlights important developments in the employment of N,N-dialkyl amides in the synthesis of heterocycles and functionalization of acyclic systems. Although some review articles covered the application of DMF and/or DMA in organic functional group transformations, there is no specialized review on their application in the synthesis of cyclic and acyclic systems.",signatures:"Andivelu Ilangovan, Sakthivel Pandaram and Tamilselvan Duraisamy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71379",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71379",authors:[{id:"312112",title:"Prof.",name:"Andivelu",surname:"Ilangovan",slug:"andivelu-ilangovan",fullName:"Andivelu Ilangovan"},{id:"316779",title:"Mr.",name:"Sakthivel",surname:"Pandaram",slug:"sakthivel-pandaram",fullName:"Sakthivel Pandaram"},{id:"316781",title:"Mr.",name:"Tamilselvan",surname:"Duraisamy",slug:"tamilselvan-duraisamy",fullName:"Tamilselvan Duraisamy"}],corrections:null},{id:"71929",title:"Synthetic Studies of Vitamin B12",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92104",slug:"synthetic-studies-of-vitamin-b12",totalDownloads:857,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Overall these are selections from the total synthesis of vitamin B12. Through the use of selected reactions in the reaction schema, hypothetical mechanisms have been provided. It is the hope of the author, that it will provide insight for students in organic chemistry. Additionally the focus was on the Eschenmoser’s Variant of the total synthesis of vitamin B12. This required the reviewing of the lectures of Dr. A. Eschenmoser as well as reviews of the different mechanistic process involved. Due to constraints all of the mechanisms have not been developed, but selected ones have been provided and shown for understanding.",signatures:"David Joshua Ferguson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71929",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71929",authors:[{id:"316468",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Ferguson",slug:"david-ferguson",fullName:"David Ferguson"}],corrections:null},{id:"71709",title:"C▬H Activation Strategies for Heterofunctionalization and Heterocyclization on Quinones: Application in the Synthesis of Bioactive Compounds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90930",slug:"c-h-activation-strategies-for-heterofunctionalization-and-heterocyclization-on-quinones-application-",totalDownloads:879,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Quinone moieties in general and heterofunctionalized or heterofused quinones in particular find application in several fields such as medicinal chemistry, natural products, and functional materials. Due to its striking applications, scientists developed useful methods for the synthesis of quinone derivatives. C▬H activation strategy is a fast-developing and straightforward concept, used in the construction of a diverse variety of bonds such as carbon▬carbon (C▬C) and carbon▬hetero (C▬O/N/S/P) bonds and also used is the heterofunctionalization/heterocyclization of quinones. Such approaches are useful in making use of unfunctionalized quinones for the synthesis of heterofunctionalized or heterocycle-fused quinones. The redox active nature and ligand-like properties make it difficult to carryout C▬H activation on quinones. In this chapter we summarized recent developments on strategies used for C▬hetero atom bond formation on quinones via C▬H activation, leading to heterofunctionalization and synthesis of heterofused quinones.",signatures:"Andivelu Ilangovan and Thumadath Palayullaparambil Adarsh Krishna",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71709",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71709",authors:[{id:"312112",title:"Prof.",name:"Andivelu",surname:"Ilangovan",slug:"andivelu-ilangovan",fullName:"Andivelu Ilangovan"},{id:"316776",title:"Mr.",name:"Adarsh Krishna",surname:"Thumadath Palayullaparambil",slug:"adarsh-krishna-thumadath-palayullaparambil",fullName:"Adarsh Krishna Thumadath Palayullaparambil"}],corrections:null},{id:"68248",title:"Total Synthesis of Macrolides",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87898",slug:"total-synthesis-of-macrolides",totalDownloads:1117,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Structurally complex macrolide natural products, isolated from a variety of marine and other sources, continue to provide a valuable source of targets for the synthetic chemist to embark. In this account, we provide the recent progress and pathways in the total synthesis of macrolides and discussed the synthesis of (+)-neopeltolide, aspergillide D, miyakolide and acutiphycin natural products.",signatures:"Chebolu Naga Sesha Sai Pavan Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68248",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68248",authors:[{id:"300038",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Naga Sesha Sai Pavan Kumar",surname:"Chebolu",slug:"naga-sesha-sai-pavan-kumar-chebolu",fullName:"Naga Sesha Sai Pavan Kumar Chebolu"}],corrections:null},{id:"71183",title:"Catalytic Activity of Iron N-Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90640",slug:"catalytic-activity-of-iron-n-heterocyclic-carbene-complexes",totalDownloads:903,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent research towards development of more efficient as well as cost effective catalyst as a substitute to traditional precious metal catalysts has witnessed significant growth and interest. Importance has been given to catalyst based on 3d-transition metals, especially iron because of the broad availability and environmental compatibility which allows its use in various environmentally friendly catalytic processes. N-Heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands have garnered significant attention because of their unique steric and electronic properties which provide substantial scope and potential in organometallic chemistry, catalysis and materials sciences. In the context of catalytic applications, iron-NHC complexes have gained increasing interest in the past two decades and could successfully be applied as catalysts in various homogeneous reactions including C–C couplings (including biaryl cross-coupling, alkyl-alkyl cross-coupling, alkyl-aryl cross-coupling), reductions and oxidations. In addition to this, iron-NHC complexes have shown the ability to facilitate a variety of reactions including C-heteroatom bond formation reactions, hydrogenation and transfer-hydrogenation reactions, polymerization reactions, etc. In this chapter, we will discuss briefly recent advancements in the catalytic activity of iron-NHC complexes including mono-NHC, bis-NHC (bidentate), tripodal NHC and tetrapodal NHC ligands. We have chosen iron-NHC complexes because of the plethora of publications available, increasing significance, being more readily available, non-toxic and economical.",signatures:"Badri Nath Jha, Nishant Singh and Abhinav Raghuvanshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71183",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71183",authors:[{id:"262712",title:"Dr.",name:"Badri Nath",surname:"Jha",slug:"badri-nath-jha",fullName:"Badri Nath Jha"},{id:"298775",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhinav",surname:"Raghuvanshi",slug:"abhinav-raghuvanshi",fullName:"Abhinav Raghuvanshi"},{id:"314590",title:"Dr.",name:"Nishant",surname:"Singh",slug:"nishant-singh",fullName:"Nishant Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"71579",title:"Torrefaction