\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7973",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Treatment of Cleft Lip and Palate",title:"Current Treatment of Cleft Lip and Palate",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Non-syndromic cleft lip and palate patients have the most common congenital anomalies that affect the middle and lower part of the face, and which impair aesthetic integrity. These anomalies also affect basic functions such as hearing, speaking, chewing, and breathing. Treatment of patients with cleft lip and palate requires multidisciplinary teamwork. The cleft child should be followed and treated by a team of experts from different disciplines who work well together. Although cleft surgery, orthodontic treatment, and speech therapy are the main disciplines, each of the other branches (maxilla-facial-surgeon, otolaryngologist, speech therapist, pediatric dentist, psychologist, nurse etc.) are also very important. In this book, we wanted to present the reader with the experiences and knowledge of some of these disciplines. This book also includes information on the quality of life of children with this anomaly and anesthesia evaluation, which is very important for the cleft surgery.",isbn:"978-1-83880-014-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-013-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-480-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77803",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"current-treatment-of-cleft-lip-and-palate",numberOfPages:110,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1ea8bb8925e069ffefa169997727a53f",bookSignature:"Ayşe Gülşen",publishedDate:"March 25th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7973.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5228,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 19th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 4th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 3rd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 21st 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1149",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"68449",title:"Dental Development and Anomalies in Cleft Lip and Palate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88310",slug:"dental-development-and-anomalies-in-cleft-lip-and-palate",totalDownloads:941,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cleft lip and/or palate is a birth defect with heterogeneous clinical presentations. Prevalence and cleft-types differ by gender, ethnic groups and geographic locations. Published literature indicates high frequencies of cleft-associated dental anomalies, commonly variations in tooth-number, shape and size. Delayed dental development is also reported with catch-up growth at a later age. In the unilateral cleft phenotype, delayed development can occur on the cleft-side of the maxilla. Dental anomalies present frequently in the spectrum of cleft defects. Heterogeneity of defects is wide-ranging and may represent different aetiological origins of cleft phenotypes and sub-types due to: genetic mutations with altered ectomesenchymal growth; iatrogenesis from disrupted blood supply during early postnatal surgery; and maldevelopment or mistimed development. Orofacial clefting and odontogenesis may share critical pathways.",signatures:"Elaine Li Yen Tan and Mimi Yow",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68449",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68449",authors:[{id:"300481",title:"Dr.",name:"Elaine",surname:"Tan",slug:"elaine-tan",fullName:"Elaine Tan"},{id:"301298",title:"Prof.",name:"Mimi",surname:"Yow",slug:"mimi-yow",fullName:"Mimi Yow"}],corrections:null},{id:"69989",title:"Orthodontic Management of Cleft Lip and Palate Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90076",slug:"orthodontic-management-of-cleft-lip-and-palate-patients",totalDownloads:1255,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Patients with a cleft palate and or lip often require complex long-term orthodontic treatment, often in combination with a number of other specialists including maxillofacial surgery in order to produce a good facial appearance, with an esthetic, functional and stable occlusion. This chapter will specifically introduce the role of the orthodontic consultant in the management of the cleft lip and palate patient at multiple stages of their dental development and growth. The orthodontic burden of care for these patients is high and the duration of treatment will depend on the diagnosis and pattern of jaw growth and need for orthognathic surgery.",signatures:"Geetanjali Sharma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69989",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69989",authors:[{id:"305902",title:"Dr.",name:"Geetanjali",surname:"Sharma",slug:"geetanjali-sharma",fullName:"Geetanjali Sharma"}],corrections:null},{id:"70155",title:"Optimizing Outcomes in Cleft Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89882",slug:"optimizing-outcomes-in-cleft-surgery",totalDownloads:766,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Children born with cleft lip and palate in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) have limited access to surgical care and suffer substantial morbidity as a result of delayed treatment. Charitable organizations have sought to tackle this problem through high-volume surgical missions, but these efforts have been fraught with high rates of complications and variable esthetic results. Over the past decade, Operation Smile (OS) has placed considerable emphasis on improving the quality of care delivered to patients in LMICs. By establishing an outcome evaluation program among other interventions, OS has achieved measurable improvements in complication rates and post-operative follow-up. The founding of the Guwahati Comprehensive Cleft Care Center in India has been pivotal to the success of OS’s work in this field and is the evidence of the impact that an optimized model of care delivery can make. Here we describe OS’s efforts to improve the quality of care delivered to patients in LMICs with a focus on the organization’s work in India.",signatures:"Eugene Park, Gaurav Deshpande, Bjorn Schonmeyr, Carolina Restrepo and Alex Campbell",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70155",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70155",authors:[{id:"300004",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugene",surname:"Park",slug:"eugene-park",fullName:"Eugene Park"},{id:"301140",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Campbell",slug:"alex-campbell",fullName:"Alex Campbell"},{id:"310251",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaurav",surname:"Deshpande",slug:"gaurav-deshpande",fullName:"Gaurav Deshpande"},{id:"310252",title:"Dr.",name:"Bjorn",surname:"Schonmeyr",slug:"bjorn-schonmeyr",fullName:"Bjorn Schonmeyr"},{id:"310253",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Restrepo",slug:"carolina-restrepo",fullName:"Carolina Restrepo"}],corrections:null},{id:"70294",title:"Anesthesia Considerations in the Perioperative of Patients with Lip and Palate Length",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89953",slug:"anesthesia-considerations-in-the-perioperative-of-patients-with-lip-and-palate-length",totalDownloads:692,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There is a high risk of adverse events during anesthetic management in the pediatric population mainly in children under 1 year of age and with greater vulnerability: those undergoing head and neck surgery for involving airway, specifically patients who enter surgical correction of the lip and cleft palate. This pathology can be related in a high percentage to isolated malformations without integrating a specific syndrome or be part of the more than 500 associated craniofacial syndromes such as sequence Pierre Robin, Treacher Collins, and Goldenhar, among others; it is also associated in up to 10% with some heart disease. Factors that are determinants for anesthetic management have been identified in corrective surgery of the lip and cleft palate related to the patient’s characteristics such as age and weight, his medical history or associated comorbidities, and the surgical technique. As it is the pathology with the highest incidence in facial malformations that requires surgical treatment, it is necessary to know the anesthetic management alternatives and establish criteria in the different stages of the perioperative period from preanesthetic assessment to postanesthetic care, in order to provide planned approach within the highest safety standards that reduce the risk of adverse events.",signatures:"Silvia Peña, Claudia Paulina Reyes, Andres Felipe Beltran and Ofelia Ham",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70294",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70294",authors:[{id:"241227",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Pena-Olvera",slug:"silvia-pena-olvera",fullName:"Silvia Pena-Olvera"}],corrections:null},{id:"69846",title:"Orthognathic Surgery in Cleft Lip and Palate Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89556",slug:"orthognathic-surgery-in-cleft-lip-and-palate-patients",totalDownloads:904,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cleft lip and palate patients often exhibit severe dentofacial deformities that necessitate orthognathic surgery. Orthognathic surgery in these patients generally includes not only maxillary advancement, but also sagittal, horizontal, and vertical movement of both jaws. Surgical planning and execution presents many difficulties, caused by the presence of extensive scar tissues from previous surgeries, tissue deficiencies, the difficulty of aligning multiple segments of bone and soft tissues. Other challenges in cleft patients are complications related to post-surgical airway, speech, velopharyngeal