More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
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Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
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Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
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We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
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IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\n
Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"948",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Perioperative Considerations in Cardiac Surgery",title:"Perioperative Considerations in Cardiac Surgery",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book considers mainly the current perioperative care, as well as progresses in new cardiac surgery technologies. 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\r\n\tAridity is the imbalance between the long-term average water supply and the long-term average water demand. Unlike drought, which is defined as a period of abnormally dry air long enough to cause a serious hydrological imbalance, aridity is permanent, not temporary. A region is arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of usable water inhibiting the growth and development of plant and animal life. Environments exposed to arid climates tend to be devoid of vegetation and are called arid or desert. In the more extreme areas, called extreme arid deserts, the average annual precipitation is below 25 mm, under which conditions microorganisms must cope with not only by water scarcity but also by deadly UV radiation, high and low temperatures, high evaporation rates, prolonged drying times, oligotrophic conditions, and high salinity levels. Arid environments cover more than one-third of the world's land area and represent the most common habitat on Earth after the oceans. Aridity poses a threat to the environment, as well as the economy, security, development, food security, and social life around the world. The causes of increased aridity are complex and are thought to be both natural and man-made. Factors such as climate change, population growth, soil erosion, inappropriate irrigation, wrong farming, soil, water, and groundwater contamination, urbanization, deforestation, improper water management, desertification of arid and semi-arid zones appear as causes of drought.
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1. Introduction
Growing research interests are focused on the high-speed telecommunications and data communications networks with increasing demand for accessing to the Internet even from home. For instance, in Nov 2011 Strategy Analytics forecasted that there would be more than 807 million broadband fixed line subscriptions worldwide in 2017, based on a figure of 578 million at the end of 2011 showing a cumulative annual growth rate of around 8 percent [1]. This increasing demand for high-speed information transmission over the last two decades has been driven by the huge successes during the last decade of new multimedia services, commonly referred as Next-Generation Access (NGA) services, such as Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) or Video on Demand (VoD), as well as an increased data traffic driven by High-Definition TV (HDTV) and Peer-to-Peer (P2P) applications which have changed people\'s habits and their demands for service delivery. Consequently, consumer adoption of broadband access to facilitate use of the Internet for knowledge, commerce and, obviously, entertainment is contingent with the increment of the optical broadband access network capacity, which should extent into the customer\'s premises up to the terminals. Thus, steady increases in bandwidth requirements of access networks and local area networks (LANs) have created a need for short-reach and medium-reach links supporting data rates of Gbps (such as Gigabit Ethernet, GbE), 10Gbps (such as 10-Gigabit Ethernet, 10GbE) and even higher (such as 40- and 100- Gigabit Ethernet standards, namely 40GbE and 100GbE respectively, which started in November 2007 and have been very ratified in June 2010). Detailed studies [2, 3] have defined the required bit-rates to be transmitted to the customer’s premises for different profiles for the traffic flows, reaching a total future-proof very-high-bit-rate link in the order of 2Gbps per user. It is estimated that end-user access bandwidths could reach 1 Gbps by 2015, and 10 Gbps by 2020.
Related to this latter premise, a growing number of service providers are turning to solutions capable of exploiting the full potential of optical fiber for service delivery, being the copper based x-Digital Subscriber Line (xDSL) infrastructure progressively replaced by a fiber-based outside plant with thousands of optical ports and optical fiber branches towards residential and business users, constituting the core of the FTTx (Fiber to the Home/Node/Curb/Business) deployments, see Fig. 1(a). These include passive optical networks (PONs), whose standardization has accelerated product availability and deployment. The ongoing evolution to deliver Gigabit per second Ethernet and the growing trend to migrate to Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) schemes have benefited significantly from the Coarse WDM (CWDM) and Dense WDM (DWDM) optoelectronics technologies, as they provide a more efficient way to deliver traffic to Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) devices. These systems, commonly referred to as WDM-PON, are still under standardization process and field trials and are the basis of the so-called next-generation broadband optical access networks to prepare for the future upgrade of the FTTx systems currently being deployed. A basic scheme of the WDM-PON architecture is depecited in Fig. 1(b). However, networking architectures such as PON, BPON, WDM-PON, etc. are outside the scope of this chapter. There is a widely-spread consensus concerning service providers that FTTx is the most powerful and future-proof access network architecture for providing broadband services to residential users.