of Sunflower Seed: Effect on Extracted Oil Quality",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90645",slug:"torrefaction-of-sunflower-seed-effect-on-extracted-oil-quality",totalDownloads:653,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this work is to study the effect of heat treatment on the lipidic profile of sunflower seed oil. It determined and compared the contents of bioactive components in seed oils extracted with n-hexane (Soxhlet method) from raw and roasted sunflower. The influence of torrefaction on fatty acid composition, triglyceride composition, and peroxide value (PV) has been studied. Thermal oxidation assays were carried out, and samples were evaluated by measuring induction time. Oleic acid was the main unsaturated fatty acid. Concerning triglyceride composition, OOL + LnOO, OOO + PoPP, POP and OOO + PoPP, OOL + LnOO, POP were the main, respectively, for raw and roasted samples. The seed oil samples extracted from the roasted sample exhibited a higher peroxide value (213.68 meq.O2/kg) than the raw sample (5.79 meq.O2/kg). The acid values were, respectively, 3.24 and 1.81 mg of KOH/g of oil for roasted and raw samples. On the other hand, induction time for raw sample was higher (16.23 h) than the roasted sample one (2.67 h).",signatures:"Jamel Mejri, Youkabed Zarrouk and Majdi Hammami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71579",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71579",authors:[{id:"315007",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jamel",surname:"Mejri",slug:"jamel-mejri",fullName:"Jamel Mejri"},{id:"315330",title:"Dr.",name:"Youkabed",surname:"Zarrouk",slug:"youkabed-zarrouk",fullName:"Youkabed Zarrouk"},{id:"315332",title:"Mr.",name:"Majdi",surname:"Hammami",slug:"majdi-hammami",fullName:"Majdi Hammami"}],corrections:null},{id:"69838",title:"Therapeutic Significance of 1,4-Dihydropyridine Compounds as Potential Anticancer Agents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89860",slug:"therapeutic-significance-of-1-4-dihydropyridine-compounds-as-potential-anticancer-agents",totalDownloads:642,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A series of 1,4-dihydropyridines have been prepared from a three-component one-pot condensation reaction of β-diketonates, an aromatic aldehyde, and ammonium acetate under microwave irradiation. The reaction is performed using crystalline nano-ZnO in ethanol under microwave irradiation (CEM discover). A wide range of functional groups was tolerated in the developed protocol. The present methodology offers several advantages such as simple procedure, greener condition, excellent yields and short reaction time. The synthesized compounds were evaluated for DNA photocleavage, SAR analysis and molecular docking studies. The compound (4b, 4c, 4 h, 4i, 4n and 4o) showed potent DNA cleavage activities compared to other derivatives. The molecular interactions of the active compounds within the binding site of B-DNA were studied through molecular docking simulations; the compound (4b, 4c, 4 h, 4i, 4n and 4o) showed good docking interaction with minimum binding energies. 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Xi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3824.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"161075",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Yongzhi",surname:"Xi",slug:"yongzhi-xi",fullName:"Yongzhi Xi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"79268",title:"Cerebrovascular Disease and Hypertension",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101180",slug:"cerebrovascular-disease-and-hypertension",body:'Systemic hypertension is one of the most common and devastating disorders affecting the human race. It is a major cause of premature death worldwide and is the risk factor with greatest impact on the global burden of disease. It is the leading modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality [1, 2].
Worldwide, an estimated 1.38 billion individuals (31.1% of the adult population) have hypertension, defined as systolic blood pressure (BP) ≥ 140 mm Hg and/or diastolic BP ≥ 90 mm Hg, and/or current use of antihypertensive medication. The age-standardized prevalence of hypertension is marginally higher in men (31.9%) than in women (30.1%) and is lower in high-income countries (HICs), as compared to low and middle-income countries (LMICs) (28.5% vs. 31.5%) [3]. According to global estimates in 2010, only 45.6% of individuals with hypertension were aware of the disease, only 36.9% were receiving treatment and only 13.8% had achieved adequate BP control (defined as systolic BP < 140 mm Hg and diastolic BP < 90 mm Hg). Also, the proportion of hypertension awareness and treatment was nearly twice and the proportion of hypertension control was four times in HICs as compared to LMICs. In the last 2 decades, HICs have shown substantial increases in the proportions of hypertension awareness, treatment and control. However, during the same period, awareness and treatment have increased only modestly in LMICs and the proportion of hypertensive patients having adequately controlled BP has decreased slightly [3].
The global prevalence of hypertension is increasing steadily as a result of aging of the population and increase in lifestyle risk factors like unhealthy diets (high sodium, low potassium intake, high intake of saturated and trans-fats and low intake of fruits and vegetables), physical inactivity, increased consumption of alcohol and tobacco, and being overweight or obese. However, the changes in the prevalence of hypertension have not been uniform worldwide. In the last two decades, a modest decline has been noted in hypertension prevalence in HICs, whereas LMICs have experienced significant increases. These trends can impose a greater burden of hypertension and related cardiovascular disorders on the fragile health-care systems of LMICs, many of which are also facing a substantial burden of infectious diseases [4].
Hypertension is often called a “silent killer”, as most hypertensives are unaware of the problem due to lack of warning symptoms or signs. Hypertension can cause sub-clinical target organ damage for years, before any symptoms or signs develop. It is the leading modifiable risk factor implicated in the causation of coronary heart disease (CHD), cerebrovascular disease, renal dysfunction, peripheral arterial disease (PAD), heart failure and atrial fibrillation. The brain is a major target for hypertension related end-organ damage and hypertension is a prominent risk factor for two major categories of brain diseases: stroke and dementia. In the following sections, we discuss the role of hypertension in causation of these diseases, along with prevention and treatment strategies.
Human brain, in general, is highly vulnerable to the harmful effects of elevated BP and it represents the classic target organ of hypertension-induced damage. Arterial hypertension, besides being responsible for its well-known effect in causing clinical stroke, is also associated with the development of asymptomatic, subclinical brain damage, such as cerebral small vessel disease with resultant cognitive impairment, memory loss and dementia. Also, sudden and marked elevations of blood pressure can lead to the development of hypertensive encephalopathy, characterized by severe headache, seizures and other neurological symptoms like cerebral edema.