insufficiency, nerve damage, and infections. This review is focused on orthognathic surgery in cleft lip and palate patients, management, techniques, success, and complications.",signatures:"Hakan Yilmaz and Arzu Ari Demirkaya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69846",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69846",authors:[{id:"306192",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hakan",surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"hakan-yilmaz",fullName:"Hakan Yilmaz"},{id:"306194",title:"Prof.",name:"Arzu",surname:"Ari Demirkaya",slug:"arzu-ari-demirkaya",fullName:"Arzu Ari Demirkaya"}],corrections:null},{id:"71216",title:"Quality of Life in Adolescents with Cleft Lip and Palate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91348",slug:"quality-of-life-in-adolescents-with-cleft-lip-and-palate",totalDownloads:672,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The cleft lip and palate (CLP) is the second most common congenital anomaly in the world; therefore, understanding the quality of life in children and adolescents with this malformation is extremely important. The study of the quality of life in this population is based on how the patient feels about his condition and how it affects his general well-being depending on the problems he may encounter concerning bone growth, phonation, speaking, facial appearance, and social relationship. As part of a descriptive survey, the aim was to assess and study the quality of life of patients with labio-palatal clefts operated and undergoing medical management, as well as the quality of life perceived by their parents to evaluate the family impact of this dysmorphia. According to the studies, teenagers had the lowest quality of life rates in the items: physical appearance and self-esteem, so the psychological support for patients and their families with multidisciplinary treatment that meets standards, are the keys to improving the quality of life of this category of patients.",signatures:"Latifa Elmouden, Fatima Zahra Elgasmi and Lahcen Ousehal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71216",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71216",authors:[{id:"306236",title:"Dr.",name:"Latifa",surname:"El Mouden",slug:"latifa-el-mouden",fullName:"Latifa El Mouden"},{id:"316369",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatima Zahra",surname:"Elgasmi",slug:"fatima-zahra-elgasmi",fullName:"Fatima Zahra Elgasmi"},{id:"316371",title:"Prof.",name:"Lahcen",surname:"Ousehal",slug:"lahcen-ousehal",fullName:"Lahcen Ousehal"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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Decontamination is a fundamental requirement for research facilities where pathogen elimination is critical, and laboratory facility managers routinely employ various methods of fumigation or fogging disinfection in the never-ending battle against contamination. Historically, technologies such as chlorine dioxide and formaldehyde gas systems have been applied in these areas for pathogen disinfection. Likewise, high concentration vaporized hydrogen peroxide has also been relied on to achieve similar outcomes. A large percentage of these methods follow a familiar pattern of solution injection, dwell (contact time), evacuation, and validation; however, not every system delivers the same functionality or efficacy. Differences in formula and design influence personnel hours, material compatibility, and risk management.
While effective, these high concentration solutions come with inherent risks to health and safety. A recent innovation significantly lowers the risk of exposure to high-concentration chemicals— an HHP™ system which combines a 7% hydrogen peroxide solution with a calibrated fogging device to deliver a mixture of gaseous and micro aerosolized particles. Studies performed with this technology demonstrate high level pathogen disinfection across a variety of tested viruses, bacteria, and substrates. This chapter will provide readers with a deeper understanding of essential components and considerations when implementing systems for viral decontamination. This chapter introduces the latest evolution in hydrogen peroxide disinfection of viral pathogens to address these challenges: an HHP system using patented Pulse™ technology.
A dichotomy of virology work is the need for both viral presence within the confines of research and the equally consistent need to establish pathogen-free research spaces. Throughout the world, contagious disease through viral contamination is an ever-present concern, and SARS-CoV-2 has brought the need to decontaminate to the forefront of virtually every industry. Scientific industries performing research, manufacturing pharmaceuticals, or providing healthcare services, all employ protocols for the disinfection of their environments in order for safe, successful, timely work to take place. These industries depend upon disinfection chemicals, and perhaps just as importantly the chemical delivery systems, that ensure the integrity of their work, personnel safety, and efficient transition from one research project or product type to the next.
Today, a number of distinct categories are used to classify and understand disinfection methods. Disinfection chemicals are tested with established protocols and classified according to their relative success at eliminating specific pathogens. The
Decontamination | The use of physical and/or chemical means to remove, inactivate, or destroy microbial pathogens (e.g., bloodborne or aerosolized) on a surface or item to the point where they are no longer capable of transmitting infectious particles and the item or surface is rendered safe to handle: however, this definition has been broadened by infection control specialists to include all pathogens and physical spaces (e.g., patient rooms, laboratories, buildings). |
Disinfectant | A substance, or mixture of substances, that destroys or irreversibly inactivates bacteria, fungi, and viruses, but not necessarily bacterial spores or prions, in the inanimate environment. |
Disinfection | A process that destroys pathogens and other microorganisms, except prions, by physical or chemical means. |
High-Level Disinfection | A lethaI process utilizing a sterilant under less than sterilizing conditions (e.g., 10–30 min contact time instead of 6–10 h needed for sterilization). The process kills all forms of microbiaI life except for large numbers of bacterial spores. |
lnactivation | A procedure to render a pathogen non-viable, viral nucleic acid sequences non-infectious, or a toxin non-toxic whiIe retaining characteristic(s) of interest for future use. Methods targeting tropism may be host-specific. |
Sterilization | A physical or chemical process that kills or inactivates all microbial life forms including highly resistant bacterial spores. |
Sterilant | A substance or mixture of substances that destroys or eliminates all forms of microbial life in the inanimate environment including all forms of vegetative bacteria, bacterial spores, fungi, fungal spores, and viruses. |
Validation | Establishment of the performance characteristics of a method and provision of objective evidence that the performance requirements for a specified intended use are fulfilled. |
Aerosol | Particulate matter, solid or liquid, larger than a molecule but small enough to remain suspended in the atmosphere [4]. |
Gas | A substance or matter in a state in which it will expand freely to fill the whole of a container, having no fixed shape (unlike a solid) and no fixed volume (unlike a liquid) [5]. |
Hybrid H2O2 | A mixture of gaseous and micro aerosolized substance which remain suspended in the air to fill the whole container [6] |
Vapor | A substance diffused or suspended in the air, especially one normally Iiquid or solid [7]. |
One growing understanding is that the application method of a disinfectant plays a critical role in the success of the disinfection results. While some of the most common spray and wipe surface disinfectants have been in use for decades, there are challenges to their application which can result in inconsistent or ineffective results. Adequate distribution and required contact time are difficult to achieve on a consistent basis by hand application methods, especially in large spaces with high ceilings and complex surface profiles. These accessibility issues and failures may result in inconsistent and incomplete elimination of surface contamination [13]. To address inherent inconsistencies in manual disinfection and to provide alternative methods of delivery, various technologies have been applied. Those technologies include fumigation with formaldehyde, chlorine dioxide gas, fogging of hydrogen peroxide as vapor, silver hydrogen peroxide systems, and hybrid hydrogen peroxide systems. Their gaseous and vaporous form allows access to, and contact with, surfaces that spray and wipe methods alone often cannot access. Automated systems have taken these chemicals with known disinfectant action and paired them with dispersion devices, aiming to deliver an appropriate contact time and maximize surface exposure. These systems automate much of the disinfection process, helping to remove human error and mitigate safety concerns from contact with potentially caustic chemicals. In particular, H2O2-based systems have become a front-runner among automated high-level disinfection technologies due to H2O2’s effectiveness, material compatibilities, lack of chemical residues, and increased safety over other technologies such as formaldehyde or chlorine dioxide gas [14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. When applied in multiple life science environments, H2O2 fogging is well documented to have efficacy against numerous viral pathogens and has seen a rise in use in environments where thorough efficacy and decontamination of a room and its contents are needed [19, 20, 21, 22].
