Folktales and the virtues/morals learnt
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"328",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Graphene Simulation",title:"Graphene Simulation",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Graphene, a conceptually new class of materials in condensed-matter physics, has been the interest of many theoretical studies due to the extraordinary thermal, mechanical and electrical properties for a long time. This book is a collection of the recent theoretical work on graphene from many experts, and will help readers to have a thorough and deep understanding in this fast developing field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-556-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4466-3",doi:"10.5772/854",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"graphene-simulation",numberOfPages:388,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"26044659f984fbaeac93a996ab1d4995",bookSignature:"Jian Ru Gong",publishedDate:"August 1st 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/328.jpg",numberOfDownloads:71886,numberOfWosCitations:134,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:99,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:273,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 8th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 6th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 12th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 12th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 11th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"61172",title:"Prof.",name:"Jian Ru",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"jian-ru-gong",fullName:"Jian Ru Gong",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61172/images/330_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Jian Ru Gong received her Ph.D. degree in Physical Chemistry from Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences under the direction of Prof. Chunli Bai in 2005. 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Parenting requires interpersonal skills and makes emotional demands (Santrock, 2006). According to Santrock, most parents learn parenting practices from their own parents - some they accept and some they discard. The author argues that when parenting methods are passed on from one generation to the next, both desirable and undesirable practices are perpetuated. These practices may be cultural values which have been passed on from one parent to another.
\nCulture on the other hand is a way of life of a group of people- the behaviours, symbols, values, beliefs that people accept, not really thinking about them and are passed by mostly communication and imitation from one generation to another. With regards to African culture, people perceive most of its practices as something which is devilish in the sense that a lot of its practices are attributed to gods. Some people especially Africans, who have not fully experienced the indigenous culture believe that to be too culturally aware makes one backward and or ancient. This is as a result of lack of knowledge of our cultural values and principles.
\nIn the African system, parenting is again perceived to take a lot of forms which is able to lead the child to be a responsible adult. Though there are various parenting styles, there are ways in which the African parent brings up a child in order for the child to imbibe the cultural values of the land and also be a responsible adult. Some of these forms of parenting are through story telling (folktales), the extended family, traditional rites and the mother\'s care, attention and love. One may ask; are these cultural practices still in vogue? This chapter is an attempt to take readers through some of the parental cultural practices in some African communities.
\nThe purpose of this chapter will therefore be to expatiate on some of the various cultural practices in some sub-Saharan Africa which foster good parenting and also state their relevance or importance to the African. The author will also state their various implications to parenting and suggest some recommendations.
\nResearch shows that majority of books concerning infancy are from the western world (Tomlinson & Swartz, 2003). In view of that African cultural values as far as parenting is concerned are being forgotten and the western practice is rather adopted. This chapter will therefore enable readers especially, Africans to be aware of some of the rich cultural practices of parenting. It will also add up to literature as far as parenting and culture in Africa is concerned as well as in the majority world.
\nIn view of this some important aspects that will be discussed in this chapter with respect to parenting and culture are:
\nParenting
Culture
Some common values and practices in Ghana, Nigeria and Liberia which foster good Parenting.
Some relevance of the cultural values and practices
Implication
recommendations
Parenting is the process of raising and educating a child from birth or before until adulthood (Self Growth, 2012). Synonymously, parenting refers to carrying out the responsibilities of raising and relating to children in such a manner that the child is well prepared to realize his or her full potential as a human being. This implies that parenting is the process of taking care or supporting a child from birth to adulthood involving the physical, emotional, social and intellectual capabilities. It can simply mean the process or state of being a parent. In fact one can be a parent both to the biological or non-biological children.
\nParenting usually takes place when one meets the defined criteria mentioned in the definition. According to Santrock (2006), parenting requires interpersonal skills and again makes emotional demands. Also, other researchers, for example Baumrind (1967) have suggested that there are four major styles of parenting. The researchers argue that majority of the parents display one of four different parenting styles. These styles are authoritarian parenting, authoritative parenting, permissive parenting and uninvolved parenting.
\nAccording to Cherry (2012), authoritarian parenting style expect the child to adhere or follow the strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow the rules will result in punishment. Usually, because the parents have ordered, it must be done without explanations and questions. On the other hand, authoritative parents establish rules and guidelines that their children are expected to follow. Nevertheless, this parenting style is much more democratic (Cherry, 2012 & Santrock, 2006). Parents with this style are responsive and ready to listen and cooperate. Baumrind (1991) argues that these parents are assertive but not intrusive and restrictive.
\n\n Santrock (2006) also stated that permissive parents have few demands to make of their children. These parents allow their children a lot of freedom. They hardly punish or discipline them (Baumrind, 1991) whiles uninvolved parenting is attributed with few demands and little communication. Though the parents fulfil the needs of the child, they rarely get attached to the child (Cherry, 2012). Similarly, uninvolved parents make few to no demands of their children and they are often indifferent, dismissive or even completely neglectful.
\nNumerous works on parenting have brought about a number of conclusions as far as the impact of parenting styles on children are concerned. Cherry (2012) reported that authoritarian parenting styles normally result in children who are obedient and proficient but rank lower in happiness, social competence and self-esteem. On the contrast, Maccoby (1992) informed that authoritative parenting styles lead to children who are happy, capable and successful. Also, permissive parenting styles breed children who are low in happiness and uninvolved parenting styles lead to children who have low self-control, low self-esteem and highly incompetent.
\nAccording to Cherry (2012), parenting styles differ due to certain factors. These factors include culture, personality, parental background, educational level, socio-economic status, family size and religion. Of these factors, culture will be used to explain some similarities that exist in parenting in Ghana, Nigeria and Liberia.
\nCulture is the way a group of people live and it is a learned human behaviour patterns. Tylor (1958, p. 1) defined culture this way: “
According to O’Neil (2006), no matter where people live in the world, they share some human cultural traits which are universal. Examples of such "human cultural" traits include: communicating with a verbal language consisting of a limited set of sounds and grammatical rules for constructing sentences, using age and gender to classify people (e.g., teenager, senior citizen, woman, man), classifying people based on marriage and descent relationships and having kinship terms to refer to them (e.g., wife, mother, uncle, cousin). The others are raising children in some sort of family setting, having a concept of privacy, distinguishing between good and bad behaviour, having a sexual division of labour (e.g., men\'s work versus women\'s work) making jokes and playing games.
\nWhile all cultures have these and possibly many other universal traits, different cultures have developed their own specific ways of carrying out or expressing them. So also is parenting. A culture is normally passed from one generation to another, from knowledgeable adult to learning child. Since the adult has imbibed the norms and practices of the culture from older acculturated adults, this transmission is often simply through exposure and through example. For instance the Orangutan mother, who uses a specially prepared stick to fish out food from a crevice, learnt this skill and is now teaching it to her child who is hanging on her shoulder and intently watching (parenting and culture).
\nAccording to Degbey (2012), the family is usually the major source of the basic necessities of life and health; the love and tenderness, food, water, clothing, shelter and sanitation which are made possible by the socio-economic, cultural and environmental conditions. Thus in discussing major issues with regards to parenting, it would be impossible to overlook the functions of the family (Degbey, 2012).