Globally, stroke ranks second among the causes of mortality and third among the causes of disability. In recent decades a trend towards reduction in the incidence, prevalence and mortality of stroke has been noted, but the overall disease burden continues to rise in terms of total number of patients affected [5].
Stroke is usually categorized into ischemic and hemorrhagic forms. Ischemic stroke has further subtypes including large vessel occlusive disease, lacunar infarctions due to small vessel disease, cerebral embolism including cardioembolic stroke, non-atherogenic stroke and cryptogenic stroke. Various subtypes of hemorrhagic stroke include intra-parenchymal hemorrhage, subarachnoid hemorrhage and intraventricular hemorrhage.
Hypertension is the most prevalent risk factor for stroke and has been reported in nearly two-thirds of stroke patients [6]. In LMICs, the reported prevalence of risk factors among patients with stroke is lower, however the in-hospital mortality rates have been higher, probably related to delays in presentation, differences in healthcare system responses and acute management of stroke [7].
There is robust evidence from observational and interventional studies, implicating hypertension as a strong risk factor for all types of strokes. The Framingham heart study in 1970 showed a significant association between the risk of stroke and blood pressure ≥ 160/95 mm Hg at all ages and in both sexes [8]. Persons with a normal BP (<120/80 mm Hg) had been reported approximately half the lifetime risk of stroke compared to those with high BP (≥140/90 mm Hg) [9].
Large epidemiological studies have consistently shown the relationship between the level of BP and risk of stroke to be consistent, continuous, and independent of other risk factors. Older epidemiological studies gave more importance to the diastolic BP as a determinant of stroke risk, and consistently showed a higher risk of stroke with increasing levels of diastolic BP [10, 11]. MacMahon et al., in their meta-analysis of nine observational studies conducted between 1958 and 1990, showed that as the level of BP decreased so did the risk of stroke. A decrease in diastolic BP of 5, 7.5, and 10 mm Hg was associated with a lowering of stroke risk by 34, 46, and 56%, respectively [11]. Similarly, The Eastern Stroke and Coronary Heart Disease Collaborative Research project, showed that for every 5 mm Hg fall in the diastolic BP resulted in nearly 50% reduction in the risk of ischemic (odds ratio (OR) 0.61; 95% confidence interval 0.57–0.66) and hemorrhagic stroke (odds ratio 0.54, 95% confidence interval 0.50–0.58) [12]. Systolic BP attracted greater attention in 1990s after the results from many epidemiological studies suggested that it could have more robust association with stroke as compared to diastolic BP. Systolic BP also showed a stronger correlation with 12 year stroke mortality than the diastolic BP in Framingham heart study [13]. Similarly, the prospective population-based Copenhagen city heart study demonstrated systolic BP to be a better predictor of stroke than the diastolic BP [14]. The Asia Pacific Cohort Studies Collaboration (APCSC), an extension of the Eastern Stroke and Coronary Heart Disease Collaborative project, which analyzed 37 cohort studies of 425,325 patients in the Asia Pacific region, demonstrated a continuous, log-linear association between systolic BP and risk of stroke down to the levels of 115 mm Hg of systolic BP. In the age groups of <60, 60–69, and >70 years, a 10 mm Hg lower systolic BP was associated with 54%, 36% and 25% lower risk of stroke respectively [15]. In a meta-analysis of 61 prospective studies by the Prospective Study Collaboration (PSC), it was demonstrated that there was more than a twofold decrease in stroke mortality with each 20 mm Hg of decrease in systolic BP for patients aged 40–69 years; and throughout middle and old age, usual BP is directly and strongly related to vascular (and overall) mortality, without any evidence of a threshold down to at least 115 mm Hg of systolic BP and 75 mm Hg of diastolic BP [16].
Age is an important cofactor in the relationship between hypertension and stroke. The direct relation between elevated BP and stroke risk is weaker in older aged populations than in middle-aged individuals. The APCSC observed a lower percentage reduction in stroke risk with similar reduction in systolic BP with increasing age [15]. A similar trend was observed in the PSC study [16]. Although there is a less robust association between hypertension and stroke risk in older populations, lowering BP in this population is still beneficial owing to the higher incidence of stroke and higher morbidity/mortality rates in this population [17].
Racial and ethnic disparities in the relationship between elevated BP and stroke have been reported from several observational studies from the United States. The Baltimore-Washington Cooperative Young Stroke Study, demonstrated a positive relationship between hypertension and the risk of ischemic stroke in whites and blacks for both sexes. In this study, age-adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence interval for ischemic stroke with a history of hypertension in white males, white females, black males, and black females were 1.6 (0.7–3.2), 2.5 (1.1–5.9), 3.8 (1.8–7.9), and 4.2 (2.4–7.5), respectively [18]. Similarly, the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study showed higher odds ratios for hypertension and ischemic stroke in blacks as compared to whites and hispanics (OR 2.0 vs. 1.8, 1.2 respectively) [19]. A similar increase in systolic BP is associated with a nearly three times higher risk of stroke risk in blacks as compared to whites [20].
Although arterial hypertension is a major risk factor for both stroke and myocardial infarction, stroke is much more closely related to elevated levels of BP per se. It has been suggested that a sustained reduction in systolic blood pressure of 10 mm Hg would reduce stroke risk by 56%, but reduce the risk of myocardial infarction by only 37% [11]. This difference is largely attributed to the possibility that elevated levels of blood pressure are directly responsible for strokes occurring due to small vessel disease, but is only indirectly related to the development of atherosclerotic changes. Atherosclerosis in the arterial tree is usually focal and is usually seen at the branching points of the arteries or where arteries take a bend. It is likely that the effects of hypertension on atherosclerosis are not per se due to pressure energy, but are more likely related to the transmission of kinetic energy to the arterial wall at sites of flow disturbance, thus leading to the formation of atherosclerotic plaques at the areas of low shear stress [21].