Figure 1.
(a) Different FTTx network deployments. (b) Architecture of WDM-PON.
In the FTTx system concepts deployed up to now, singlemode optical fiber (SMF) is used, which has a tremendous bandwidth and thus a huge transport capacity for many services such as the ITU G.983.x ATM
ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode.
-PON system. Research is ongoing to further extend the capabilities of shared SMF access networks. The installation of SMF has now conquered the core and metropolitan area networks and is subsequently penetrating into the access networks. However, it requires great care, delicate high-precision equipment, and highly-skilled personnel, being mainly deployed for long-haul fiber optic communications, constituting the so-called Optical Distribution Network (ODN) and the core telecommunication network of the next generation of optical broadband access networks. Nevertheless, as it comes closer to the end user and his residential area, the costs of installing and maintaining the fiber network become a driving factor, which seriously hampers the large-scale introduction of FTTx.
Also inside the customer\'s premises, there is a growing need for convergence of the multitude of communication networks. Presently, Unshielded Twisted copper Pair (UTP) cables are used for voice telephony, cat-5 UTP cables for high-speed data, coaxial cables for CATV
CATV: Community Antena TeleVision.
and FM
FM: Frequency Modulation.
radio signals distribution, wireless Local Area Network (LAN) for high-speed data, FireWire for high-speed short-range signals, and also Power Line Communications (PLC) technology for control signals and lower-speed data. These different networks are each dedicated and optimised for a particular set of services, which also put different Quality-of-Service (QoS) demands, and suffer from serious shortcomings when they are considered to serve the increasing demand for broadband services. Also no cooperation between the networks exists. A common infrastructure that is able to carry all the service types would alleviate these problems. It is therefore not easy to upgrade services, to introduce new ones, nor to create links between services (e.g., between video and data). By establishing a common broadband in-house network infrastructure, in which a variety of services can be integrated, however, these difficulties can be surmounted. The transmission media used at present are not suited for provisioning high-bandwidth services at low cost. For instance, today\'s wiring in LANs is based mainly on copper cables (twisted pair or coaxial) and silica (glass) fiber of two kinds: singlemode optical fiber (SMF) and multimode optical fiber (MMF). Copper based technologies suffer strong susceptibility to electromagnetic interferences and have limited capacity for digital transmission as well as the presence of crosstalk. Compared to these copper based technologies, optical fiber has smaller volume, it is less bulky and has a smaller weight. In comparison with data transmission capability, optical fiber offers higher bandwidth at longer transmission distances.
On the other hand, optical fiber is extensively used for long-distance data transmission and it represents an alternative for transmission at the customer\'s premises as well. Optical fiber connections offer complete immunity to EMI and present increase security, since it is very difficult to intercept signals transmitted through the fiber. Moreover, optical communication systems based on silica optical fibers allow communication signals to be transmitted not only over long distances with low attenuation but also at extremely high data rates, or bandwidth capacity. In SMF systems, this capability arises from the propagation of a single optical mode in the low-loss windows of silica located at the near-infrared wavelengths of 1.3µm, and 1.55µm. Furthermore, since the introduction of Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFAs), the last decade has witnessed the emergence of SMF as the standard data transmission medium for wide area networks (WANs), especially in terrestrial and transoceanic communication backbones. The success of the SMF in long-haul communication backbones has given rise to the concept of optical networking, which is a central theme with currently driving research and development activities in the field of photonics. The main objective is to integrate voice, video, and data streams over all-optical systems as communication signals make their way from WANs down to the end user by Fiber-To-The-x (FTTx), offices, and in-homes.