\nIt is basically known that there are two types of the family. These are the nuclear and the extended family. The nuclear family is made up of only both parents and the children. The extended family is also made up of the nuclear family; in addition are the uncles, aunties, grandparents and cousins. It would be emphasized that in the African community, the extended family is traditionally practiced (Degbey, 2012). In the same vein, it is a common knowledge that when one speaks of the family in an African context, one is referring not to the nuclear family but the extended family (Gyekye, 1996).
\nAccording to Degbey (2012), the extended family system includes several generations plus cousins, uncles, and aunts living in a compound or close to one another. Similarly, Adinlofu (2009) stated that the extended family is composed of a number of joint, compound, elementary and nuclear families occupying separate but nearby homesteads. Degbey (2012) and Adinlofu (2009) further noted that the extended family provides emotional needs to all involved. It is a cohesive unit which ideally provides economic, social and psychological security to all its members. Adinlofu (2009) made mentioned that the extended family ensures procreation of children and provides for the early care and training of children. Degbey (2012) also added that this same family system defines “social and moral norms and safeguards both material and spiritual customs and traditions as well as providing a variety of role models preparing the way for adulthood”. Degbey (2012) emphasized that the dominance of the elders/aged has a relatively high degree of social control on the individual especially, the youth.
\nThe uniqueness of this system with regards to parenting in our traditional African communities is that the responsibility in taking care of the child is not only to the biological parents. This is shared by all in the extended family. This is buttressed by the African proverb on parenting which says that, “a single hand cannot nurse a child”. This implies that although the mother has the responsibility of taking care of the child, the responsibility is being shared by all. Most of us went to school on the strength of this system; otherwise we would have been stark illiterate and walking about aimlessly (Adinlofu, 2009). According to the author, some of us must have read and heard comments like: “my parents were so poor that it was my mum’s brother or father’s sister, that helped towards my education” or, that “it was my father’s brother that trained me to read medicine, law or pharmacy and it was my in-law that gave me money to go into business”. It is intriguing to know that this system is where a brother trained a younger brother or sister and they in turn help to train younger ones or older siblings’ children. This is why it is even said that even when parents are dead, a child would always have ‘parents’. This is because the extended family is there to cushion or parent the child.
\nAnother uniqueness of this extended family system is that children or the youth stay at home i.e. live with the family until they are ready for marriage. Even if the young adult is staying with the nuclear family, the practice is that you marry before you leave the house. According to Gyekye (1996), growing adults are generally expected to live at home-in the family house and they may leave only after they marry. Even after marriage the parents would still want to offer advice and guidance since they believe they the adults have richer experiences than their children at any age.
\nAt other instances, the extended family may not be together, but then the nuclear family may live with other nuclear families who may not be relatives. This system of living is what we call the “compound house” system. Also, this system allows any elderly person to discipline or correct a child.
\nThe extended family is a strong tool in parenting. It helps to develop a strong sense of social responsibility in the child from his early years and learns to be respectful, responsible and supportive member of the extended family and society.
\n“A folktale may be described as a story handed down by oral tradition from mouth to ear among people generally; in fact illiterate, though not necessarily so …” (Dawkins, 1951, p. 417). Dawkins reiterated that many genuine folk stories have been at first literary and passed later into oral tradition. In a similar manner Emery (2012) says a folktale is a traditional narrative, usually anonymous, handed down orally e.g. fables, fairy tales, legends etc. In African culture Story telling (folk tales) which used to be part and parcel of us is no more seen in our daily lives. During storytelling, we will have the older ones telling the younger ones stories which depicted attributes such as giving, caring for one another, greed, selfishness and so on. These elderly people serve as parents in that their word of advice during the story time helps to shape the younger ones. For instance in Ghana, the Spider (traditionally called Kwaku Ananse) is mostly used in our folktales as the main character. He is used to depict acts of greed, love, forgiveness, wisdom, pride etc.
\nOne will be reminded that the story time is always in the evening; when the sun is set and all activities have come to a halt. According to Martin (2000) often such stories were told by the light of the moon around a village fire after the completion of a long day of work. It is believed that such times children and the youth will have a good listening ear for advice and what is ahead of them as they climb the adulthood ladder. Let us bear in mind that these stories are not told by parents alone, but by any adult who is depicted as responsive and caring and can impact good morals to the children. This even is evidence that parents are not the only caretakers of the child as he/she grows, but any adult in the community who is responsible. Martin (2000) pointed out that the stories rarely ended with the words … “and they all lived happily ever after”. Most stories didn’t end happily ever after. The author noted, usually, the stories taught a lesson and frequently, the selfish person learned that lesson the hard way.
\n\n
One day Ananse collected all the wisdom in the world and decided to keep it all in a large pot for himself. Now he said “I have all the wisdom of the world for myself. At least that was what he thought; being such a greedy person.
\nKweku Ananse then tied the pot of wisdom around his neck with a strong vine rope and let the pot hang in front of him. But then he was afraid that someone would find the pot of wisdom and steal it.” What shall I do with my pot of wisdom” He thought and thought and at last he said,” I shall hide the pot on top of the tallest tree in the forest.” So he searched the forest until he found the tallest tree which happened to be the thorny silk cotton tree and brought the pot of wisdom to the tree. While Ananse was trying to climb the thorny silk cotton tree his son was watching him.” Father,” he said,” "What are you doing" "Well" said Ananse, I have in this clay pot all the wisdom of the world and I am going to hang it on the top of the tallest tree away from everybody, then I will be the wisest in the whole wide world." "I have an idea." said his son” Why not hang the pot behind you instead of in front of you. Then you will be able to climb the tree”. Well the sly one Ananse hanged the pot behind him and to his surprise; he was able to climb to the top of the tree with his pot.
\nFinally Ananse sat on a branch of the tree holding the pot of wisdom. “I thought I had all the wisdom in the world” He thought to himself.
\n“I thought I had it all in my pot but my own son has wisdom not in my pot.” Then he made a statement that we still use today.” No one-person can have all the wisdom in the world. “On his way down he dropped the pot and it smashed into many pieces and scattered all the wisdom all over the world.
\n(This story is contributed by Rev Peter E Adotey Addo from his book, How the Spider became Bald...Folktales and Legends from West Africa adopted from http://www.allfolktales.com/wafrica/ananse_pot_of_wisdom.php).
\nThe following are some examples of stories that were told and the lessons being learnt.
\n\n | \n \n | \n
Don’t pay bad for bad | \nFriendship | \n
Grasshopper and toad | \n|
Anansi and turtle | \nGreed | \n
Why wisdom is everywhere (Anansi and the Wisdom pot) | \n|
The jealous brother | \nLying | \n
The twin brothers | \n|
No condition is permanent | \nKindness | \n
The riot | \n|
The Leopard man | \nObedience | \n
Rere, the disobedient son | \n|
Why wisdom is everywhere | \nWisdom | \n
Folktales and the virtues/morals learnt
These are but a few of some folktales told in the Ghanaian, Nigeria and Liberia communities in Africa.
A folktale in traditional setting is an effective means of inculcating the virtues in children (Gyekye, 1996). It is obvious from the explanations given and their examples that these folktales carry with it values and morals which are being handed from one generation to the other. It teaches good morals which helps in parenting the child so he/she will learn to be a responsible adult.