Anyone who has skinned their knee and poured hydrogen peroxide on the wound to stave off infection is familiar with the use of H2O2 as an antiseptic and anti-bacterial agent. Indeed, hydrogen peroxide is produced naturally in the body, acting as a beacon triggering the accumulation of white blood cells of the immune response [23]. Hydrogen Peroxide was first discovered in 1818 by Louis Jacque Theénard, who described it as ‘eau oxygénéé or water oxygen for its composition containing one more oxygen atom than water [24]. This single oxygen–oxygen or peroxide bond is naturally unstable and prone to decomposition with or without the presence of a catalyst [25]. During decomposition, the active oxygen atom cleaves off, releasing energy and resulting in water and oxygen molecules [26]. The oxidizing activity, resulting from the presence of the extra oxygen atom, is what makes hydrogen peroxide an effective disinfectant. It is the reactive formulation of hydrogen peroxide which causes destruction of pathogens by breaking apart structures, interrupting key functions, causing damage to DNA, and eliminating infectious particles.
One of the biggest challenges to any disinfectant application is ensuring a thorough and consistent disinfectant exposure to contaminated surfaces for an effective contact time. To achieve success, fogging technologies must perform a complicated dance between the amount of chemical injected, temperature, humidity, dew point, and method, all of which can affect efficacy from one application to the next. To answer this need, CURIS System designed and patented the concept of replenishing any naturally decomposing solution and called it Pulse technology, simplifying the complicated balance of a successful disinfection. Combining a 7% hydrogen peroxide solution with a calibrated fogging device, this HHP system delivers hybrid hydrogen peroxide, a mixture of gaseous and micro aerosol particles. While effective in a liquid solution, fogging with hydrogen peroxide in this hybrid form increases the availability of each H2O2 molecule, maximizing oxidation opportunities and leading to the destruction of pathogens on surfaces. Beyond just inactivating pathogens, this oxidation causes a physical destructive action of pathogen components, which further delineates this substance as a decontaminant as defined by the BMBL.
A fundamental distinction of this system is its ability to disperse a lower concentration of 7% hydrogen peroxide at calibrated intervals, maximizing contact time while using less H2O2 to achieve microbicidal efficacy. The HHP device operates by delivering the HHP mixture in a two-part process. First, it fills an enclosure with disinfecting fog to an optimal level for killing pathogens. Second, it maintains the fog at the optimal level without oversaturation by periodically injecting more solution into the space being treated, and thereby prolonging the active contact time of the H2O2 (Figure 1). This not only helps to keep surfaces dry, it also reduces sensitivity to variations in temperature and other factors. One might consider this similar to cruise control in a vehicle—the initial phase continuously revs the engine to get the vehicle up to speed, while the second phase uses the engine just enough to keep it at the cruising speed without exceeding the limit. In the case of disinfection, it means keeping the fog concentration at the optimum “kill” level to achieve efficacy in a relatively short time, yet without exceeding this optimum level to the point where the fog condenses on surfaces in the treatment area.
With a concentration of 7% H2O2, the solution, known as CURoxide™, is below the 8% hazard threshold [27, 28]. Being below the threshold means special shipping considerations are not required. Moreover, this enables safer handling for personnel than the 35–59% H2O2 solutions traditionally employed for fogging applications [18, 29, 30, 31]. Likewise, the 7% solution is safer for laboratory materials than the 28.1–52% concentration of corrosive industrial strength grade hydrogen peroxide [27, 32]. This material safety (compatibility) is perhaps most evident when considering how the hydrogen peroxide concentration of a solution will evolve when the solution transitions through states of matter. Hydrogen peroxide is more resistant to leaving the liquid state and more likely to return to it than the water in the solution. When transitioning from vapor back into liquid, this can result in surface condensation at more than double the initial liquid concentration (Figure 2). At 7% H2O2, the HHP solution remains below the 45% known level of material incompatibility [33].
The levels of particle concentration used in typical high-level disinfection are of particular concern to facility managers. These concerns may be lessened by employing lower particle-producing products. Technologies utilizing formaldehyde, chlorine dioxide, and high concentration H2O2 operate at concentrations as high as 1,400 parts per million (ppm) [34, 35, 36]. By contrast, the HHP 7% solution has a lower operating concentration of approximately 138 ppm [37]. Traditional vaporized approaches require a concentration that is up to 10× higher than the lower 7% H2O2 concentration enables, which accordingly may result in a greater risk to personnel from leakage with typical high concentration systems [38]. This is particularly important because, according to the National Library of Medicine, “Inhalation of vapors from concentrated (greater than 10%) solutions may result in severe pulmonary irritation” [39]. This may be why there is a substantial safety concern among facility managers when it comes to typical fogging approaches, as these approaches utilize caustic chemicals at very high concentrations which are known to penetrate through gaps as small as a keyhole [38, 40].
Roughly the size of a small suitcase, the 36-pound (16 kg) HHP system fogs enclosures from an adjustable stainless-steel nozzle at the top of the unit. It can be wheeled or carried throughout a facility to disinfect a wide variety of spaces, large or small, and its Rotomold design provides durability for long-term use and sturdiness during transport. A push-button design allows users to input area dimensions through the device’s manual digital interface, or users may operate the device remotely via a tablet for touchless disinfection from outside the treatment space. The system self-calculates the cubic footage of the space to be fogged to determine the amount of disinfectant needed, and an indicator light shows users when the appropriate amount of solution has been added to the reservoir. An electronically sequenced A/C electrical outlet provides optional connection for any desired additional equipment.
In a world where everything is documented to defend, reinforce, train, and track information, technologies with the ability to employ these methods are invaluable to present and future decontamination applications. The HHP system incorporates patented smart technology, allowing operation not only from a device interface but also remotely through its control app for phones and tablets (Figure 3). For larger spaces, multiple devices may simultaneously work together via wireless communication to combine their capacities to fill the larger volume without the added complications of cables. Whether used alone or in a network, the fogging device(s) self-calculates the dosage required for a space once dimensions are provided. For each disinfection cycle, a job report is wirelessly generated and saved into a secure data system, providing the facility with trackable records in support of risk management protocols. On-demand training, reference materials, and technical support are also available through this secure data storage system, which includes security codes, usernames, and password protection against unauthorized operation and modifications. These smart technology components give laboratory personnel the ability to remotely operate and monitor the system, lessening concerns affiliated with exposure to high concentrations of H2O2.