Although conventional SMF solutions have the potential of achieving very large bandwidths, they suffer from high connections costs compared to copper or wireless solutions. For this reason, SMF has not been widely adopted by the end user (premises) where most of the interconnections are needed and less cost-sharing between users is obtainable. The underlying factor is the fact that the SMF core is typically only a few micrometers in diameter with the requirement of precise connecting, delicate installation and handling. Yet as the optical network gets closer to the end user, the system is characterized by numerous connections, splices, and couplings that make the use of thin SMF impractical. An alternative technology is then the use of conventional silica-based multimode optical fiber (MMF) with larger core diameters. This fact allows for easier light coupling from an optical source, large tolerance on axial misalignments, which results in cheaper connectors and associated equipment, as well as less requirements on the skills of the installation personnel. However, the use of MMFs is at a cost of a bandwidth penalty with regards to their SMF counterparts, mainly due to the introduction of modal dispersion. This is the reason why MMF is commonly applied to short-reach and medium-reach applications due to its low intrinsic attenuation despite its limited bandwidth. In particular, in the access network, the use of MMF may yield a considerable reduction of installation costs although the bandwidth-times length product of SMF is significantly higher than that of MMF. As in the access network, the fiber link lengths are less than 10km, however, the bandwidth of presently commercially available silica MMFs is quite sufficient.
On the other hand, compared to multimode silica optical fiber, polymer optical fiber (POF) offers several advantages over conventional multimode optical fiber over short distances (ranging from 100m to 1000m) such as the even potential lower cost associated with its easiness of installation, splicing and connecting. This is due to the fact that POF is more flexible and ductile [4], making it easier to handle. Consequently, POF termination can be realized faster and cheaper than in the case of silica MMF. This POF technology could be used for data transmission in many applications areas ranging like in-home, fiber to the building, wireless LAN backbone or office LAN among others. In addition, improvement in the bandwidth of POF fiber can be obtained by grading the refractive index, thus introducing the so-called Graded-Index POFs (GIPOFs). Although by grading the index profile significantly enhanced characteristics have been obtained, the bandwidth and attenuation still limit the transmission distances and capacity. Reduction of loss has been achieved by using amorphous perfluorinated polymers for the core material. This new type of POF has been named perfluorinated GIPOF (PF GIPOF). This new fiber with low attenuation and large bandwidth has opened the way for high capacity transmission over POF based systems. In addition to, as PF GIPOF has a relative low loss wavelength region ranging from 650nm to 1300nm (even theoretically in the third transmission window), it allows for WDM transmission of several data channels. However, attenuation and bandwidth characteristics of the current state-of-the-art PF GIPOF are not at par with those of standard silica SMFs, but they still are superior to those of copper based technologies. Nevertheless, although these losses are coming down steadily due to ongoing improvements in the production processes of this still young technology, the higher than silica attenuation inhibits their use in relative long link applications, being mainly driven for covering in-building optical networks link lengths for in-building/home optical networks (with link lengths less than 1 km), and thus the loss per unit length is of less importance. It should be noted that available light sources for silica fiber based systems can be used with PF GIPOF systems. The same is true of connectors as in the case of Gigabit Ethernet equipment.
Therefore, it can be stated that polymer optical fiber technology has reached a level of development where it can successfully replace copper based technology and silica MMF for data transmission in short distance link applications such as in the office, in-home and LAN scenarios. Moreover, PF GIPOF is forecasted to be able to support bit-rate distance products in the order of 10Gbps km [5]. Short distance communications system like in-home network and office LANs represent a unique opportunity for deployment of PF GIPOF based systems for broadband applications. We can conclude that PF GIPOF technology is experiencing rapid development towards a mature solution for data transmission at short haul communications. The challenge remains in bringing this POF technology (transceiver, connectors,…) to a competitive price and performance level at the customer\'s premises.
Nevertheless, the potentials of these multimode fibers, both silica- and polymer-based, to support broadband radio-frequency, microwave and even millimetre wave transmission over short- and medium-reach distances are yet to be fully known. The belief is that a better understanding of the factors that affect the fiber bandwidth will prove very useful in increasing the bandwidth of silica MMF and PF GIPOF links in real situations. In the whole fiber network society to be realized in the near future, it is said that silica-based SMF fibers for long-haul backbone will be only several percents of the total use, and the remaining more than 90% would correspond to all-optical networks covering the last mile [6]. Link lengths may range from well below 1 km in LANs and residential houses, to only a few kilometres in larger building such as offices, hospitals, airport halls, etc. And it is now clear that the expected market is huge and researches and companies all over the world are competing to find a solution to this issue.