\nAnother significant traditional practice which instils discipline and fosters good parenting in our youth especially, the young girls is puberty rites. It is one of the main traditional practices which have strongly been influenced by modernization and education.
\nPuberty rite is a traditional practice which is performed mainly on adolescent girls to initiate them to womanhood. This rite is therefore believed to make women or girls good wives if they are able to go through the process successfully. Though this process is being celebrated or performed by Nigeria, Liberia, Ghana and some African communities, there may be certain practices which may differ among the countries. However, they follow a general pattern. These general patterns include:
\nnotification of the adolescent,
period of seclusion,
initiation rite then
Reintegration into the family as an adult.
In view of this, the author would like to describe briefly how adolescent girls in Ghana and Nigeria go through this process of puberty.
\nIn Ghana the puberty rite is being celebrated by most of the ethnic groups in Ghana. For instance some ethnic groups from the eastern part of Ghana call it “Dipo” and another from the central and again eastern part of Ghana call it “Bragro”. As the time approaches for the initiation, announcement is given on behalf of the gods to prepare young girls who have reached the adolescent stage to partake in the rituals.
\nQualified adolescent girls are then taken to the queen mother who will then prepare them physically for the ritual. In the case of the Dipo, the girls are given to the traditional priest. The queen mother will then examine the girls including their menstrual cycle to ensure that the girls are indeed virgins. If they pass the test, their parents will then prepare them to the initiation house. This initiation house is under the supervision of responsible, elderly women and also some girls. The identified pubertal girls are then taught issues concerning women. These are marriage, housewifery, how to dress, pregnancy, child birth and parenting. Similarly, in Igbo land in Nigeria, the young girls (the celebrants) would gather to learn private lessons of life from older women. In this gathering, young ladies learn personal grooming, among other values. Their hair would be plaited and their body polished with ufie (red cam wood) and adorned with uli designs. Songs, storytelling, and dancing would permeate the night. Mothers would lay out the facts of life and what it meant to be beautiful. Traditionally in Ghana, before the final initiation, the girls are regarded unclean. In view of that, they are shaved, cleaned (bathed) and smeared with some sheabutter. The women will then take the celebrants to the river side to wash three times every day. This will last for the period of the ceremony. When it gets to the evening this same girls and women will assist the celebrants to sing and dance with traditional love songs. This is done to invite suitors for the being initiated girls.
\nThe last day is more remarkable. On this day, the girls are again led to the river. They are given a boiled egg to swallow. The egg must be swallowed whole. If the egg is chewed there is the fear that they may not have children if they do chew it. After all these, the girls are finally dressed in special clothes and ornaments. These clothes are called ‘Kente’. They are then seated in an open place. This is to show to the public that these girls have now entered womanhood and also showcase themselves to the men who would want suitors or wives. During this process, people including the girls’ parents present their gifts for all to see. This is done amidst singing and dancing. For the Igbo’s of Nigeria, on the last day of the festivities, mothers would cook and send the young girls off for a day of fun at the designated Village Square. Here, the girls would dance, trade tips, share meals, and simply have a great time. Meanwhile, eligible bachelors would watch from the periphery. At the end of it all, the girls can now be taken home to their parents. At this juncture, they are given the right to marry any man who comes to seek their hand in marriage from the parents.
\nOne aspect of this initiation is that, during the past years, whenever a girl ceases to go through the rite due to pregnancy or pre-marital sex, they are known to bring disgrace, shame and a curse to their families and the society. In view of that they are ostracized. This forever will bring a stigma to the girl’s family. In some communities, a ritual is performed for both the girl and the man responsible for the pregnancy. The rite is a form of punishment for not waiting to get married before having sex and becoming pregnant. The rite is performed in public in order to deter other young girls and boys who are soon to become adolescents to be patient until they are initiated and get married.
\nMost often, when puberty rite is mentioned, adolescent girls often come to the fore; but then boys who have also reached the adolescent stage also go through this passage. In Ghana puberty rite for boys is often common in the northern part of the country which is scarcely talked about as compared to the girls’. In Liberia, some communities do initiate boys as well as in Nigeria. In Liberia for instance, Young Mano men of Liberia go through a ceremonial "death" at puberty. These young men are stabbed with a spear and thrown over a cliff to symbolize death and rebirth into adulthood. Actually, a protective padding is kept in the spear from penetrating them, and a sack of chicken blood was tied over the spot to appear as though the young men had been stuck. They are then tossed over the cliff, but a heavy object is thrown over instead to sound like they have been thrown.
\nPresently, this puberty rite has been modernized due to education and also foreign religion. At present, the duration for the initiation has been reduced. Sometimes it even last for a day. Again, the breasts of the ladies have now been covered and also the adolescent stage is no more strictly enforced. Currently, parents even initiate their young girls as early as 4-10 years. Some do this with the reason being that they don’t want the girls to have pre-marital sex or get pregnant when they have not gone through the initiation.
\nThough puberty rite activities may differ from one African community to another, their reason for this initiation is similar. For instance this puberty rite was initiated to prevent young girls and adolescents from teenage pregnancy, prostitution and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. It was also introduced to teach the young woman how to be responsible and take care of her own family.
\nPresently mothers are not often seen in the house as they used to be. It must be emphasized that the involvement of more mothers in the modern labour force, deprives the children as well as the whole family of the daily love and care so necessary for proper child rearing and development.
\nDuring infancy, the child is breastfed for a longer time as compared to this modern time. This, it is believed, develop a bond between the baby and the mother. As the child grows, he/she sees the virtues being exhibited by the mother and all of these enhance good parenting.
\nAfrican culture and values see the mother as the keeper of the house. She is a housewife and makes sure that as the father is the bread winner, she must cater for all the domestic aspect of the children. Currently, there has been a paradigm shift. Since our day to day lives many of us are overstretched, we sometimes approach parenting tired and overwhelmed and as a result leave the children to the neglect of house helps and caretakers. This reduces the amount of time parents should spend with their wards. It should be stressed that even when the extended family is no longer in function, parents especially mothers, should be around to help bring up the child in a responsible manner.
\nThe mother serves as a support to the child especially, when the extended family is not around.
\nThe traditional African systems as described have gone through the influence of external systems and forces which has transformed the rich parental values we have as Africans. The extended family system which is under pressure is rapidly eroding and failing to fulfil its primary role of socialization. In the urban areas for instance, the nuclear family is prominently cropping up. Presently, there is no cohesion; it is just the individual family, his work and his property. This has resulted in less socialization. Currently, families bring up their children in Estate houses whereby one group of a family does not know who his/her neighbour is. In view of that when problems arise in such communities, nobody cares and families are destroyed as a result of this.
\nAgain, the media has taken precedence in our families that children no longer listen to folk stories anymore; they are rather with the television, internet, foreign books and computers. These modernization gadgets have limited information with regards to African cultural values and proper traditional parenting which can easily be assessed by all. In view of that a lot of young people have lost touch of the rich cultural values we have as Africans. A lot of young people presently no longer give a helping hand to the adult and do not offer their seat to the elderly whether in public or private.