Strokes due to small vessel disease, in contrast, are directly caused by elevated blood pressure. For this reason, these tend to occur in a particular distribution at the base of the brain, where short, straight arteries with limited branches result in direct transmission of high blood pressure directly from the large arteries to the smaller resistance vessels, with resultant damage to the walls of the arterioles. This results in the pathological changes of hyaline degeneration and fibrinoid necrosis, with consequent lacunar infarctions where the arterioles occlude and hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhages where they rupture. These pathophysiological changes account for the fact that true lacunar infarctions and intracerebral hemorrhages are particularly distributed in the areas of basal ganglia, internal capsule, thalamus, cerebellum, and brainstem [22].
Hypertension can indirectly contribute to the development of stroke as it is an important etiological factor for atrial fibrillation and for acute myocardial infarction and left ventricular clot formation; with attendant risk of cardioembolic stroke.
There are many theories related to the pathophysiological mechanisms of hypertension related brain dysfunction. Central to these theories are the mechanisms related to impaired cerebrovascular auto-regulation in hypertension and the chronic maladaptive changes in the structure of the cerebral vasculature in hypertensive patients.
Cerebrovascular autoregulation is the process by which cerebral vasculature regulates intracranial blood flow, so that a steady perfusion is maintained to meet the metabolic needs of the brain tissue across a range of systemic blood pressures. This control is achieved by the ability of the cerebral arterioles to compensate for a decrease in cerebral perfusion pressure by vasodilatation, and also, to protect the brain against increased perfusion pressure by vasoconstriction, thus keeping the cerebral blood flow constant. This complex process is regulated by interplay between sympathetic nervous system, brain carbon dioxide and other metabolites, and neurovascular coupling. In normotensive individuals, this response occurs over a range of approximately 60–160 mm Hg systolic BP; but, in patients with hypertension, this range may be shifted to higher pressures [23, 24]. This upward shift in the limits of pressure autoregulation, make hypertensive patients especially susceptible to episodes of hypotension, which plays a role in the development of white matter changes. Also, elderly hypertensive patients often have impaired cerebrovascular autoregulation which contributes to the development of stroke, cognitive dysfunction and vascular dementia. Impaired autoregulation increases the transmission of elevated pressures to cerebral capillaries resulting in increased permeability of blood brain barrier (BBB), parenchymal edema, inflammation neuronal degeneration that is commonly seen in patients with vascular cognitive dysfunction [25]. Chronic hypertension has been reported to promote arteriolar and capillary rarefaction, especially in the deep hemispherical white matter and basal ganglia [26]. This is associated with infiltration of perivascular macrophages, endothelial dysfunction, increased oxidative stress, and impaired functional hyperemia [27]. These changes promote the development of lacunar infarcts, white matter hyper-intensities, microinfarcts, and microbleeds [28].
Chronic elevation of intraluminal pressure stimulates the growth of smooth muscle cells and increases media thickness in resistance arteries, resulting in hypertrophic remodeling, thus causing an elevated vascular resistance. There may also be eutrophic remodeling, characterized by inward remodeling with rearrangement of the vessel wall components that leads to a reduction in lumen diameter and elevated vascular resistance. Hypertension may also result in narrowing of the intermediate and small vessels due to lipo-hyalinosis and micro-atherosclerosis. Also, chronically elevated BP promotes hyaline degeneration, fibrinoid degeneration and formation of microaneurysms in small vessels of the cerebral vasculature. These small vessel alterations predispose these patients to the development of ischemic and hemorrhagic complications [29].
Hypertension promotes atherosclerosis in large extracranial and intracranial arteries, which predispose to the development of atherothrombotic infarctions. The most frequent sites of atherosclerosis are common carotid artery bifurcation, origin and intra-cavernous part of internal carotid artery, first segment of middle cerebral artery, origin and distal part of vertebral artery, and middle portion of basilar artery [29]. These atherosclerotic plaques are usually progressive and lead to ischemic strokes by thrombotic occlusion of the narrowed lumen or, more often, by their acute rupture, which causes atheroembolism resulting in occlusion of distal intracranial vessels [29]. Major mechanisms of hypertension related cerebral dysfunction are summarized in Table 1.
Impairment of cerebral autoregulation |
Increased permeability of blood brain barrier |
Endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, impaired functional hyperemia |
Small vessel changes: remodeling, increased vascular resistance, lipo-hyalinosis, micro-atherosclerosis, micro aneurysms, lacunar infarcts |
Large vessel changes: atherosclerosis with atherothrombotic, atheroembolic infarctions |
Potential mechanisms of hypertension related cerebral dysfunction.
The relation between BP and stroke risk is direct, strong, linear, and etiologically predictive. Thus, within the usual BP ranges, including non-hypertensive ones, the higher levels of BP are associated with increased risk of stroke [16]. Non-hypertensive individuals with slight elevations of BP (prehypertension, defined as systolic BP of 120–139 mm Hg and/or diastolic BP of 80–89 mm Hg) derive benefit from lifestyle changes with or without pharmacological therapies. A meta-analysis with 70,664 prehypertensive individuals from 16 trials demonstrated a robust 22% reduction in the stroke risk in individuals randomized to pharmacological therapy arm as compared to the placebo arm. In hypertensive patients, lifestyle approaches combined with adequate BP treatment and control produced a 35–40% decrease in the stroke risk [30, 31].
Practical strategies for hypertension management for primary stroke prevention, on the basis of recommendations made by the American Heart Association (AHA)/American Stroke Association (ASA) [32, 33], and European Society of Cardiology (ESC)/European Society of Hypertension (ESH) [34] include:
Regular screening for hypertension and management of raised BP using lifestyle modifications and pharmacological therapies are recommended.
According to European guidelines the target BP in those with hypertension should be <140/90 mm Hg, whereas, the recent American guidelines recommend a BP goal to lower levels of <130/80 mm Hg, even in very elderly.
Successful attainment of BP goal is emphasized over the administration of a particular anti-hypertensive agent.
Individualized BP treatment is recommended, based on particular patient characteristics and tolerance to medications.
Self-monitoring of BP is recommended to help in adequate BP control.