The HHP device offers the ability to decontaminate enclosed spaces as large as 14,000 ft3 (396 m3) by itself or wirelessly pair up to 25 devices together to treat spaces as large as 350,000 ft3 (9,911 m3) at once. Although the EPA approvals are for 3,682 ft3 (103 m3) due to the size limitation of the testing laboratory, efficacy of bacterial spores are documented in much larger spaces [41]. The small, compact design also reaches tall ceilings efficaciously, as noted in studies where 6-log10 reductions of
Since many life science facilities are made up of diversely sized spaces and needs, the next generation of Pulse technology device was developed. Retaining the core fogging unit’s design, the new attachment model offers the ability to fog, hand spray, or port in, all from the same unit. This fogging model can disinfect large open spaces with a hand sprayer (with proper personal protective equipment). The device can also port into enclosed spaces, such as labs or mobile equipment, with extension nozzles, or it can connect to various enclosures found within laboratories.
To enable decontamination of small enclosures, the HHP system pairs with a mobile cart designed to attach to biological safety cabinets, isolators, incubators, filters, and filter housings (Figure 4a) [42]. This modular pairing delivers low concentration H2O2 solution to the closed system environment, extracts vapor once decontamination has been achieved, and conditions the space to return it to its normal operating environment. No disassembly of lab equipment is required. The system achieves decontamination of the entire chamber, including filters, and contents. The rolling cart weighs approximately 50 pounds (22 kg) and includes a pullout tray to house the HHP fogging device. For scalable applications, the fogging device can fog a whole laboratory or be coupled to the mobile cart as needed for smaller enclosures.
The HHP system also enables integration with a laboratory or stand-alone chamber. This modular design allows for custom installation into facilities—including integrated nozzles and touchscreen operation—to provide decontamination to these essential spaces (Figure 4b). For facilities requiring unified operation of environmental or electronic controls, the HHP system works in tandem with smart integration technology to provide remote operation, automation, and mounted disinfection for one or more enclosed spaces at a time. Decontamination chamber or washer integration includes cycles of less than 120 minutes, including aeration. This chamber integration enables users to operate the entire chamber from one common point, the display screen. It is suitable for coupling with chambers from a variety of manufacturers.
During the 2020–2021 COVID-19 pandemic, the HHP system was approved by the EPA for use against SARS-CoV-2 through the Emerging Viral Pathogen designation due to its sporicidal efficacy [37]. As a result, the HHP system was used in many different environments as a tool for mitigating risk to personnel, research, and equipment. Healthcare facilities faced with shortages of personal protective equipment (PPE) employed the system to decontaminate and safely reuse PPE until the supply could be reestablished. Life science facilities incorporated the HHP system for decontaminating manufacturing spaces where vaccine work was taking place. The HHP system was also instrumental in multiple military applications, significantly aided by the portable design and accessible use. Some prior and ongoing uses include disinfection of manufacturing facilities with a need for sterilization, sterile processing facilities, drug manufacturing facilities, vivariums, laboratory contents, laboratories with interstitial spaces, laboratory filter housings, compounding pharmacies, surgical suites, healthcare patient rooms, ambulances, equipment for service providers, biological safety cabinets, isolator filters, and gnotobiotics.
Studies performed with Pulse technology demonstrate high-level pathogen disinfection across a variety of tested viruses, bacteria, and bacterial spores. The data presented here include a mixture of peer-reviewed studies, Good Laboratory Practice (GLP)-regulated testing, and real-world applications where disinfection can be further complicated by condition-dependent factors such as biofilms, soil loads, and surface type (porous/non-porous), all of which can protect and harbor infectious pathogens [13, 43]. Across the body of this work, the target of high-level disinfection is not only to reduce the present contamination, but to reduce it sufficiently to prevent an infectious dose or the potential for colony regrowth. The work presented here demonstrates the HHP system’s ability to decontaminate, destroying microbial pathogens. This complete decontamination is critical as any surviving pathogens have the potential to interfere with or invalidate research, contaminate sterile products, and cause health hazards.
When targeting pathogens invisible to the eye, there must be some way to measure the efficacy of disinfection. Employing validation tools gives the ability to verify a disinfection process using living organisms and giving results rooted in science. Though several types of chemical and pH indicators exist, indicators of
Recognizing a disinfectant’s ability to kill less susceptible pathogens as an indicator of broader effectiveness, the EPA offers a variety of specific designations a chemical or system can claim. In 2018, the HHP system was approved for sporicidal classification by the EPA for a 6-log10 reduction of
Norovirus, a single stranded non-enveloped virus of the Caliciviridae family, is a leading cause of acute gastroenteritis in humans. The most common genogroup GII is responsible for 95% of infections, which can have severe and even fatal outcomes in at-risk populations such as young children or the elderly. Norovirus, once present, can become a pervasive problem due to the environmental stability of the virus, low infectious dose, resistance to alcohol and chlorine-based disinfectants, and the potential for prolonged asymptomatic shedding of infected individuals. Norovirus is also used as a target organism for testing, as it is considered to be a non-enveloped virus with relatively low susceptibility to disinfectants [48].
In 2018, a 1,600-bed assisted living facility had a norovirus outbreak affecting 1/4 of the residents within a 2-week period with an average of 40 new cases a day, despite protective measures such as the quarantine of afflicted individuals. A bio-decontamination company employing HHP technology was brought into the facility for outbreak response and control. HHP fogging was implemented as part of a 5-point process including continued quarantine and enhanced staff education. After a four-day implementation period, no new cases were reported, effectively ending the outbreak [49].
The HHP system was also tested under GLP conditions for efficacy against the norovirus testing surrogate feline calicivirus [20]. In this testing, 21 inoculated glass agar carrier plates were placed throughout the test room, ranging from floor level to 12 feet (3.6 m) in height, and exposed to the HHP fogging protocols. There was no recovered virus from the challenged plates for an overall reduction of 7.6 log10 (Table 1). Interestingly, efficacious results were also noted in GLP compliant testing when a carrier plate lid was accidentally left on during the HHP fogging cycle. This protocol deviation allowed for the observation that, even under these challenging conditions, the HHP fog migrated underneath the lid and achieved inactivation of viral particles [20].