\nPresently, teenage pregnancy is on the increase. Young girls do not regard their cultural values as far as virginity and marriage is concerned. Young couples give birth before they think about marriage. Some are as a result of the decision of the man to be sure that the woman is fertile before he marries her. This is for him to prevent childlessness in his home and the extended family. Others due to poor parental care and control, lack the love and commitment to stay with one woman. This has ended in the spread of sexually transmitted diseases and bearing children who have been abandoned by their parents; roaming in the bigger cities as hawkers, prostitutes, pick pockets and armed robbers.
\nLet us take for instance, the wife or mother who works in the bank and wakes up early dawn each day. If she has no extended family staying with her, then, she has to make sure the children have been bathed, eaten and goes to work around 5:30 or 6 O’clock am. She spends the whole day at work and comes home when sometimes the children are asleep. These often times result in the children not being well fed, and also developing bad habits.
\nFrom the factors given with regards to parenting, it would be noted that African culture contributes immensely in the upbringing of young people. This exposition is calling on our African nuclear families to rise up if they have completely neglected the extended family. The extended family is tearing apart especially in our bigger, busy cities. Nuclear families should make it a point to visit their hometowns and patch up with their extended families. Parents should frequently introduce their children to their extended families on both sides.
\nIt is recommended that parents should endeavour to visit the old stories, make time and narrate them to their children. During my childhood school days I remember when it is story time; we take turns in the classroom to narrate these folktales to ourselves. Presently, the stories are rather the foreign ones we read. I believe our teachers should be reminded of this practice so the children can have rich cultural training. Again, curriculum developers should be reminded to revisit the times some of the stories were included in the reading books.
\nThere is a statement in the Ghanaian language which says that whenever you neglect or abandoned something and later you go back for it; it is never forbidden. Meaning, you can still revisit whatever you neglected. It then behoves on our law makers and cultural authorities, to make sure that puberty rite is again established. Our parents and community leaders should make sure that every growing child, entering into the adolescent stage has undergone this event.
\nWorking mothers and housewives; in as much as there is so much to be done at home and also at the workplace, please do endeavour to make time for the children. Some parents have so much to do that during vacations and weekends when the children are supposed to spend time with them, they allow these children to go for extra tuition which sometimes is unnecessary. These busy schedules of parents have influenced private schools to organise so many activities for the children that they are not able to socialise properly and also stay home and learn at the feet of their parents.
\nAfrican culture is rich. We should not neglect it out rightly because it is that which makes us Africans. Let us embrace our good parenting practices so we can nurture responsible youth for the African continent.
\nEstuaries are dynamic and complex environments. Estuarine hydrodynamics are the product of nonlinear interactions between freshwater flow, tidal, wave, and wind forcing, and bathymetric and topographic changes [1, 2]. Such processes directly affect sediment transport and the morphodynamics of the estuary, which may lead to the formation of complex morphological patterns like river mouth bars [3] and submerged sandbars [4].
Although the influence of classical riverine and marine hydrodynamic forcing mechanisms, such as gravity waves and tides, are typically accounted for to describe the estuarine dynamics, an increasing number of studies is focusing on infragravity (IG hereafter) waves, which are seen to play a non-negligible role in estuary evolution [5]. IG waves are a specific type of low-frequency waves with periods between 20 and 30 seconds to 5 minutes, larger than those of sea/swell waves [6, 7]. Typically, IG waves are generated either (i) as long waves bound to short wave groups, or (ii) by a temporal variation of the breakpoint, or (iii) from swell–swell interactions [8, 9, 10].
IG waves are regarded as an important trigger of sandbar generation in the coastal area, especially in the short term, although their role has not been properly understood so far [11, 12]. IG waves are also thought to be of some importance for sediment transport and nearshore morphodynamics, though not a primary forcing [13]. For instance, during storms, breakers mobilize a large quantity of sediment, whose transport is modulated by IG waves [14].
In general, subtidal bars generating and evolving along sandy coasts are typical of wave-dominated environments as a whole and are the result of complex hydrodynamic and sediment transport patterns taking place within the surf zone [11, 15]. Sandbars exist both close to and far from river mouths, due to their strong link to the marine forcing, although their behavior is largely affected by river current and sediment transport, as well as by artificial structures existing at the mouth [4, 16, 17]. Since sandbars promote wave breaking and energy dissipation, they represent a natural solution for beach protection and are fundamental for coastal stability in both short term (storm scale) and long term (scale of years/decades) timescales [18, 19]. Several studies focused on the definition of evolutionary patterns for sand bars. It is commonly acknowledged that waves break over the bars during sea storms and generate undertow profiles, which lead to sediment being advected seaward and sandbars migrating offshore. Conversely, although with some notable exceptions [20], onshore bar motion is typically observed under non-breaking waves and relatively mild wave climate, like that occurring in summertime [12, 21, 22, 23].
Evidence shows that IG waves can easily enter a river mouth and propagate upriver for long distances, even during fast river flow conditions. The presence of IG waves in the estuarine regions has been put in relation to edge waves entering the estuary and producing resonance, while IG wave modulation by tides has been observed along the Pescadero River (North California), Ría de Santiuste (Spain), the Albufeira Lagoon (Portugal) and the Misa River (Italy) [1, 24, 25, 26].
River mouth bars are morphological features that generate and evolve due to the direct effect of riverine currents and marine actions (waves, tides). Typically, the sediment transported via river flow deposits out of the mouth, at a distance of about twice the river width, due to flow expansion [27, 28, 29]. Nevertheless, the location where the bar is formed depends on the amount of sediment transport induced by the river discharge and the net residuals of marine actions. Therefore, in a wave-dominated environment, sediment deposits can also be present inside the river mouth and lead to mouth bars. Such bars are extremely relevant for the overall estuarine dynamics, potentially obstructing the river cross-section to the point of contributing to flooding or river overflows. Downriver migration of the bar occurs when the river discharge dominates the estuarine dynamics and the increased flow velocity on the bar crest is able to erode the sediment on the top, which then deposits seaward because of flow deceleration [30]. On the other hand, weak river flows associated with comparatively more intense sea actions induce sediment accumulation and upriver migration of the bar.
Due to higher concentration values with respect to both upriver and river-mouth regions, a “sediment trap” can be generated in the upper estuary due to both suspended matter and residual circulation. A clay content of >5–10% can make fine-grained sediments behave in a cohesive manner [31, 32]. The sediment grains, and often “sticky” natural organic matter that is present, cause sediment particles to cease acting independently. The behavior is typically characterized by flocculation (i.e., individual sediment particles interact and “bond”), a process whereby cohesive and fine-grained mixed sediment particles have the potential to aggregate into flocs [33, 34], which contribute to the formation of near-bed suspension layers in estuaries and may alter water column turbulent mixing, rheology, and sedimentary particle residence (retention) times.
Experiments have shown that when the fine fraction and the larger non-cohesive sediments coexist as a single mixture in an estuary [31], there exists the potential for the two fractions to combine and exhibit some degree of interactive flocculation [35, 36]. Further, cohesive sediments that are mixed into a predominately cohesionless sandy region can create a ‘cage-like’ structure that can fully encompass the sand grains, thereby trapping the sand within a clay floc envelope [37]. The degree of cohesion between the various sediment fractions tends to increase with the content of fine clay minerals within the sediment, especially for clay contents larger than 5–10% [37, 38, 39, 40], with the biological activity playing an important role in the flocculation of mixed suspensions [41]. In terms of properties, the floc size ranges from microns to centimeters and their effective density generally decreases with size [42, 43, 44], while their settling velocity follows a size-dependent Stokes law settling relationship [45, 46]. Due to their fast settling velocities [47, 48], macroflocs tend to have the most influence on the mass settling flux [49].