Management of elevated BP in acute ischemic stroke (AIS) has been a matter of considerable debate. AIS is usually associated with islands of infarcted tissue with surrounding areas of potentially salvageable tissue, referred to as ischemic penumbra. Moreover, the infarcted tissue is characterized by loss of autoregulation with increased vessel permeability [35]. Hence an over aggressive approach of lowering BP can result in extension of infarction and worsening of neurological dysfunction. On the other hand, if the elevated BP is not lowered sufficiently, there is risk of excessive cerebral edema and hemorrhagic transformation of the infarcted tissue. Furthermore, as the cerebrovascular auto regulatory response is set at a higher level in chronic hypertensive patients, these individuals are at risk of impaired cerebral perfusion if BP is lowered very aggressively.
Practical strategies for management of hypertension in AIS, based on recommendations of AHA/ASA [36], and European stroke organization (ESO) [37] include:
In patients with AIS who are not eligible for systemic thrombolysis or mechanical thrombectomy and who have a BP > 220/120 mm Hg, guarded BP reduction (<15% systolic BP reduction over 24 h) is reasonable and is likely to be safe. No recommendations are made regarding the use of a specific anti-hypertensive agent to achieve this goal.
In hospitalized patients with AIS and blood pressure < 220/110 mm Hg not treated with intravenous thrombolysis or mechanical thrombectomy, there is suggestion against the routine use of blood pressure lowering agents at least in first 24 h following symptom onset, unless this is necessary for specific comorbid conditions like acute aortic dissection, acute myocardial infarction, pulmonary edema, hypertensive encephalopathy and acute renal failure.
In patients with AIS undergoing treatment with intravenous thrombolysis (with or without mechanical thrombectomy) it is suggested that BP is maintained below 185/110 mm Hg before bolus and below 180/105 mm Hg after bolus, and for 24 h after alteplase infusion.
In patients with AIS undergoing treatment with intravenous thrombolysis (with or without mechanical thrombectomy), there is suggestion against lowering systolic blood pressure to a target of 130–140 mm Hg compared to <180 mm Hg during the first 72 h following of symptom onset.
Initiating or continuing anti-hypertensive agents during hospitalization for AIS, if BP > 140/90 mm Hg: BP lowering is generally safe in AIS if patient is medically and neurologically stable, and there are no contraindications for BP lowering. The time window for administration of such therapies is usually 2–3 days after the symptom onset.
Drug options to treat hypertension in patients with AIS who are planned for emergency reperfusion therapy are shown in Table 2.
Labetalol: 10–20 mg intra-venous over 1–2 min, may be repeated once; or |
Nicardipine: 5 mg/h intra-venous, dose may be up-titrated by 2.5 mg/h in every 5–15 min to a maximum of 15 mg/h; when desired BP levels is obtained, adjust the dose to maintain proper BP levels; or |
Clevidipine: 1–2 mg/h intra-venous, up-titrate by doubling the dose in every 2–5 min until desired BP level is obtained; maximum dose 21 mg/h |
Other agents like enalaprilat, hydralazine may also be useful |
If BP is not controlled or diastolic BP > 140 mm Hg, consider intravenous nitroprusside (may increase intracranial pressure). |
Observational studies have suggested that BP is often markedly elevated in the acute phase of hemorrhagic stroke, significantly higher than that seen after AIS [38]. High levels of BP in acute hemorrhagic stroke are often associated with hematoma expansion and poor clinical outcomes [39]. Simultaneously, there have been suggestions that high BP may be necessary to maintain adequate cerebral perfusion after intracranial hemorrhage, and that aggressively lowering it may be deleterious. These concerns are however, opposed by the evidence suggesting that adequate cerebral perfusion is maintained after acute BP reduction in patients with hemorrhagic stroke [40, 41]. However, results of the two largest randomized clinical trials (INTERACT2, ATACH-2) of intensive BP lowering early after intracranial hemorrhage have renewed this uncertainty [42, 43]. Meta-analyses of these trials and many other smaller studies have shown that early intensive BP reduction after hemorrhagic stroke is safe, but without mortality benefit or significant functional improvement [44, 45, 46, 47]. In contrast, a recent meta-analysis of the two largest trials demonstrated a direct linear relation between the level of systolic BP achieved during the first 24 h of hemorrhagic stroke and the functional status. The improvements in the functional status were noted for systolic BP levels of as low as 120–130 mm Hg [48]. These studies however excluded patients with severe, large hematomas and hence caution is warranted in too aggressive lowering of BP in such patients as it might predispose to harmful consequences [49].
Practical strategies for BP control in patients with acute hemorrhagic stroke based on recent AHA/ASA [50], and ESO [37] guidelines include:
If initial systolic BP is >220 mm Hg, it is reasonable to administer continuous intravenous BP lowering therapy to achieve an initial reduction of about 15%. Choice of drugs is similar to that used in AIS (Table 2).
In patients with initial systolic BP of 150–220 mm Hg, American guidelines suggest a target goal of 140–150 mm Hg of systolic BP [50], however, the recent ESO guidelines [37] recommend even more aggressive lowering of systolic BP to less than 140 mm Hg (but to keep it above 110 mm Hg) to reduce hepatoma expansion.
Control of blood pressure variability may be helpful in improving the outcomes [51].
After hemorrhagic stroke, the optimal timing for initiation of antihypertensive therapies for secondary stroke prevention has not been well established. It may be reasonable to start such treatment when the patient is medically and neurologically stable. The target BP goal for secondary stroke prevention is <130/80 mm Hg [50].
About a quarter of strokes are recurrent, the annual risk of recurrence is nearly 4% and the mortality rate after a recurrent stroke is 41% [33, 34]. A large proportion of strokes can be prevented by adequate BP control, regular physical activity, healthy dietary habits and cessation of smoking. In fact, the INTERSTROKE study demonstrated that these 5 factors—hypertension, imbalanced diet, lack of adequate physical activity, abdominal obesity and smoking—were responsible for 82% and 90% of the population attributable risk (PAR) for ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke respectively [6]. Also, the Global Burden of Disease Study suggested that nearly 90% of the global stroke burden was attributable to the modifiable risk factors [52]. A modeling study has shown that targeting multiple modifiable risk factors of stroke has additive benefits in secondary prevention of stroke. According to this study, aspirin, anti-hypertensive therapies and statins, along with dietary modification and adequate exercise, can lead to an 80% cumulative risk reduction in the incidence of recurrent vascular events [53].