HHP Efficacy | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Pathogen [reference] | Characteristics | Strain/Source | Carrier Type | Results |
Gram-positive, rod-shaped, endospore formation | 19615 | Dacron suture loop Porcelain Penicylinders (50% Tyvek/Tyvek) | 75 of 77 carriers negative 5.2 log10 reduction (Penicylinder) 6.2 log10 reduction (suture) | |
Gram-positive, rod-shaped, endospore formation | 3584 | Dacron suture loop Porcelain Penicylinders (50% Tyvek/Tyvek) | 73 of 74 carriers negative 6.1 log10 reduction (Penicylinder) 6.3 log10 reduction (suture) | |
Gram-positive, rod-shaped, endospore formation | ATCC 7953 | Tyvek/Tyvek stainless steel coupon | 206 carriers negative 6.2 log10 reduction | |
Gram-positive, rod-shaped, endospore formation | ATCC 43598 | Stainless Steel Disk | 90 carriers negative 6.6 log10 reduction | |
Enveloped, icosahedral | phi 6 | Porous N95 Mask | 36 of 37 ≥ 6.0 log10 reduction* | |
Non-enveloped, icosahedral | Unknown | Wild type | 100% reduction of cases | |
Non-enveloped, icosahedral | Strain F-9, ATCC VF-782 | Glass Petri Dish | 40 of 40 plates ≥7.58 log10 reduction | |
Enveloped, icosahedral | Strain F | Porous N95 Mask | 64 of 65 ≥ 5 log10 reduction* | |
Non-enveloped (naked), icosahedral | Strain B3 | Porous N95 Mask | 6o of 63 ≥ 4.3 log10 reduction* | |
Enveloped, no icosahedral capsid | Isolate USA-WA1/2020 | Porous N95 Mask | 48 of 48 reduced below LOD |
The combination of these two studies demonstrates that the HHP system effectively disinfects complex spaces contaminated with norovirus or its surrogates in both laboratory and real-world conditions. Though the assisted living facility case study did not measure a numerical reduction of viral burden, the effective outbreak control of 100% reduction in new cases leads to the conclusion that norovirus was reduced to levels less than the infectious dose.
In the spring/summer of 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic triggered a scarcity, and subsequent shortage of personal protective equipment (PPE) used by hospitals and other healthcare facilities. In an attempt to find ways to mitigate this emergency, researchers at Pennsylvania State University (Penn State) employed HHP to disinfect expired N95 respirators to assess the applicability of the HHP system for this use. Respirators were tested both for any physical degradation effects of the treatment on the respirator material and for efficacy of disinfection of respirator components via inoculation with three viral pathogens and one bacteriophage. Viral work performed at the Eva J Pell Biosafety Level 3 laboratory at Penn State used viruses of different characteristics, as well as a bacteriophage, to represent the range of physical characteristics of pathogens to which healthcare workers may be exposed (Table 1) [19]. Three viruses: herpes simplex virus (HSV-1; enveloped virus; family Herpesviridae), coxsackievirus (CVB3; non-enveloped virus; family Picornaviridae), and SARS-CoV-2 (isolate USA-WA1/2020; enveloped virus; family Coronaviridae), as well as pseudomonas bacteriophage (phi6; enveloped), were chosen for testing (Figure 6). The inside, outside, and strap materials of the respirators were used as inoculation sites. While the majority of these surfaces are made up of porous materials, at least one type of respirator had an outer layer of hydrophobic material which caused the inoculation droplet to dry into a ‘coffee ring’ pattern on the respirator. This testing of porous materials is significant because it presents a more difficult challenge to disinfection than non-porous surfaces, since the materials which absorb the pathogen may also provide a degree of protection, at least temporarily [51]. Disinfectant efficacy testing is commonly done on non-porous surfaces, which does not reflect the difficulty and variables that porous surfaces present.
Testing performed at Penn State also included the use of biological indicators as validation of the protocol for a successful HHP cycle. For each HHP cycle, 6 to 12 biological indicators (
The EPA and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recognize that certain microorganisms can be ranked with respect to their tolerance to chemical disinfectants [7]. As a result, efficacy against less susceptible bacterial spores can be extrapolated to indicate efficacy against more susceptible microorganisms, including enveloped and non-enveloped viruses [8, 9, 52].
To assess efficacy within various Biosafety Level 3 Agricultural (BSL-3Ag) environments, Kansas State University challenged the HHP system within their Biosecurity Research Institute, a BSL-3Ag facility. Testing was performed in three laboratories representing a range of sizes: 2,281 ft3 (65 m3), 4,668 ft3 (132 m3), and 44,212 ft3 (1,252 m3). Each of the two smaller laboratories were tested over a series of three disinfection cycles with biological indicators of
Within the largest space tested, the 44,212 ft3 (1,252 m3) necropsy laboratory, four HHP devices were used for the disinfection cycle. The smart technology of the HHP system automated the connection of multiple Pulse fogging devices for a synchronized, custom-calibrated, HHP cycle. A total of 206 biological indicators were tested over two HHP cycles in locations throughout the laboratory, including at the 21-ft (6.4 m) ceiling height, soft-sided anteroom, walk-in cooler, and change rooms. All 206 challenged indicators were negative for spore growth, demonstrating a greater than 6-log10 reduction of
The BMBL (6th edition) defines sterilization as; “a physical or chemical process that kills or inactivates all microbial life forms including highly resistant bacterial spores.” The importance of sterilization is well understood in life science, pharmaceutical, and healthcare industries. Through the process of sterilization, researchers and physicians alike establish the basis for reliable and safe protocols and procedures. Standards for fogging sterilization testing are developed by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC International), a globally recognized, third party not-for-profit, that provides education and facilitates the development of test methods and standards.
The HHP system was challenged with the Fogging Devices Sterilant Test (OCSPP 810.2100) for efficacy against
Formaldehyde is a naturally occurring compound consisting of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon which is used as a disinfectant in both its liquid and gaseous states [55]. Used as a laboratory fumigant since the late 19th century, formaldehyde has remained in use due to its efficacy and low cost [56, 57]. For use as a disinfectant, formalin, the aqueous form of formaldehyde, is heated into a vapor producing formaldehyde gas [58]. When encountering microbes, this gas causes a cross-linking of molecules leading to protein clumping and loss of structure [59]. While an effective sterilant, formaldehyde must be handled with extreme care as exposure can cause asthma-like respiratory problems, cancer, or even be fatal to humans [55]. In gaseous form, formaldehyde is used at 8,000–10,000 ppm concentration and leaves behind a residue which must be removed through manual cleaning [56, 60]. Due to the potential health hazards and the required labor-intensive clean-up of residue, formaldehyde use is declining in favor of less hazardous and faster solutions. Indeed, the European Union lists formaldehyde as a substance of very high concern and has issued regulation calling for the progressive substitution when suitable alternatives have been identified [61]. While generally compatible with laboratory materials, formaldehyde can be absorbed into porous materials such as HEPA filters, off-gassing slowly and extending the time needed for safe re-entry [56, 62]. Formaldehyde production equipment ranges from as small as an electric fry pan requiring timers or externally controlled circuits to larger automated devices roughly the size of a household refrigerator and weighing approximately 396 pounds (180 kg) [63].