In this framework, the first part of this chapter, comprising sections 2 and 3 will briefly address the fundamentals of mutimode optical fibers as well as present transmission capacities. Like any communication channel, the multimode optical fiber also suffers from various signal distortions limiting its usefulness. The primary mechanisms contributing to the channel impairment in multimode fibers are discussed. Both silica-based MMFs and PF GIPOFs are essentially large-core optical waveguide supporting multiple transverse electromagnetic modes and they suffer from similar channel impairments. On the other hand, present capabilities of actual multimode optical fiber-based deployments are shown. In addition, different techniques reported in literature to carry microwave and millimetre-wave over optical networks, surmounting the multimode fiber bandwidth bottleneck, are also briefly described.
The second part of this chapter, which comprises sections 4, 5 and 6, respectively, focuses on the frequency response mathematical framework and the experimental results, respectively, of both types of multimode optical fibers. Some of the key factors affecting the frequency characteristics of both fiber types are addressed and studied. Theoretical simulations and measurements are shown for standard silica-based MMF as well as for PF GIPOF. Although some of these issues are interrelated, they are separately identified for clarity.
Finally, the main conclusions of this chapter are reported in Section 7.
2. Fundamentals of multimode optical fibers
Despite the above advantages, the use of multimode optical fiber has been resisted for some years by fiber-optic link designers in favour of their SMF counterparts since Epworth discovered the potentially catastrophic problem of modal noise [7]. Modal noise in laser-based MMF links has been recently more completely addressed and theoretical as well as experimental proofs have shown that long-wavelength operation of MMFs is robust to modal noise [8-10]. This explains the spectacular regain of interest for MMFs as the best solution for the cabling of the access, in-home networks and LANs. The question that needs answer now in view of increasing the usefulness of MMF concerns the improvement of their dispersion characteristics, which is related to their reduced bandwidth.
For the transmission of communication signals, attenuation and bandwidth are important parameters. Both parameters will be briefly described in the following subsections, focusing on their impact over multimode fibers. In any case, the optical signal is distorted and attenuated when it propagates over the fiber. These effects have to be modeled when describing the signal transmission. They behave quite differently in different types of fibers. Whereas signal distortions in singlemode fibers (SMFs) are primarily caused by chromatic dispersion, i.e. the different speeds of individual spectral parts, the description of dispersion in multimode fibers (MMFs) is considerably more complex. Not only does chromatic dispersion occur in them, but also has the generally much greater modal (or intermodal) dispersion.
It should be noted that, apart from attenuation, an important characteristic of an optical fiber as a transmission medium is its bandwidth. Bandwidth is a measure of the transmission capacity of a fiber data link. As multimode fibers can guide many modes having different velocities, they produce a signal response inferior to that of SMFs, being this modal dispersion effect the limiting bandwidth factor. So bandwidth and dispersion are two parameters closely related.
2.1. Attenuation
Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in the intensity of the light beam with respect to distance traveled through a transmission medium, being an important factor limiting the transmission of a digital signal across large distances. The attenuation coefficient usually use units of dB/km through the medium due to the relatively high quality of transparency of modern optical transmission media. Empirical research over the years has shown that attenuation in optical fiber is caused primarily by both scattering and absorption. However, the fundamentals of both attenuation mechanisms are outside the scope of this chapter.
On the one hand, silica exhibits fairly good optical transmission over a wide range of wavelengths. In the near-infrared (near IR) portion of the spectrum, particularly around 1.5 μm, silica can have extremely low absorption and scattering losses of the order of 0.2 dB/km. Such remarkably-low losses are possible only because ultra-pure silicon is available, being essential for manufacturing integrated circuits and discrete transistors. Nevertheless, fiber cores are usually doped with various materials with the aim of raising the core refractive index thus achieving propagation of light inside the fiber (by means of total internal reflection mechanisms). A high transparency in the 1.4-μm region is achieved by maintaining a low concentration of hydroxyl groups (OH). Alternatively, a high OH concentration is better for transmission in the ultraviolet (UV) region.