To investigate the interplay between the characteristic processes of microtidal estuarine environments and their effects in the nearby river reach and coastal area, field observations have been performed along the Misa River (MR hereafter) and its estuary, with dedicated field campaigns [50, 51] and long-term measurements collected using both on-site instrumentation and remote sensors [4, 26, 52]. The present work illustrates a comprehensive overview of recent observations and analyses performed to achieve a better understanding of estuarine dynamics at a microtidal river mouth, from the hydrological, morphodynamic, and sedimentological viewpoints.
The chapter is divided as follows. Section 2 describes the field campaigns and the instrumentation deployed along the MR and at the estuary, while the main results are reported in Section 3. An overall discussion, followed by some concluding remarks, is presented in Section 4.
Both short-term and long-term monitoring was carried out at the MR estuary. Specifically, two field campaigns were carried out in September 2013 and January 2014 in the most downstream part of the MR and within the nearby coastal area [50, 51]. Additionally, long-term measurements are being collected since 2015, with a set of instrumentation installed in river and sea, as well as using remote sensors. Numerical simulations are also used to support both experimental findings and speculations, and to better understand the complex dynamics at the MR estuary.
The MR runs from the Apennine Mountains (central Italy) to Senigallia (Marche Region), where it flows into the Middle Adriatic Sea after about 48 km. The MR is characterized by a 383 km2 watershed and its flow rate is around 400, 450, and 600 m3/s for return periods of 100, 200, and 500 years, respectively. While a low-flow regime is promoted by a relatively small amount of precipitation in the MR watershed during the summer, significantly higher flow regime characterizes the wintertime [50, 51].
An illustration of the coastal and offshore area is provided in Figure 1a, with a close-up view of the nearshore and estuarine regions shown in Figure 1b. The most downstream portion of the MR is also shown in Figure 1c. The final reach features a heavily engineered river mouth, characterized by cement walls in place of classical riverbanks, which allows one to easily collect and analyze the hydro-morphodynamic data of the microtidal environment. The beach located north of the estuary and harbor is protected by emerged rubble-mound breakwaters, while the southern natural beach is protected by multiple alignments of longshore sandbars (Figure 1b).
Instrumentation employed for the MR monitoring: a) locations of the ADCP and tide gauge in the coastal region; b) locations of sensors displaced within the final reach of the river and the offshore area; c) locations of the two river gauges. Photos illustrating: d) the river portion near the RG1 instrument; e) the ADCP deployed at the MEDA station.
From a hydrological viewpoint, the MR estuary is classified as a salt-wedge estuary, where the water column is split into two parts: the outgoing river current flows in the upper portion, while the entering seawater flows in the lower portion [53]. The salt-wedge behavior, i.e. the simultaneous existence of saltwater and freshwater within the water column extends some kilometers seaward, as confirmed by salinity measurements collected up to 2 km from the estuary [50].
Soil samples were collected within the lower MR reach and confirmed the presence of clay, characterized by high percentages of montmorillonite minerals. Such fine-grained clay sediments promote formation of flocs, i.e. aggregations of individual clay and other fine particles, organic matter, micro-algae and bacteria, and other reactive constituents. Based on both salinity measurements and the sampled clayey material at the riverbed, it was speculated the existence of an upriver flocculation zone (between 2 km and 700 m from the mouth), with salinity S < 10 psu, and a downstream deposition zone (between 700 m from the mouth and the mouth itself), with S > 10 psu [50, 51].
The MR is characterized by large sediment transport rates despite the moderate flow rate, similar to many rivers originating within the Apennine Mountains. Such intense sediment outflow supplies a large amount of material to the coastal areas around the estuary, this being true especially for the natural beach located south of the estuary, which presents an array of longshore sandbars with a long-term morphological evolution [4, 16].
Within the framework of two international projects funded by the Office of Naval Research Global (UK), named EsCoSed (“EStuarine COhesive SEDiments”) and MORSE (“Modeling and Observation of River-Sea Exchanges at a microtidal estuary”), a series of activities have been planned in the last decade within the microtidal estuary of the MR.
During the EsCoSed project, two field campaigns were carried out in September 2013 and January 2014 with the purpose of investigating, respectively, the summertime regime, mainly characterized by low-flow conditions, and the wintertime regime, where low-flow conditions alternate to high-flow conditions [50, 51]. Observations of meteorology, hydrodynamics and morphodynamics were performed using instrumentation deployed for some days during both investigated periods. Furthermore, in the wintertime experiment, water and sediment were sampled within the river and estuary, as well as in the sediment plume generated during high-flow/stormy conditions.
The hydro-morphodynamic parameters were recorded using small quadpods (an overall height of ∼1 m and a roughly square base of ∼1 m2) both in the final MR reach and in the nearby sea, up to 7-m depth. The quadpods were specifically devised to accommodate a set of instruments for the measurement of water velocity profiles along the water column (six velocity profilers), seabed variations (two pencil beams), the turbidity along the lower portion of the water column (two CT probes), and wave characteristics (one Sentinel 1200KHz Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler - ADCP, from Teledyne RDI®, deployed at a depth of ∼7 m). The quadpod locations in the 2013–2014 experiments are shown in Figure 1b as red and blue triangles, respectively indicating quadpods deployed in the river (QR1, QR2, QR3) and sea (QS1, QS2, QS3). Additionally, information on both water surface level at further locations and surface current were collected using, respectively, two tide gauges (TGup, TGdown) and Lagrangian drifters launched into the final reach of the MR.
Finally, a video-monitoring station named “Sena Gallica Speculator” (SGS) was installed at the Senigallia harbor in 2015 and is currently operating. The station is composed of four cameras located on top of a tower and is oriented to encompass the mouth of the MR and a coastal area located between the MR estuary and a pier, called “Rotonda a Mare” and located 500 m south of the estuary [4].
The MORSE project aimed at providing a long-term monitoring of the MR estuary and adjacent portions or river and sea, through the deployment of onsite instrumentation in 2018 [52, 54].
First, a Workhorse Sentinel 300 kHz ADCP (Teledyne RDI®) for the measurements of offshore wave conditions (Figure 1e) was installed within the MEDA station, a meteo-marine station located ∼1.5 nm north of Senigallia and 1.5 nm from the coast (purple triangle in Figure 1a). The station is property of the Italian National Research Council (CNR) and is additionally equipped with several sensors for the monitoring of both atmosphere and sea water.
A tide gauge was deployed within a protected area at the entrance of the Senigallia harbor to record tidal excursions and storm surges (green triangle in Figure 1a).
Finally, a stream gauge was installed within the MR for flow-rate measurements, which is fundamental for the understanding of river-sea interactions. The chosen site is located about 1.2 km upriver of the mouth, near the bridge known as “Ponte Garibaldi”, and very close to a pre-existent hydrometer, property of the Civil Protection (Marche Region), installed for the measurement of the river stages. Both the hydrometer and the stream gauge, the location of which is collectively indicated here as RG1 (Figure 1c), are employed to observe upriver wave propagation from the MR mouth. The RG1 hydrometer complements another hydrometer located at “Bettolelle” (here referred as RG2), about 10 km from the estuary (Figure 1c).