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is a synthetic, green-colored gas that gives off a bleach-like odor. Despite the familiar scent, chlorine dioxide gas is toxic and must be carefully contained when employed as a fumigant [64]. Consisting of unstable chlorine (Cl2) and oxygen molecules (O2), ClO2 disassociates when heated into chloride (Cl-), chlorite (ClO-) and chlorate ions (ClO3-). Some formulations can leave residues of sodium chlorite or inert salts, such as sodium chloride, on surfaces [65]. The disinfection cycle for ClO2 commonly consists of five steps: pre-conditioning, conditioning, charge (gas injection), exposure (contact time), and aeration [66]. The cycle is humidity-dependent, requiring a dosage increase of approximately 500 ppm for each 10% change in humidity, leading to an operating concentration range of 600–1550 ppm [66]. Similar to formaldehyde, ClO2 can be absorbed into porous surfaces and thus take longer to aerate than non-porous materials [65]. One consideration for system use is material compatibility with laboratory equipment. Some device manufacturers recommend that the ClO2-generating equipment remain outside the space being disinfected to prevent repeated exposure [34]. Instable in solution, chlorine dioxide must be mixed on-site by laboratory personnel. The effectiveness of ClO2 in penetrating treated spaces may also cause concern for personnel safety, as it can migrate out of seemingly enclosed spaces [38, 40]. As a result, facilities employing ClO2 systems must carefully monitor the disinfection cycle to ensure safety [64]. Roughly the size of an office bookcase and weighing approximately 230 pounds (104 kg), one system can treat up to 70,000 ft3 (2,000 m3) which may maximize the treatment space per device compared to other systems. ClO2 can also be dispensed from smaller devices which fit into a biological safety cabinet to treat that equipment [67, 68].
High concentration H2O2 devices are roughly the size of a medium file cabinet, wheeled around facilities on four castors and can be very heavy, weighing up to 500 pounds (227 kg). They are operated via touchscreen displays and the range of treatment area is between 8,800 to 20,000 ft3 (249 to 566 m3), depending on the device. One system can connect up to 10 devices via ethernet cables linking one device to another and enabling the treatment of larger spaces. Validation of these vaporous systems is determined using chemical and biological indicators, often
High concentration vaporous H2O2 systems traditionally employ a 35–59% H2O2 liquid solution, heated to a vaporous state [29]. These chemicals must be handled with care, since human contact with the liquid or vapor can be harmful and has been known to result in second- and third-degree burns [29, 30, 31]. Once heated, these chemicals are delivered to the treatment space, where vapor concentrations can reach peak levels of up to 1,400 ppm H2O2 [36], often necessitating precise operating conditions and continuous monitoring of the treatment cycle by the operator(s). A myriad of sensors precisely measures peak concentrations and these aid in delivering a specific combination of conditions to result in efficacy. These systems can be highly complex, accompanied by user manuals nearing a hundred pages of instructions. The four-part fogging process—dehumidification, conditioning, decontamination, and aeration—may require a technician to be present during the entire cycle of several hours [34, 69]. One reason for this vigilant monitoring may be to respond quickly should the system over or under deliver the high concentrations of H2O2 required. Another reason for persistent oversight may be a valid fear of escaped H2O2 vapor, which could migrate out of the treated space at high concentrations and affect personnel [38, 40].
Chemical solutions, even within the range of H2O2 technologies, differ not only in concentration, but also in their formulation. Some available H2O2 solutions contain additional active ingredients, such as the heavy metal silver nitrate [70]. Although silver has a long history of use in wound care, it is also known to cause a permanent retention of silver once in the body [71]. Silver ions are one of the most toxic known forms of heavy metal [70]. Accidental ingestion of these invisible silver residues can cause problems for the microbiome of the human digestive system, since these metals lack the ability to differentiate beneficial bacteria from pathogenic bacteria [72]. Silver persists not only in the body, but also in the environment, where it remains toxic and can be lethal to organisms [70]. As a result of a growing understanding of these unintended negative consequences, the use of silver for disinfection is regulated by the European Union (BPR, Regulation (EU) 528/2012) which states that “It may unnecessarily expose humans, animals and the environment to biocidal active substance, generate health and/or environmental risks and impacts, and may also contribute to the development of resistance to biocides leading to other health and/or environmental issues” [73]. Likewise the EPA acknowledges the potential health hazards related to exposure to silver, and has issued cautionary documents to this effect [74]. Due to the high level of potential exposure during residue cleanup, and the resulting inhalation or dermal absorption of this heavy metal, proper protocols and control should be always employed [74]. Devices for aerosolizing H2O2 with silver vary in size from toolbox-sized fixed systems in mobile transportation to large, stand-alone portable systems. Some of these systems spray in a mist, while others use a more wet delivery method which may impede the generation of floating aerosols [75].
There are several key elements to consider when deciding on a decontamination system. An ideal anti-microbial disinfectant should have the following characteristics: (1) is destructive to the greatest variety of pathogens, including bacterial spores, bacteria, viruses, molds, and fungi; (2) minimizes risks to personnel; (3) is non-corrosive and compatible with materials under normal application conditions; (4) is easy to implement; (5) imparts no harmful residue to the laboratory space or equipment; and (6) provides affordable decontamination. When comparing various disinfection systems, consider the most pertinent aspects below:
First and foremost, it is important for the system to not only be efficacious against more susceptible organisms, but efficacious against less susceptible organisms to the degree necessary to confidently implement the system as a regular component of the research cycle. Commensurate with the definitions of disinfection and decontamination [1], disinfection inactivates pathogens, while decontamination goes to the further degree of inactivating and denaturing them. In industries where pathogen-free environments form the foundational block for successful research, only decontamination will suffice. A detail-conscious manager should not only look for a decontaminant but select one which can demonstrate proof of efficacy with both porous and non-porous surfaces, most accurately representing the array found within life science sectors. Further supporting efficacy, laboratories should be able to validate their chosen system using biological indicators in adherence to international standards [44]. In support of risk management, the system should enable validation of sterilization through a 6-log10 sporicidal reduction that can be tracked and recorded [2]. With only the most efficacious systems under consideration, facility managers should evaluate each system’s impact on personnel safety, ideal laboratory operation, equipment material compatibility, and integrity of research.
Even more important than the safety of materials is the safety of personnel, which should be a top priority when implementing a decontamination system. Safety should be considered from the perspective of normal operation as well as in the event of an accidental exposure. Under normal conditions, devices which can be operated remotely create a layer of isolation between the decontamination system and the human operator, allowing for implementation without direct contact for personnel. In the unlikely event of an accidental exposure, higher concentration solutions may come with risks for exposure to high-consequence chemicals either from contact or inhalation [39]. Choosing a product with lower operating concentrations may likewise decrease the potential for risks associated with accidental exposure caused by unintended fog leakage [38, 40]. As with most gaseous systems, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has defined a minimum reoccupation level, Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL), which must be considered: ClO2 = 0.1 ppm; H2O2 = 1 ppm; and formaldehyde = 0.75 ppm. Technologies employing lower operational ppm may reach reoccupation levels more quickly due to a lower peak threshold [15, 16, 76].
Decontamination within facilities is a recurring need, so both the physical devices as well as the chemicals or solutions used in them should be reviewed for the consequences of regular use. Devices with instructions requiring the operating machinery to remain outside of the room being disinfected may call into question the safety of exposed laboratory equipment within this space [34]. Likewise, systems with operating concentrations that can condense at levels beyond known material compatibility, such as 45% hydrogen peroxide, may also damage laboratory equipment [33].
Decision makers should critically examine the number of parts necessary for implementing a system. Multiple components may appear to create value but instead may only introduce complication and risks. Hosing laying on the floor add contamination risk in two ways: (1) hoses may impede a complete disinfection of any surfaces they touch and (2) those same hoses may contribute to cross contamination as they are moved throughout the facility. Additionally, a system with many components also comes with many opportunities to misplace or damage a critical element, potentially disrupting scheduled disinfection cycles. Quality and durability of the equipment is paramount as well.