On the other hand, until recently, the only commercially available types of POF were based on non-fluorinated polymers such as PolyMethylMethAcrylate (PMMA) (better known as Plexiglass®), widely used as core material for graded-index fiber [11] in addition with the utilization of several kinds of dopants. Although firstly developed PMMA-GIPOFs were demonstrated to obtain very high transmission bandwidth compared to that of Step-Index (SI) counterparts, the use of PMMA is not attractive due to its strong absorption driving a serious problem in the PMMA-based POFs at the near-IR (near-infrared) to IR regions. This is because of the large attenuation due to the high harmonic absorption loss by carbon-hydrogen (C-H) vibration (C-H overtone). As a result, PMMA-based POFs could only be used at a few wavelengths in the visible portion of the spectrum, typically 530nm and 650nm, with typical attenuations around 150dB/km at 650nm. Today, unfortunately, almost all gigabit optical sources operate in the near-infrared (typically 850nm or 1300nm), where PMMA and similar polymers are essentially opaque. Nevertheless, in this scenario, undistorted bit streams of 2.5Gbps over 200m of transmission length were successfully demonstrated over PMMA-GIPOF [12].
On the other hand, it has been reported that one can eliminate this absorption loss by substituting the hydrogen atoms in the polymer molecule for heavier atoms [13]. In this case, if the absorption loss decreases with the substitution of hydrogen for deuterium or halogen atoms (such as fluorine), the possible distance for signal transmission would be limited by dispersion, and not by attenuation. Many polymers have been researched and reported in literature in order to improve the bandwidth performance given by the first PMMA-based graded-index polymer optical fibers [14]. Nevertheless, today, amorphous perfluorinated (PF) GIPOF is widely used because of its high bandwidth and low attenuation from the visible to the near IR wavelengths compared to PMMA GIPOF [15]. As a result, it is immediately compatible with gigabit transmission sources, and can be used over distances of hundreds of meters. This fact is achieved mainly by reducing the number of carbon-hydrogen bonds that exist in the monomer unit by using partially fluorinated polymers. In 1998, the PF-based GIPOF had an attenuation of around 30dB/km at 1310nm. Attenuation of 15dB/km was achieved only three years after and lower and lower values of attenuation are being achieved. The theoretical limit of PF-based GIPOFs is ~0.5 dB/km at 1250-1390nm [16]. In the estimation, the attenuation factors are divided in two: material-inherent scattering loss and material-inherent absorption loss. The first factor is mainly given by the Rayleigh scattering, following the relation αR∼(λ)−4. The second factor is given by the absorption caused by molecular vibrations. A detailed explanation on the estimation processes is described [17].
2.2. Dispersion
As aforementioned, pulse broadening in MMFs is generally caused by modal dispersion and chromatic dispersion. For MMFs it is necessary to consider the factors of material, modal and profile dispersion. The latter considers the wavelength dependence on the relative refractive index difference in graded index fibers. Waveguide dispersion additionally occurs in singlemode fibers, whereas profile dispersion and modal dispersion do not.
Figure 2.
Dispersion mechanisms in optical fibers.
All the kinds of dispersion appearing in optical fibers are summarized in Fig. 2. The mechanisms dependent on the propagation paths are marked in blue, whereas the wavelength-dependent processes are marked in red. Those mechanisms only affecting SMFs are outside from the scope of this work so they will be avoided. For multimode fibers modal dispersion and chromatic dispersion are the relevant processes to be considered.
In a generic description, chromatic dispersion is introduced by the effect that the speed of propagation of light of different wavelengths differs resulting in a wavelength dependence of the modal group velocity. The end result is that different spectral components arrive at slightly different times, leading to a wavelength-dependent pulse spreading, i.e. dispersion. As a matter of fact, the broader the spectral width (linewidth) of the optical source the greater is the chromatic dispersion. In PF-based POFs the chromatic dispersion is much smaller than in silica MMF for wavelengths up to 1100nm. For wavelengths above 1100nm, the dispersion of the PF-based GIPOF retains and the dispersion of silica MMF increases. The expression of such dispersion is given by:
Δtchrom=D(λ)⋅Δλ⋅L ; D(λ)=−λc⋅d2n(λ)dλ2E1
where D(λ) is the material dispersion parameter (usually given in ps/nm⋅km), Δλ is the spectral width of the light source, and L is the length of the fiber. Fig. 3(a) depicts a typical material dispersion curve as a function of the operating wavelength. for a PF GIPOF as well as a silica-based MMF with a SiO2 core doped with 6.3mol-% GeO2 and a SiO2 cladding. It is clearly seen the better performance in terms of material dispersion of the PF GIPOF compared to the silica-based counterpart, especially in the range up to 1100nm.