The data collected by some of the above-mentioned instruments are represented in Figure 2. These can be profitably used as initial or boundary conditions for the initialization and validation of the numerical modeling of the MR estuary, as illustrated in the following.
Overall view of the data collected from December 2019 to April 2020. (a) Significant wave height and (b) peak period measured by the offshore ADCP at the MEDA station. (c) Water-surface level at Senigallia harbor. (d) Water-surface level, (e) mean speed and discharge, (f) temperature at the RG1 stream gauge.
The large amount of observed data allowed us to set up a numerical model of the MR estuarine area using the Delft3D software suite [55, 56]. A two-dimensional, depth-averaged model was used to reproduce the hydro-morphodynamics occurring along the final stretch of the MR estuarine channel [54]. Specifically, a coupled WAVE-FLOW simulation was performed to investigate the deformation and displacement of the river mouth bar under the actions of river current and waves. The WAVE model was forced using time series of wave height, period and direction recorded at the offshore MEDA station. The time series of the water level recorded at the tide gauge was instead used for a first validation of the model.
Observations and results coming from both short-term and long-term recordings are reported in the following. The local dynamics observed during the 2013–2014 experiments are first described, with focus on the main seasonal differences in the hydrodynamics and the interplay between river and marine forcing actions in winter, as well as the saltwater-freshwater interaction across the water column (Section 3.1). Insight from a flocculation model supports the observed local dynamics (Section 3.2). The wave entrance in the MR estuary and the upriver propagation of long-wave modes are detailed in Section 3.3. The morphological processes occurring within the lower river reach (Section 3.4) and in the nearshore area south of the MR estuary (Section 3.5) are finally described, with special focus on the bar evolution.
The estuarine area of the MR is subjected to sea storms mainly coming from two directions, as typically observed in coastal regions of the Middle Adriatic Sea. Short, steeper waves generated by WNW, N or NNE (Bora) winds typically enter the MR mouth, since their incoming direction is almost perfectly aligned to the estuary orientation. Also relevant in the MR environment are the ESE-approaching waves, induced by Sirocco winds. Such waves are significantly angled and cannot easily enter the MR. Consequently, Sirocco waves are reflected by the river walls and strongly affect the morphology around the estuary, thus impacting on the evolution of nearby sandbars [4].
Significant differences exist between summertime and wintertime conditions in terms of wind and rainfall, these directly affecting the wave action and the river current interplaying at the MR estuary. Specifically, the wind blowing during the investigated periods promoted the generation of waves of different heights, which mainly depended on the wind direction rather than on its velocity. The wind direction was frequently changing during the summertime experiment, whereas two intense storms were observed in wintertime and were characterized by almost constant wind directions.
During mild/quiescent conditions in both summer and winter (i.e. time intervals before and after storms), an upriver flow propagation was observed very close to the MR estuary (at QR3, i.e. 290 m upriver), with farther inland locations (QR2, i.e. around 400 m upriver) presenting a significant tidal modulation of the water column. An enhanced salt-wedge behavior was also observed during the wintertime experiment [57]. However, some differences arise between quiescent conditions occurring in summer and winter. Specifically, the marine action in summertime was comparable to the river forcing, as confirmed by the observed tracks of surface drifters deployed within the final reach of the MR. Recorded surface speeds in summer are generally smaller than those recorded in winter, with the surface flow being slowed down and sometimes reversed due to upriver-propagating waves and tide. Conversely, drifter deployed before and after the two winter storms showed an increasing surface velocity while moving downstream. Such behavior is further supported by recorded velocity profiles across the water column at QR2 and QR3 locations, which followed a marked salt-wedge pattern, additionally modulated by the tidal motion [51].
Hydraulic data recorded during the January 2014 experiment are illustrated in Figure 3. The stage at RG2 and the mean precipitation within the MR watershed are shown in Figure 3a. The two floods are here highlighted by the stage peaks occurred in the mornings of 25 and 28 January, almost simultaneous to high-tide conditions recorded at Ancona harbor (Figure 3b) and to the sea storms recorded at QS3 (significant height and peak periods are illustrated in Figure 3c). The instantaneous velocity magnitude recorded along the water column at QR2 are plotted in Figure 3d.
Observed environmental conditions during the January 2014 experiment: (a) precipitation in the watershed and stage at RG2, (b) water surface level recorded by tide gauge (Ancona), (c) offshore wave characteristics recorded at QS3, (d) velocity distribution along the water column.
The increased river outflow during the January 2014 storms generated a large river plume with a considerable amount of sediment extending up to around 1.3 km offshore of the mouth. The occurrence of strong river outflow was coupled with a negligible modulation provided by tidal oscillation on the velocity distribution along the water column, especially at a relatively far distance from the mouth (e.g., at QR2). Additionally, during the winter storms a large sediment deposition was observed closer to the mouth (i.e., near the bend, at QR3), due to the convergence of hydrodynamic fluxes and suspended sediments from both river and sea. This also suggests the existence of a turbidity maximum zone (TMZ), typically observed in macro- and meso-tidal estuaries, but rarely in microtidal environments [58, 59, 60]. Although TMZs were observed during both winter storms, their vertical structure was different and depended on the energetic nature of the storms. The storm occurred during 28–29 January 2014 was much less intense than that occurred during 24–25 January 2014, especially in terms of incoming wave height and outgoing river flow. A relatively larger turbidity was observed during the smaller storm [57].
While the summer period is supposed to be characterized by a flocculation region at distances larger than 600 m upstream of the MR mouth and by large sediment deposition throughout the final river reach, wintertime stormy conditions enhanced the sediment transport and provided different morphological patterns due to the strong interplay between incoming and outgoing fluxes: 1) a relevant erosion upstream of QR3, where the river discharge dominates on the marine forcing; 2) an erosion/deposition pattern downstream of QR3 and at the mouth; 3) a modification of the rheological properties of the soil both at the MR mouth and within the river-plume area [50, 51].
To investigate the potential depositional effects within the Misa system, a rigorously proven flocculation model (FM) suite was used [47, 48, 61, 62]. The FM is built on a series of empirical-derived algorithms that can quantitatively assess the relative settling and mass flux dynamics for both pure mud flocs and floc populations derived from a range of mud-sand mixtures. It is based on flocculation concept of macroflocs (D > 160 μm) and microflocs (D < 160 μm), as outlined in the classic ‘order of aggregation’ [63, 64]. FM outputs include macrofloc/microfloc settling velocity, ratio of floc mass between the two size fractions and the total mass settling flux (MSF).