Practical strategies for BP control for secondary recent AHA/ASA guidelines [54] include:
In hypertensive patients who suffer a stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA), an office BP goal of <130/80 mm Hg is recommended for most patients to reduce the risk of recurrent stroke and vascular events.
In individuals with no history of hypertension who experience a stroke or TIA and have an average office BP of ≥130/80 mm Hg, antihypertensive drug treatment can be beneficial to decrease the risk of recurrent stroke, intracranial hemorrhage, and other vascular events.
A thiazide diuretic, angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) may be useful, however, other classes of BP lowering therapy can be used to achieve the target BP goals (e.g., calcium channel blocker, newer generation beta blocker).
Individualized drug treatments that take into account patient comorbidities, pharmacological class of the drug, and patient preferences are recommended to maximize the drug efficacy.
Dementia is characterized by a progressive and often irreversible decline of cognitive function which is most commonly seen in older adults. It is one of the most common neurological diseases, nearly affecting 30–40 million people worldwide. The number of people with dementia is estimated to triple by 2050, largely driven by the aging of the population, demographic shifts, and lack of disease-modifying therapies [55]. Alzheimer disease (AD) and cerebrovascular diseases are the major causes of cognitive dysfunction, accounting for nearly 80% of the cases and often have a mixture of both the pathologies [55]. Although the majority of dementias including AD are primarily considered as neuro-degenerative diseases of unknown cause, recent studies have shown that cerebrovascular disease and microscopic vascular lesions are often found in patients affected by these conditions [56].
The term vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) refers to the entire spectrum of cognitive abnormalities caused by vascular etiologies, whereas the term vascular dementia is used for cases with more profound vascular cognitive deficits which negatively affect the daily functioning of an individual [57].
Among the various vascular risk factors, systemic hypertension is a major factor contributing to cognitive impairment [57]. It has been been associated with decreased abstract reasoning, reduced mental processing speed, and, less commonly, memory deficits [58]. Although dementia due to AD and vascular dementia have classically been considered as separate entities, recent evidence indicates that the two conditions are frequently coexistent [59, 60]. In nearly 40–50% of cases with a clinical diagnosis of AD, the pathological hallmarks of AD (amyloid plaques and the neurofibrillary tangles), are associated with micro-cerebrovascular and macro-cerebrovascular lesions [61]. Moreover, ischemic lesions markedly elevate the effect of AD pathology on cognitive function [62, 63]. Also, traditional cardiovascular risk factors have been suggested to have a role in the development of AD [64], and some estimates suggest that risk factor modification, especially the treatment of hypertension, could decrease the incidence of clinically diagnosed AD by up-to 30% [65].
Hypertension-related cognitive dysfunction occurs as a result of complex interplay between functional alterations and structural changes seen in the brain parenchyma and the cerebral vasculature, many of which have been discussed previously in Section 2.1.2. Briefly, these changes include increased cerebrovascular resistance, reduced vasomotor reactivity, decreased cerebral blood flow, vascular remodeling, lacunar infarcts, white matter lesions, micro bleeds, enlarged perivascular spaces and cerebral atrophy [66]. These overlapping pathophysiological changes might account for the correlation between hypertension and stroke or vascular dementia. This relation may also hold true for other forms of dementia; like, for example the link between chronic hypertension and the AD has been documented, as hypertension is often associated with formation of neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques, the presence of which was seen in brains of hypertensive patients even in the absence of clinical features of dementia [67].
Hypertension is a major modifiable risk factor for cognitive dysfunction, VCI and AD. Robust clinical evidence has demonstrated that antihypertensive therapies, besides preventing major cerebrovascular events [57], also reduce the incidence and/or delay the progression of cognitive dysfunction [68, 69]. The Syst-Eur randomized clinical trial showed that, on treating 1000 hypertensive individuals with anti-hypertension therapies for 5 years, 19 cases of dementia could be prevented [70]. Similarly, the PROGRESS trial observed that therapy with a perindopril (a long-acting ACE inhibitor), and indapamide (a thiazide-like diuretic), was associated with reduced risks of cognitive dysfunction and dementia on a mean follow-up of 3.9 years [71]. Also, various clinical and experimental studies have suggested that antihypertensive drugs, including ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) and diuretics, might cause an improvement in the biomarkers of AD, and decrease the incidence of AD and/or delay its progression [72].
Interestingly, antihypertensive drug therapies might have class specific effects on cognitive function. Both ACE inhibitors and calcium channel blockers have been reported to delay the development of cognitive dysfunction [72]. However, results from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging suggested that hypertensive individuals aged ≥65 years who received treatment with calcium channel blockers had a more marked cognitive decline than those receiving other antihypertensive drugs at follow-up of 5 years [73]. These findings lend support to the hypothesis that the systemic and local renin-angiotensin systems may respond differently to different antihypertensive drugs [74]. Furthermore, calcium channel blockers may potentially cause an impairment of myogenic autoregulatory protective responses in the cerebral vasculature. Taking these factors into account, it might be suggested that ACE inhibitors and ARBs might be preferable to calcium channel antagonists for dementia prevention in hypertensive patients [75].
The subject of optimum BP targets for the prevention of dementia has generated considerable debate and controversy. In the SPRINT MIND trial, it was seen that in ambulatory hypertensive individuals, a more intensive BP control strategy (target systolic BP of <120 mm Hg as compared to a target of <140 mm Hg) was not associated with any significant cognitive benefits [76]. An important point to be considered here is that due to the adaptive rightward shift of the cerebrovascular autoregulatory curve in hypertension, too aggressive lowering of BP may result in cerebral hypoperfusion and consequential negative impact on the brain. These U-shaped associations between BP and cognitive function in the elderly individuals have been reported in many studies [77, 78]. These findings stress the importance of individualized blood pressure management strategies for prevention of cognitive dysfunction.
Hypertension is also a major contributor to the risk of stroke, which nearly doubles the risk of developing dementia. It is estimated that about one-third cases of dementia can be prevented by preventing the development of stroke [79]. Clinical studies have shown that prevention of stroke by using anticoagulation in atrial fibrillation and BP-lowering therapies in hypertensive patients can significantly decrease the risk of dementia [80]. Based on these results, the World Stroke Organization came out with a manifesto stressing the need for a joint strategy for prevention of stroke and dementia [79].