Figure 3.
(a) Typical material dispersion of the central core region for a silica-based MMF (blue solid line) and PF GIPOF (red dashed line). (b) Relation between the refractive index profile and bandwidth of 100m-long PF GIPOF. PMMA-GIPOF at 650nm is plotted for comparison.
On the other hand, modal dispersion is caused by the fact that the different modes (light paths) within the fiber carry components of the signals at different velocities, which ultimate results in pulse overlap and a garbled communications signal. Lower order modes propagate mainly along the waveguide axis, while the higher-order modes follow a more zigzag path, which is longer. If a short light pulse is excited at the input of the fiber, the lowest order modes arrive first at the end of the fiber and the higher order modes arrive later. The output pulse will thus be built up of all modes, with different arrival times, so the pulse is broadened.
To overcome and compensate for modal dispersion, the refractive index of the fiber core (or, alternatively, graded index exponent of the fiber core) is graded parabola-like from a high index at the fiber core center to a low index in the outer core region, i.e. by forming a graded-index (GI) fiber core profile. In such fibers, light travelling in a low refractive-index structure has a higher speed than light travelling in a high index structure and the higher order modes bend gradually towards the fiber axis in a shorter period of time because the refractive index is lower at regions away from the fiber core. The objective of the GI profile is to equalise the propagation times of the various propagating modes. Therefore, the time difference between the lower order modes and the higher order modes is smaller, and so the broadening of the pulse leaving the fiber is reduced and, consequently, the transmission bandwidth can be increased over the same transmission length. For negligible modal dispersion the ideal refractive index profile is around 2. This refractive index profile formed in the core region of multimode optical fibers plays a great role determining its bandwidth, because modal dispersion is generally dominant in the multimode fiber although an optimum refractive index profile can produce the minimum modal dispersion, i.e. larger bandwidth being almost independent of the launching conditions [18]. Fig. 3(b) shows the calculated bandwidth of a PF-based GIPOF operating at different wavelengths, in which it is assumed that the source spectral width is 1nm, with regards to the refractive index profile, α. The data of the bandwidth of a PMMA-based GIPOF at 650nm is also shown for comparison showing a maximum limited to approximately 1.8GHz for 100m by the large material dispersion. On the other hand, the smaller material dispersion of the PF polymer-based GIPOF permits a maximum bandwidth of 4GHz even at 650nm. Furthermore, when the signal wavelength is 1300nm, theoretical maximum bandwidth achieves 92GHz for 100m. The difference of the optimum index exponent value between 650nm and 1300nm wavelengths is caused by the inherent polarization properties of material itself. It should be mentioned that a uniform excitation has been assumed and no differential mode attenuation (DMA) and mode coupling (MC) effects have been considered. These effects will be briefly described later on.