The MR estuary has been subdivided into three regions with different representative sediment compositions, two located 600 m and 100 m upriver of the estuary, one located 400 m off the estuary. A nominal representative mud:sand (M:S) composition of 100 M:0S is chosen at the inland site, 50 M:50S equal mud/sand mixture at the mid-zone, and pure sand (0M:100S) in the seaward region, based on the collected field data [50, 51]. The level of flocculation primarily depends upon the combined effects of Suspended Sediment Concentration (SSC) and turbulent mixing. Hence, the FM indicated a fast macrofloc settling (3.5 mm/s at shear stress of 0.35 Pa) and a relatively quick microfloc settling at the pure cohesive inland generated during small storm conditions (28–29 January 2014). Further, both the lower river and seaward zones were much less turbid. In the lower river, the less cohesive equally mixed sediment composition produced slower macroflocs and quicker microflocs than within the inland region, with an equal apportioning of floc mass between macro- and microfloc fractions. The seaward (pure-inert/non-flocculating) sediment settled fast at ∼6.8 mm/s.
Throughout the Misa system, the MSF was only ∼40% of that occurring during small storm conditions. Quiescent conditions (27 January 2014) saw a further 20–25% slowing in the floc settling velocities, with SSC being only 30–40% of that found during the small storm at each site. Specifically, the FM indicated that quiescent conditions favored smaller microfloc fraction dynamics, a much tighter spatial grouping and significantly smaller settling flux values.
IG waves are long-wave modes that are seen to easily propagate upriver in meso- and macro-tidal estuaries [1, 24, 25], while their impact on microtidal estuaries has been rarely investigated. Upriver propagation of IG waves were observed in the microtidal environment of the MR during the January 2014 experiment (Figure 4a–c) [26]. The dominant generation mechanism of IG waves in this case is probably the bound wave mechanism [10], as suggested by a normalized slope parameter calculated off the mouth
Temporal and spatial evolution of wave energy during 24–26 January 2014: (a) total energy, (b) percentage of sea-swell contribution, (c) percentage of IG contribution. Evolution of band-specific significant wave height (d) in the offshore area, at QS2, and (e) in the river, at QR2. The bottom panel shows a schematic of the bed profile at the estuary and further offshore. Purple triangles represent the sensor location (
where
It was observed that, while the IG contribution in the open sea was significantly smaller than that provided by sea-swell waves, it gained a more relevant role within the final reach of the MR. This is exemplified in Figure 4c and d, which shows the time evolution of band-specific significant wave heights during the storm event occurred on 25–26 January 2014, at two locations representative of offshore (QS2) and riverine (QR2) areas. While the total wave height in the sea was mainly due to sea-swell throughout the storm (Figure 4c), the IG contribution was seen to be much more important in the MR, especially during the storm climax (Figure 4d). This is due to the intense wave breaking affecting the shortest wave components at the mouth, and further enhanced by strong opposing currents. Inspection of wave energy levels revealed a large energy decay across a wide region off the MR mouth (between −400 m and 0 m, at (2–5) m depths, as shown in Figure 4a). This decay especially involved the short-wave components, while the normalized IG component seemed to peak just past the MR mouth and values larger than the reference offshore value characterize the region between 0 and 200 m upriver (Figure 4b). Such behavior is connected to the large damping and deviation of storm-driven sea currents promoted by the river discharge [51], not enough to block IG components. Hence, the MR estuarine area removes higher-frequency waves and retains low-frequency energy, thus operating as a low-pass filter. This process has already been observed in field experiments carried out in other environments, like microtidal estuaries or energetic oceanic inlets [24, 25, 65].
Although IG waves were observed to propagate upriver for hundreds of meters and tide propagate upriver for kilometers, the interplay between such low-frequency modes is of importance, with the tide controlling the upriver propagation of IG components [65]. In addition, despite the low tidal range at the MR estuary (less than 0.6 m during the January 2014 experiment), tidal oscillations reach distances larger than 1.2 km within the MR (e.g., at RG1), although tidal currents are low and their effect on the river current is negligible. While low-flow river conditions imposes very small resistance to the tide upriver propagation, the tidal forcing was easily suppressed by river floods and high-flow conditions [26, 51]. Furthermore, the tidal effect is important just off the estuary, in connection to a persistence of wave-induced setup during the storm decay.
On the other hand, no tidal influence was observed at RG2, as confirmed by more recent observations performed in 2019 (Figure 5a–c) [52]. These observations also confirmed the presence of tide at RG1, as well as the upriver propagation of additional low-frequency modes. Specifically, the stream-gauge recordings of some flood events occurred in 2019 allowed for the observation of modes not detected by the hydrometer, due to the difference in the sampling rate of the two instruments (2′ for the stream gauge versus 30′ for the hydrometer). The spectral content of two storm events recorded by the stream gauge and lasting a bit more than one day each (12–13 and 15–16 November 2019) has been analyzed, in conjunction with the spectral content of the signals recorded by both hydrometers (RG1 and RG2) and the tide gauge (Figure 5d). A long-time range has been used for hydrometer and tide signals, i.e. between 10 September and 17 December 2019. The hydrometers at RG1 and RG2 showed a similar spectral pattern, especially for frequencies
Time series recorded in 2019 by: (a) hydrometer and stream gauge at RG1, (b) tide gauge at Senigallia harbor, (c) hydrometer at RG2. (d) Spectral density of recorded signals.
Furthermore, the analysis of the stream-gauge signals during the recorded events at RG1 does not show relevant peaks referring to tidal constituents, due to the reduced event duration. However, local peaks exist at ∼1.42 hours during both events, which can be probably ascribed to other long-wave modes generating in the Adriatic Sea. Enclosed and semi-enclosed basins, like the Adriatic Sea, show low-frequency oscillations like the seiche motion, which can be described by the natural period at a specific mode
Selecting the mode-2 oscillation (
The dynamics of river mouth bars is strongly correlated with the mutual interaction of the river discharge and wave actions. The long-term monitoring of the MR estuary allowed us to correlate the behavior of the emerged mouth bar with the river and sea forcing. Hourly videos recorded by the SGS video-monitoring station were post-processed to create a 10-minute time-exposure image (timex). For each hour, the four timex images were stabilized, geo-rectified and merged to obtain the plan-view images. The ortho-rectified timex images, from 2017 to 2019, were analyzed using a semi-automatic procedure1 to detect the presence of the emerged bar and its geometric features. The evolution of the area and center of mass of the bar was correlated with the sea state (wave height and direction) time-series recorded by the offshore ADCP, the tidal levels, as well as flow rate and water level recorded along the MR.
The results showed a net downriver migration due to relevant flood events (Figure 6e–h) and a persistence of sediment accumulation during periods of weak river action. Moreover, the accurate monitoring made it possible to observe a slow upriver bar migration under wave action (Figure 6a–d). Numerical modeling of the MR estuary, performed by Delft3D software, also highlighted the link between river discharge and downriver bar migration, and between wave action and upriver bar migration [54].
Ortho-rectified timex images recorded from the SGS video-monitoring station. (a, b, c, d) is an example of observed upriver migration. (e, f) and (g, h) are two examples of observed downriver migration.
The evolution of submerged sand bars may well be crucially altered (intentionally or not) by the presence of man-made structures, like breakwaters or jetties, the latter of which are commonly present in riverine environments [66, 67]. Melito et al. [4] discussed sandbar dynamics and their correlations with incident wave climate and morphological constraints at a portion of sheltered beach south of the MR estuary (Figures 1b and 7). The beach object of the study is delimited, at its northern side, by the southern concrete jetty delimiting the final reach of the MR. The jetty provides a partial sheltering from wave attack coming from northern quadrants (mainly originated by Bora storms), but leaves the coastline exposed to incident waves from eastern directions.