Hypertension is a major global public health problem and is the major cause of premature death worldwide. Human brain is highly vulnerable to the deleterious effects of elevated blood pressures. Hypertension related cerebrovascular diseases include stroke, cognitive dysfunction and dementia. Elevated blood pressure levels are strongly, directly and linearly related to the incidence and prevalence of these diseases. Adequate management of hypertension can go a long way in mitigating the global burden of these cerebrovascular diseases.
Elevated systemic blood pressures are associated with increased risk of cerebrovascular diseases including stroke and dementia. Good blood pressure control, which can be achieved easily in majority of the patients, is necessary for prevention of these cerebrovascular diseases.
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The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ozioma-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"76640",title:"Control of Clinical Laboratory Errors by FMEA Model",slug:"control-of-clinical-laboratory-errors-by-fmea-model",totalDownloads:1208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Patient safety is an aim for clinical applications and is a fundamental principle of healthcare and quality management. The main global health organizations have incorporated patient safety in their review of work practices. The data provided by the medical laboratories have a direct impact on patient safety and a fault in any of processes such as strategic, operational and support, could affect it. To provide appreciate and reliable data to the physicians, it is important to emphasize the need to design risk management plan in the laboratory. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an efficient technique for error detection and reduction. Technical Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) licensed a technical specification for medical laboratories suggesting FMEA as a method for prospective risk analysis of high-risk processes. FMEA model helps to identify quality failures, their effects and risks with their reduction/elimination, which depends on severity, probability and detection. Applying FMEA in clinical approaches can lead to a significant reduction of the risk priority number (RPN).",book:{id:"9808",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety - Volume 1"},signatures:"Hoda Sabati, Amin Mohsenzadeh and Nooshin Khelghati",authors:[{id:"340486",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hoda",middleName:null,surname:"Sabati",slug:"hoda-sabati",fullName:"Hoda Sabati"},{id:"348872",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohsenzadeh",slug:"amin-mohsenzadeh",fullName:"Amin Mohsenzadeh"},{id:"348874",title:"MSc.",name:"Nooshin",middleName:null,surname:"Khelghati",slug:"nooshin-khelghati",fullName:"Nooshin Khelghati"}]},{id:"65467",title:"Anesthesia Management for Large-Volume Liposuction",slug:"anesthesia-management-for-large-volume-liposuction",totalDownloads:6165,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The apparent easiness with which liposuction is performed favors that patients, young surgeons, and anesthesiologists without experience in this field ignore the many events that occur during this procedure. Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"30178",title:"Chest Mobilization Techniques for Improving Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Chronic Lung Disease",slug:"chest-mobilization-techniques-for-improving-ventilation-and-gas-exchange-in-chronic-lung-disease",totalDownloads:31221,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"648",slug:"chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-current-concepts-and-practice",title:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - Current Concepts and Practice"},signatures:"Donrawee Leelarungrayub",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub"}]},{id:"46082",title:"Fecal Incontinence",slug:"fecal-incontinence",totalDownloads:3838,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3835",slug:"fecal-incontinence-causes-management-and-outcome",title:"Fecal Incontinence",fullTitle:"Fecal Incontinence - Causes, Management and Outcome"},signatures:"Arzu Ilce",authors:[{id:"30672",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzu",middleName:null,surname:"Ilce",slug:"arzu-ilce",fullName:"Arzu Ilce"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"16",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82987",title:"Health of Trans People in Paraguay",slug:"health-of-trans-people-in-paraguay",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106488",abstract:"Trans care is not taught in conventional medical education programs, and very few doctors have the knowledge and comfort level to do so. A theoretical design study was carried out using the bibliographic review method, which allowed to provide a systematic framework of products in terms of scientific publications and official publications on the health of transgender people. In the Paraguayan context, it is recognized that sex work is the main economic activity of 86% of trans people, which although it is a job that is not punished in Paraguay, but neither is it recognized or regulated by law, although in Paraguay, numerous international instruments for the protection of human rights have been ratified, by which it is obliged to adopt measures to guarantee the sexual and reproductive health of all people and nondiscrimination based on sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity.",book:{id:"11228",title:"Transgender Health: Advances and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11228.jpg"},signatures:"Carlos Miguel Rios-González"},{id:"82989",title:"Human Sperm Vitrification: Review of Recent Progress",slug:"human-sperm-vitrification-review-of-recent-progress",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106267",abstract:"Sperm vitrification has been used in the field of assisted reproductive technology (ART) for years and has resulted in many healthy live births. Compared to the conventional sperm slow freezing method, vitrification is simpler, quicker, and less expensive, and some vitrification methods are also cryoprotectant free, which has the potential to become an alternative cryopreservation method for human sperm. Human sperm vitrification has been the most commonly used and valuable way to preserve the fertility of males with small numbers of spermatozoa. Recently, new sperm vitrification devices have been developed to help improve volume control. Direct contact during the vitrification process with liquid nitrogen increases the risk of cross-contamination. New strategies have been implemented to minimize the contamination risk. Depending on the variety of semen parameters and patients’ purposes at ART clinics, specific sperm cryopreservation approaches should be personalized to achieve the optimal results for each case.",book:{id:"11735",title:"Embryology Update",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11735.jpg"},signatures:"Feng Gao"},{id:"82976",title:"Mesothelioma: Overview of Technical, Immunochemical and Pathomorphological Diagnosing Aspects",slug:"mesothelioma-overview-of-technical-immunochemical-and-pathomorphological-diagnosing-aspects",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106570",abstract:"For the clinicians with non-pathology background, first encountering the patients with pleural or peritoneal effusions, mesothelioma is only one statistically rare but clinically significant option of many differential diagnoses. This review aims to help the clinicians and broad life science audiences to understand step by step the possibilities and shortcomings of pathological diagnosing of mesothelioma, including the basic technical requirements. The first cytomorphology evaluation of pleural and peritoneal effusions in routinely stained smears enables in most cases only to identify cells suspicious for malignancy. The recent guidelines of epithelioid mesothelioma cytologic diagnosis and reporting emphasize immunochemistry (IC) in the cell blocks is mandatory whenever a diagnosis of malignancy is clinically entertained and/or cytologically suspected. The IC workup is challenging, since there is no fixed antibody panel, but multiple questions must be solved, such as 1) confirm the mesothelial or epithelial origin of isolated atypical cells and cell clusters; 2) delineate their benign or malignant nature; and 3) discriminate mesothelioma from other malignancies