To summarize, the different types of dispersion that appear in a MMF and their relation to the fiber bandwidth are analyzed in Fig. 4. This figure reports the PF GIPOF chromatic and modal dispersion and the total bandwidth of a 100m-long link as a function of the refractive index profile, at a wavelength of 1300nm. Fig. 4(b) depicts the corresponding 3-dBo (3-dB optical bandwidth) baseband bandwidth, related to Fig. 4(a). These plots are based on the same analysis of Fig. 3, which assumed a uniform excitation and neglected both the DMA and mode coupling effects. From these figures, the chromatic bandwidth is seen to show little dependence on α, which means that the material dispersion is the dominant contribution (with regards to the profile dispersion) in the transmission window considered. On the other hand, the modal bandwidth shows a highly peaked resonance with α. This is the well known characteristic feature of the grading. With the present choice of parameters values, that maximum bandwidth (i.e. minimum dispersion) approximately occurs at 2.18 at 1300nm, as shown in Fig. 4(a). Furthermore, the presence of crossover points (namely α1 and α2) shows that the total bandwidth may be limited either by the modal dispersion or the chromatic dispersion depending on the value of the refractive index profile. Focusing on Fig. 4(a), the chromatic dispersion will essentially limit the total bandwidth for α1<α<α2, whilst for α<α1 or α>α2 the modal dispersion will cause the main limitation. In other words, when the index exponent is around the optimum value (α-resonance), the modal dispersion effect on the possible 3-dB bandwidth (and so on the bit rate) is minimized and the chromatic dispersion dominates this performance. On the other hand, when the index exponent is deviated from the optimum, the modal dispersion increases becoming the main source of bandwidth limitation.
Figure 4.
(a) Dispersion effects versus refractive index profile for a 100m-long PF GIPOF, assuming equal power in all modes and a 1300nm light source with 1nm of spectral linewidth. Inset: zoom near the optimum profile region. (b) Corresponding 3-dBo bandwidth. (—) Total dispersion ; (- -) Modal dispersion ; (---) Chromatic dispersion.
It is also noteworthy that, since the PF polymer has low material and profile dispersions and the wavelength dependence of the optimum profile is decreased, a high bandwidth performance can be maintained over a wide wavelength range, compared to multimode silica or PMMA-based GIPOF fibers.
2.2.1. Dispersion modelling approach
The propagation characteristics of optical fibers are generally described by the wave equation which results directly from Maxwell’s equations and characterizes the wave propagation in a fiber as a dielectric wave guide in the form of a differential equation. In order to solve the equation, the field distributions of all modes and the attendant propagation constants, which results from the use of the boundary conditions, have to be determined.
The wave equation is basically a vector differential equation which can, however, under the condition of weak wave guidance be transformed into a scalar wave equation in which the polarization of the wave plays no role whatsoever [19]. The prerequisite for the weak wave guiding is that the refractive indices between the core and cladding hardly differ, being fulfilled quite well in silica fibers when the difference in refractive index between the core and cladding region is below 1%. Calculations based on the scalar wave equation only show very small inaccuracies with regards to the group delay. Then, the equations which describe the electric and magnetic fields are decoupled so that you can write a scalar wave equation.
The models based on the solution of the wave equation in the form of a mode solver differ fundamentally only in regard to the solution method and whether or not you are proceeding from a more computer-intensive vector wave equation or the more usual scalar wave equation. In the technical literature solutions for the vector wave equation with the aid of finite element method (FEM) [20], with finite differences (Finite Difference Time Domain Method - FDTD) [21] and the beam propagation method (BPM) [22] are well known. These are generally used for very small, mostly singlemode waveguides in which polarization characteristics play a role. Multimode fibers (including polymer fibers) are quite large and the polarization of light counts for only a few centimeters. That is why analytical estimations of the scalar wave equation, the so-called WKB (Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin, from whom the name derives) Method and Ray Tracing [23], are primarily used for the modeling of multimode fibers. In the latter, the propagating light through an optical system can be seen as the propagation of individual light rays following a slightly different path; these paths can be calculated using standard geometrical optics.
Focusing on the WKB method, the latter primarily makes available expressions, that can be calculated efficiently, for describing the propagations constants and group delays of the propagating modes within the fiber. In this method, whereas the field distributions in step index profile fibers can be determined analytically, the refractive index distribution over the radius of a graded index fiber can generally be described with a power-law, as Eq. 2 states. Fibers with power-law profiles possess the characteristic that the modes can be put in mode groups which have the same propagation constant and also similar mode delay (at least for exponents close to α=2). The propagation times of the modes are only then dependent on the propagation constant and then the group delay can be determined with the aid of the WKB Method by differentiating the propagation constant from the angular frequency [24].