Numerical simulations of an ESE storm (a, b) and NNE storm (c, d). 30-minute-averaged velocity fields (a, c) and relative wave heights (b, d) in the nearshore area south of the MR jetty.
The submerged beach is characterized by an array of three shallow bars, whose displacement in response to seasonal climate and storm events is monitored since 2015 with the aid of remote sensing products from the SGS station. The bars at the sheltered beach show a response dominated by seasonal oscillations in wave climate, presenting occasionally consistent onshore displacements in milder climates typical of summer months, and offshore migration in winter months. The bar array is generally poorly responsive to single storms; a circumstance shared with other portions of unprotected coastline far from the influence of the river jetty. The overall behavior of the bar structure can be therefore assimilated to a pattern of bars oscillating around a more or less well-defined point of equilibrium (OPE pattern) [68].
Two short storm events from SSE occurred in February 2016 and October 2018, however, imposed a remarkable change in this established pattern by generating storm-scale displacements in the order of 30–50 m to all submerged bars. Migrations of such entity and with such short response times are not repeated anytime during the investigation period, spanning from 2015 to 2019, even during much more intense wave attacks. This exceptional event is likely connected to the peculiar interaction between incoming waves from eastern directions and the presence of the concrete jetty. Storm waves approach almost normally to the river jetty, generating enhanced reflection and intensified return currents, ultimately leading to enhanced offshore displacements of bars.
The eventuality of different beach response to storm waves with different incidence was explored with a campaign of numerical simulations run with FUNWAVE [69] and focused on the interaction of the man-made landmark with the dominant wave field at the MR estuary [4]. Two simulations were devised to represent wave attacks from a typical Bora storm (NNE direction) and a typical Sirocco storm (ESE). The two prototypical storms used as wave input are rather different in terms of wave period: while the Bora storm is characterized by steeper waves (
30-minute-averaged velocity fields and relative wave heights in the nearshore area delimited by the MR jetty are presented in Figure 7 for the Bora (NNE) storm and the Sirocco (ESE) storm. The FUNWAVE model predicts longshore currents on top of the bar in both cases; however, while the current is directed towards the jetty during the Bora storm (Figure 7c), Sirocco waves force a stronger current, directed away from the jetty, and escaping the nearshore giving birth to a marked circulation cell (Figure 7a). Stronger currents, along with higher relative wave heights over the bars for the Sirocco (ESE) event (Figure 7b) in comparison to those modeled during the Bora (NNE) event (Figure 7d), can thus be linked to a greater potential for sediment stirring and motion by Sirocco waves and, ultimately, bar migration during ESE storms.
The overall dynamics of the salt-wedge estuary of the MR have been observed exploiting short-term measurements in both river and sea during September 2013 and January 2014, as well as long-term monitoring at different and farther locations. The short-term experiments revealed that the marine forcing is able at propagating upriver for long distances, during sea storms but also during relatively mild/quiescent conditions.
In detail, the large waves observed during both big and small storms propagated upriver for some hundreds of meters, also suggesting the existence of a TMZ developing at different locations within the MR, similar to what observed in meso- and macro-tidal estuaries [57, 59]. Further, results of the FM in the final reach of the MR suggest a fast macrofloc settling and high flocculation occurring about 600 m upriver of the mouth during the small storm, and an efficient flocculation throughout the range of turbulent stimulation, while both lower-river and seaward zones were characterized by a much smaller MSF compared to that estimated inland [57]. The impact of waves in the estuarine area is also suggested by the relevant seabed variations obtained comparing the bathymetric surveys of September 2013 and January 2014, which show significant erosion/deposition patterns just off the jetty (bed variations of ±1.5 m), as well as important changes in the final river reach (erosion up to 1 m) [51].
However, the wave forcing is not the only action that pushes upriver marine waters along the MR. Evidence of the upriver propagation of marine fluxes was given in the summertime experiment (September 2013), when the salinity level in the MR, at about 1.8 km from the mouth, was larger than zero and suggested the existence of a flocculation zone at about (1.8–0.6) km from the mouth. Further, a floc deposition was supposed to occur in the final 600 m of the MR, as also demonstrated by the seabed increase and sediment deposition occurred in the 2013 summer, between May and September [50, 51]. In addition, more recent observations confirmed that the marine forcing can propagate upriver for kilometers, although not as IG waves, which mainly affect the final reach of the MR like the sea-swell waves do, as observed during the January 2014 storms [26]. Differently, very low-frequency waves like tides or seiches (
In terms of sediment transport and bed morphology, river mouth bars and coastal sandbars are directly linked to the forcing actions existing in the investigated microtidal area. The interplay among such actions is summarized by the evolution of a river mouth bar. While significant flood events promote a net downriver migration, a slow upriver bar migration is observed under wave action.
Linked to the main processes occurring within river and estuary are also the dynamics characterizing the coastal area just south of the MR jetty, where submerged sandbars evolve while protecting the natural beach. While the sediment supply from the MR significantly affects the sediment transport in such area, the main incoming direction of sea storms is thought to largely affect the SSC just off the estuary. Numerical hydrodynamic simulations suggested that during NNE storms a recirculation cell is generated south of the jetty and over the sandbars, while the velocity field at the estuary is relatively small [4]. Hence, the river-induced plume propagating far offshore from the estuary seems to be not significantly affected by NNE waves, whereas a different velocity field seems to generate during ESE storms, providing a seaward-directed fast flow in correspondence of the jetty. Hence, on the one side, the MR plume seems to be enhanced by the wave-induced cross-shore current. On the other side, the sandbar array is supposed to evolve and migrate, due to a larger relative height over the bars themselves and possibly related sediment mobilization.
Many of the above-described aspects, especially the main processes related to the evolution of river mouth bars and river plume, as well as the accurate spatial analysis of the sea-forcing propagation within the MR during mild and stormy conditions, are currently under investigation and will be detailed in future contributions.
The financial support from the MORSE Project (Office of Naval Research Global - UK, Research Grant Number N62909-17-1-2148) and the FUNBREAK Project (MIUR PRIN 2017 - Italy, Grant Number 20172B7MY9) is gratefully acknowledged. AJM’s contribution towards this research was partly supported by the US National Science Foundation under grants OCE-1736668 and OCE-1924532, and HR Wallingford company research FineScale project (ACK3013_62). The authors would like to thank all colleagues who made significant contributions during the planning and execution of the field experiments, as well as for the following activities, including Edward F. Braithwaite III, Sara Corvaro, Giovanna Darvini, Michael Fuller, Kevin Lois, Carlo Lorenzoni, Alessandro Mancinelli, Pierluigi Penna, Allen Reed, Aniello Russo, Alex Sheremet, Luciano Soldini, Tracy Staples, Gianluca Zitti. The following authorities and companies are also acknowledged: the Municipality of Senigallia, the Capitaneria di Porto of Senigallia and of Ancona, MARIDIPART La Spezia and MARIFARI Venezia, GESTIPORT (Senigallia), Club Nautico (Senigallia), NOTA srl (Senigallia), Carmar Sub (Ancona), Sena Gallica (Senigallia), METIS S.R.L. (Senigallia). The data used in this paper are available at this link.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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