While not strictly required, the degree of support available also contributes to the ease of use of a system. Whether creating new protocols, training personnel, or troubleshooting unique challenges, ensuring there is a commitment from the vendor to provide support can mean the difference between a quick phone call or time spent deciphering a 100-page manual.
Besides providing ease of use, the optimal disinfectant will also be free of byproducts which can leave precipitates or residues behind on the treated surfaces, or damage those surfaces [56, 65, 73, 74]. Additives such as metals are often marketed as beneficial catalysts, yet any benefit imparted can be overshadowed by what is left behind. Any disinfection system should benefit the facility by controlling contaminants, rather than introducing them to sensitive laboratory environments. It is essential for the integrity of research that no residual components be left in a space perceived sterile which can interfere with, invalidate, or otherwise impact the scientific work taking place.
As cost-cutting measures within laboratory spaces continue to be important, one way to save money is to choose a system that can readily be operated in-house by personnel who feel safe doing so. Outsourcing can be associated with significantly higher costs. Systems that are safer, scalable, trackable, easy to use, and modular can be employed for more than one application, resulting in even more cost savings.
When striving to meet strict viral disinfection requirements yet achieve balance with ease of use, timeliness, and safety requirements, facility managers should assess the disinfection needs of individual laboratory environments and the facility as a whole. Ideal disinfection systems should include technologies that have the ability to achieve validated decontamination with the lowest risk to equipment and personnel. We believe that the Hybrid Hydrogen Peroxide system introduced and discussed in detail here merits consideration as a versatile tool for viral disinfection. Pulse technology provides an unexpected efficacy with a 7% H2O2 solution equaling the best commercially available high-concentration H2O2 systems. The simplicity of one portable device with optional accessories and integration capabilities offers intriguing possibilities for reaching and decontaminating viral pathogens that may be found in the myriad of spaces within laboratory environments. Although conceived with sterilization efficacy in mind, its simplicity of use and safer operation enabled widespread adoption into multiple markets such as education and the military, with applicators ranging from entry level technicians to experienced personnel. As research continues to venture into unknown territories, awareness of potential viral threats has increased as well. Current adoption into the life sciences field is robust and underscores the value which can be added through implementing a targeted yet versatile system for facility decontamination. This chapter provides encouragement that innovations in disinfection technology, such as the HHP system, continue to keep pace with these viral threats with fact-based, science-driven results.
The authors would like to thank Jodi Woodson and Alyssa DeLotte for their invaluable contributions to this chapter.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\n\n\n\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
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\n\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
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\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
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\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
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I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). 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Fruits and vegetables can be consumed in natura, but the highest amounts are ingested after some processing methods, such as cooking procedures or sanitizing methods. These methods are directly methods are directly related to alteration on the phenolic content. In addition, the postharvest conditions may modify several phytochemical substances. Phenolic compounds are referred to as phytochemicals found in a large number of foods and beverages. The relative high diversity of these molecules produced by plants must be taken into account when methods of preparation are employed to obtain industrial or homemade products. Phenolic compounds comprise one (phenolic acids) or more (polyphenols) aromatic rings with attached hydroxyl groups in their structures. Their antioxidant capacities are related to these hydroxyl groups and phenolic rings. Despite the antioxidant activity, they have many other beneficial effects on human health. However, before attributing health benefits to these compounds, absorption, distribution, and metabolism of each phenolic compound in the body are important points that should be considered.",book:{id:"5609",slug:"phenolic-compounds-biological-activity",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Biological Activity"},signatures:"Igor Otavio Minatel, Cristine Vanz Borges, Maria Izabela Ferreira,\nHector Alonzo Gomez Gomez, Chung-Yen Oliver Chen and\nGiuseppina Pace Pereira Lima",authors:[{id:"146379",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppina",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"giuseppina-lima",fullName:"Giuseppina Lima"},{id:"194002",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristine",middleName:null,surname:"Vanz Borges",slug:"cristine-vanz-borges",fullName:"Cristine Vanz Borges"},{id:"194003",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor Otavio",middleName:null,surname:"Minatel",slug:"igor-otavio-minatel",fullName:"Igor Otavio Minatel"},{id:"194004",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"maria-izabela-ferreira",fullName:"Maria Izabela Ferreira"},{id:"194005",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Gomez",slug:"hector-gomez-gomez",fullName:"Hector Gomez-Gomez"},{id:"194006",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Yen Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chung-yen-oliver-chen",fullName:"Chung-Yen Oliver Chen"}]},{id:"45635",title:"Application of Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives in Pharmaceutical Industries",slug:"application-of-cellulose-and-cellulose-derivatives-in-pharmaceutical-industries",totalDownloads:10281,totalCrossrefCites:53,totalDimensionsCites:126,abstract:null,book:{id:"3173",slug:"cellulose-medical-pharmaceutical-and-electronic-applications",title:"Cellulose",fullTitle:"Cellulose - Medical, Pharmaceutical and Electronic Applications"},signatures:"Javad Shokri and Khosro Adibkia",authors:[{id:"140056",title:"Prof.",name:"Javad",middleName:null,surname:"Shokri",slug:"javad-shokri",fullName:"Javad Shokri"}]},{id:"57200",title:"Introductory Chapter: Principles of Green Chemistry",slug:"introductory-chapter-principles-of-green-chemistry",totalDownloads:2744,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"6067",slug:"green-chemistry",title:"Green Chemistry",fullTitle:"Green Chemistry"},signatures:"Hosam El-Din Mostafa Saleh and M. Koller",authors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"},{id:"218817",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Koller",slug:"martin-koller",fullName:"Martin Koller"}]},{id:"66517",title:"Microbial Cellulases: An Overview and Applications",slug:"microbial-cellulases-an-overview-and-applications",totalDownloads:3470,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:78,abstract:"Cellulases are a complex group of enzymes which are secreted by a broad range of microorganisms including fungi, bacteria, and actinomycetes. In the natural environment, synergistic interactions among cellulolytic microorganisms play an important role in the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic polymer materials. In fact, it is the combined action of three major enzymes which determines the efficiency of this process. They are exoglucanases, endoglucanases, and β-glucosidase. Microorganisms produce these enzymes in a diverse nature which determines their efficiency in cellulose hydrolysis. During the cellulose degradation reaction, the enzyme targets the β-1,4-linkages in its polymeric structure. This is an essential ecological process as it recycles cellulose in the biosphere. The application of this same scenario for industrial purposes is identified as an emerging area of research. Biofuel production, textile polishing and finishing, paper and pulp industry, and lifestyle agriculture are among the key areas where cellulase enzyme shows a broader potential. The objective of this chapter is to discuss the structure, function, possible applications, as well as novel biotechnological trends of cellulase enzymes. Furthermore, possible low-cost, enzymatic pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic material in order to use it as an efficient raw material for biofuel production will be discussed.",book:{id:"7363",slug:"cellulose",title:"Cellulose",fullTitle:"Cellulose"},signatures:"Sandhya Jayasekara and Renuka Ratnayake",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"85",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81067",title:"Encapsulation