and metastatic disease. The rationale of the most widely clinically used IC markers is given and illustrated by the examples. The final confirmation of mesothelioma diagnosis and establishing its subtype and grade is possible only in the histological samples.",book:{id:"10831",title:"Mesothelioma - Diagnostics, Treatment and Basic Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10831.jpg"},signatures:"Ave Minajeva and Diana Saranova"},{id:"82974",title:"Canine Glioma as a Model for Human Glioblastoma",slug:"canine-glioma-as-a-model-for-human-glioblastoma",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106464",abstract:"Glioblastoma, a high-grade diffuse glioma, carries a poor clinical prognosis despite decades of extensive research on the genetic and molecular features of disease and investigation of experimental therapeutics. Because spontaneous canine glioma and human glioblastoma share many clinicopathologic characteristics, recent efforts have focused on utilizing companion dogs as a preclinical model for both research and therapeutic development. A detailed investigation of the canine disease, with particular attention to the genetic and molecular profile, is important in order to allow translation of specific clinical findings from canines to humans and vice versa. In this chapter, we investigate the most common genetic, molecular, and epigenetic alterations associated with canine and human glioma. Appropriate implementation of the canine glioma model may provide valuable information to improve both human and veterinary patient care.",book:{id:"11597",title:"Glioblastoma - Current Evidences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11597.jpg"},signatures:"Nicole M. Yost and James M. Angelastro"},{id:"82980",title:"Minimally Invasive Microneedle: A Novel Approach for Drug Delivery System and Infected Wound Care Management",slug:"minimally-invasive-microneedle-a-novel-approach-for-drug-delivery-system-and-infected-wound-care-man",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105771",abstract:"Chronic wound healing has become an area of fundamental research. Wound healing for a diabetic patient is one of the significant challenges in the biomedical field. Diabetes is a globally challenging disease that has affected around 400 million people. Many therapeutic factors are introduced to treat chronic wounds, with minimal success due to difficulty in delivery of the drug to the wound location. Microneedle patches are considered an efficient medical treatment procedure to address wound healing problems. The wound healing is accelerated, and the bacterial infection is inhibited by the devices based on microneedle with the loaded active drugs (including hemostatic drugs, bacterial drugs, and anti-inflammatory drugs). The wound healing process is generally divided into three steps: inflammation, proliferation, and tissue remodeling. This chapter will discuss the significant challenges and the advantages of microneedle applications in chronic wound healing.",book:{id:"11723",title:"Wound Healing - Recent Advances and Future Opportunities",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11723.jpg"},signatures:"Bidhan Pramanick and Aishwarya G. Patil"},{id:"82952",title:"Interferon and HPA Axis: Impact on Neuroimmunological Perturbations",slug:"interferon-and-hpa-axis-impact-on-neuroimmunological-perturbations",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106090",abstract:"The interplay between the central nervous system (CNS) and the enteric nervous system (ENS) constitutes the gut-brain axis. This represents a dynamic and bidirectional network of signaling pathways involving the vagus nerve, the immune system, and the molecules released by various microorganisms thriving in our gut. Since humans and bacteria have evolved together and learned to live together in a symbiotic relationship, which is decisive for physio/immune homeostasis of the body. Disruption in this (also known as dysbiosis) is associated with various pathological consequences including several neurological disorders. Out of several pathways that are associated with neurological manifestation, the inflammasome pathway is associated with the progression of multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s, and Parkinson’s disease, depression, schizophrenia, and autism. A growing body of evidence now suggests a reciprocal influence of microbiota and inflammasome activation in the brain. In this chapter, we discuss the cross talk between human gut microbiota and the key immunological signaling processes and their role in CNS development and neurological diseases.",book:{id:"11275",title:"Interferon - Immune Metabolism",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11275.jpg"},signatures:"Apoorv Sharma, Abhishek K. 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\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"87",title:"Economics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 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He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"28",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",keywords:"Animal Reproduction, Artificial Insemination, Embryos, Cryopreservation, Conservation, Breeding, Epigenetics",scope:"The advances of knowledge on animal reproductive biology and technologies revolutionized livestock production. Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. 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Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",annualVolume:11419,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",annualVolume:11420,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"220565",title:"Dr.",name:"Jucheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Jucheng Yang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220565/images/5988_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tianjin University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"29299",title:"Prof.",name:"Serestina",middleName:null,surname:"Viriri",fullName:"Serestina Viriri",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOalQAG/Profile_Picture_1620817405517",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of KwaZulu-Natal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315933",title:"Dr.",name:"Yalın",middleName:null,surname:"Baştanlar",fullName:"Yalın Baştanlar",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002qpr7hQAA/Profile_Picture_1621430127547",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",annualVolume:11421,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111683/images/system/111683.jpg",institutionString:"De La Salle University",institution:{name:"De La Salle University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Philippines"}}},{id:"106873",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongwei",middleName:null,surname:"Ge",fullName:"Hongwei Ge",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"171056",title:"Dr.",name:"Sotirios",middleName:null,surname:"Goudos",fullName:"Sotirios Goudos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9IuQAK/Profile_Picture_1622623673666",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"15895",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Kuremoto",fullName:"Takashi Kuremoto",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLrqQAG/Profile_Picture_1625656196038",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"125844",title:"Prof.",name:"Wellington",middleName:"Pinheiro Dos",surname:"Santos",fullName:"Wellington Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125844/images/4878_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",annualVolume:11422,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. David",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",fullName:"W. David Pan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEI9QAO/Profile_Picture_1623656213532",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alabama in Huntsville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72920/images/system/72920.jpeg",institutionString:"Dalarna University, Faculty of Data and Information Sciences",institution:{name:"Dalarna University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}]},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",annualVolume:11423,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/46294",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"46294"},fullPath:"/chapters/46294",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()