of Essential Oils and Their Use in Food Applications",slug:"encapsulation-of-essential-oils-and-their-use-in-food-applications",totalDownloads:50,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103147",abstract:"Due to the modern lifestyle and consumers’ interests, demands toward healthy foods and nutraceuticals were increased, among them essential oils (EOs) characterized by different biological activities. However, the use of EOs in foods and pharmaceuticals may be limited due to the hydrophobicity nature in addition to the instability and cause of degradation upon exposure to environmental conditions, e.g., oxygen, temperature, and light. Therefore, encapsulation in various colloidal systems such as microcapsules, nanospheres, nanoemulsions, liposomes, and molecular inclusion complexes, seem to be the solution for such issues. New trends in food packaging have also been focused on exploiting capsulated bioactive EOs constituents for extending foods’ shelf life due to their potent antimicrobial agents and the great activity against pathological bacteria. Micro and nanoencapsulation of EOs may affect their biological activities based on the technique used. In the current chapter, different subjects have been discussed, like techniques used for the encapsulation of EOs, potential applications in food, and their behaviors/trends after encapsulation.",book:{id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg"},signatures:"Hamdy A. Shaaban and Amr Farouk"},{id:"80959",title:"Biological Application of Essential Oils and Essential Oils Components in Terms of Antioxidant Activity and Inhibition of Cholinesterase Enzymes",slug:"biological-application-of-essential-oils-and-essential-oils-components-in-terms-of-antioxidant-activ",totalDownloads:46,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102874",abstract:"This chapter will be described oxidative stress related to modern age illness as well as biological activity of essential oils and essential oil components in terms of their antioxidant activity. The importance of essential oils and their constituents in terms of protecting lipids and proteins from oxidation will also be explained. Alzheimer’s disease as a disease related to oxidative stress and strategies in their treatment by using essential oil components as cholinesterase inhibitors will also be described. As case studies will be pointed out medicinal plants, endemic Saturejasubspicata L., and widely used Menthapulegium L. growing in Bosnia and Herzegovina.",book:{id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg"},signatures:"Mejra Bektašević and Olivera Politeo"},{id:"80859",title:"Antioxidant Effect and Medicinal Properties of Allspice Essential Oil",slug:"antioxidant-effect-and-medicinal-properties-of-allspice-essential-oil",totalDownloads:34,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103001",abstract:"Pimenta dioica L. Merrill. Myrtaceae family, known for its berries called pimenta or allspice, is one of the oldest spices in the world, widely used for its culinary and medicinal qualities. The main commercial product obtained from this spice is its essential oil, the reason for the interest in essential oil is based on the versatility of its use in different industrial areas (food, cosmetics, perfumery, and pharmaceuticals) due to its harmless and beneficial effects for health. In addition, it contains compounds that have shown broad biological activity, which turns out to be useful in the treatment of diseases related to the excessive formation of oxygen radicals. As a result, the extraction process and operating conditions have a significant impact on the bioactivity of these molecules. As a consequence, selecting the correct mix of variables to improve oil extraction and functionality is essential. The most of study on this essential oil is being focused on resolving these issues, as well as purification and identification. This chapter will cover the methods for obtaining P. dioica essential oil, as well as the chemical profile of the oil and its biological properties, which include its effects on humans, plants, animals, insects, and microorganisms.",book:{id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg"},signatures:"Yasvet Yareni Andrade Avila, Julián Cruz-Olivares and César Pérez-Alonso"},{id:"80673",title:"Teucrium ramosissimum Derived-Natural Products and Its Potent Effect in Alleviating the Pathological Kidney Damage in LPS-Induced Mice",slug:"teucrium-ramosissimum-derived-natural-products-and-its-potent-effect-in-alleviating-the-pathological",totalDownloads:36,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102788",abstract:"Teucrium esssential oil mediates an extensive spectrum of biological effects, including renal diseases. The aim of this research was to explore the ethnobotanical feature, biochemical composition and antiinflammatory potential of T. ramosissimum alone or prior the use of LPS-induced kidney damage. The essential oils were subjected to Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) apparatus to detect biomolecules in T. ramosissimum. In vivo renal dysfunction induced by LPS was investigated using mouse model. Our data showed that oral treatment of animals with LPS highly increased level of serum biomarkers and induces renal dysfuntion, whereas, pre-treatment with T. ramosissimum mediated markedly histopatological changes of kidney architecture and ameliorates renal function. Dense cover of secretory structures in teucrium leaves may protect this specie. Overall, this study showed phytocompounds richness and interesting biological activities of Tunisian Teucrium ramosissimum. Essential oil of this specie T. ramossimum given prior to LPS exposure protected mice from renal inflammation.",book:{id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg"},signatures:"Fatma Guesmi and Ahmed Landoulsi"},{id:"80600",title:"Essential Oil as Green Preservative Obtained by Ecofriendly Extraction Techniques",slug:"essential-oil-as-green-preservative-obtained-by-ecofriendly-extraction-techniques",totalDownloads:61,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103035",abstract:"Essential oils are formed by a complex matrix of substances that are biosynthesized in the secondary metabolism of plants. Nowadays, different ecofriendly extraction techniques (e.g., ultrasound-, microwave-, enzyme-assisted extraction, and supercritical fluid by CO2, etc.) have been adopted to obtain essential oils. These techniques provide unique quality of essentials oils or extracts from aromatic plants in a short time with high energy savings. Essential oils not only impart aroma, but also possess antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Health limitations in the use of synthetic additives have drawn researchers’ attention towards essential oils as safe natural preservatives. Therefore, this chapter summarizes novel technologies to recover essential oils or extracts. In addition, it focuses on application of essential oils and their constituents as green preservatives to retard microbial growth and oxidative spoilage.",book:{id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg"},signatures:"Nashwa Fathy Sayed Morsy"},{id:"80122",title:"Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Potentials of Essential Oils",slug:"pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-potentials-of-essential-oils",totalDownloads:127,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102037",abstract:"It is a common perspective that medicinal plants have played and continue to perform an undeniably major role in the lives of people worldwide. Essential oils are the key constituents of medicinal herbs and their biological activities have been discovered since ancient times and are enormously utilised in multiple industries. The essential oils possess important biological properties like antibacterial, antioxidant, antiviral, insecticidal, etc. Because of these unique features they are more acceptable and are utilised in various fields throughout the world. In the cosmetics industry they play an important role in the development of perfumes while in the food industry they have been used as food preservatives. Essential oil components are interestingly utilised for pharmaceutical applications. The most investigated properties are antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, wound-healing, anxiolytic activities etc. The current thrust area is evaluation for aromatherapy and anti-cancer, as it is noted that essential oils reported in plants may prevent, inhibit, or even reverse formation of cancerous cells. The aim of this chapter is to provide a concise and comprehensive overview on the therapeutic and pharmaceutical potential of essential oils in the current scenario.",book:{id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg"},signatures:"Ishrat Nazir and Sajad Ahmad Gangoo"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:50,paginationItems:[{id:"81927",title:"Purinergic System in Immune Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104485",signatures:"Yerly Magnolia Useche Salvador",slug:"purinergic-system-in-immune-response",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. 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