n(r,λ)={n1(λ)[1−2Δ(λ)(ra)α]1/2 for 0≤r≤an1(λ)[1−2Δ(λ)]1/2 for r≥a with Δ(λ)=n12(λ)−n22(λ)2n12(λ)E2
where r is the offset distance from the core center, a is the fiber core radius (i.e. the radius at which the index n(r,λ) reaches the cladding value n2(λ)=n1(λ)[1−2Δ(λ)]1/2), n1(λ) is the refractive index in the fiber core center, λ is the free space wavelength of the fiber excitation light, α is the refractive index exponent and Δ(λ) is the relative refractive index difference between the core and the cladding. It is usually assumed that the core and cladding refractive index materials follow a three-term Sellmeier function of wavelength [25] given by:
ni(λ)=(1+∑k=13Ai,kλ2λ2−λi,k2)1/2 with i=1 (core), 2 (cladding)E3
where Ai,k and λi,k are the oscillator strength and the oscillator wavelength, respectively (both parameters are often gathered under the term of Sellmeier constants).
On the other hand, from the WKB analysis, the modal propagation constants can be approximately derived as following [26], in which each guided mode has its own propagation constant and therefore propagates at its own particular velocity:
βm=β(m,λ)=n1(λ)k[1−2Δ(λ)(mM(α,λ))2αα+2]1/2E4
where m stands for the principal mode number [27] and k=2π/λ is the free space wavenumber. This so-called principal mode number (mode group number or mode number) can be defined as m=2μ+ν+1 in which the parameters μ and ν are referred to as radial and azimuthal mode number, respectively. Physically, μ and ν represent the maximum intensities that may appear in the radial and azimuthal direction in the field intensities of a given mode. For a deeper analysis works reported in [28, 29] are recommended. On the other hand, M(α,λ) is the total number of mode groups that can be potentially guided in the fiber, given by [26]:
M(α,λ)=2πan1(λ)λ[α⋅Δ(λ)α+2]1/2E5
As a consequence of Eq. 4, the delay time τ(m,λ) of a mode depends only on its principal mode number. It should be mentioned that the differences in modal delay are those that determine the modal dispersion. The delay time of the guided modes (or modal delay per unit length) can be derived from Eq. 4 using the definition:
τ(m,λ)=−λ22πcdβ(m,λ)dλE6
where c is the speed of light in vacuum, deriving in:
where ε(λ) is the profile dispersion parameter given by [30]:
ε(λ)=−2n1(λ)N1(λ)λdΔ(λ)dλΔ(λ)E8
and N1(λ) is the material group index defined by:
N1(λ)=n1(λ)−λdn1(λ)dλE9
2.3. Differential mode attenuation
The distribution of the power among the different modes propagating through the fiber will also be affected by the Differential Mode Attenuation (DMA), also called mode-dependent attenuation, which causes the attenuation coefficient to vary from mode to mode in a different manner. It originates from conventional loss mechanisms that are present in usual optical fibers such as absorption, Rayleigh scattering [31] or losses on reflection at the core-cladding interface [32]. The following functional expression or empirical formula for the DMA is proposed, in which the DMA increases when incresing the mode order [33]:
αm=αm(m,λ)=αo(λ)+αo(λ)Iρ[η(m−1M)2αα+2]E10
where αo(λ) is the attenuation of low-order modes (i.e intrinsic fiber attenuation), Iρ is the ρ-th order modified Bessel function of the first kind and η is a weighting constant. This empirical formula is set up by noticing that most measured DMA data displayed in the literature for long wavelengths conform to the shape of modified Bessel functions [31, 34, 35]. It is also worth mentioning that, during propagation, modes with fastest power loss may be stripped off or attenuated so strongly that they no longer significantly contribute to the dispersion. In other words, the DMA is a filtering effect, which may yield a certain bandwidth enhancement depending on the launching conditions and the transmission length. From Fig. 5 it can be seen that low-order mode groups show similar attenuation (intrinsic fiber attenuation) whereas for high-order mode groups attenuation increases rapidly.
Figure 5.
(a) Differential mode attenuation (DMA) as a function of the normalized mode order m/M for a PF GIPOF with a=250µm, α=2, and λ=1300nm. An intrinsic attenuation of 60dB/km@1300nm has been considered. (b) Differential mode attenuation (DMA) as a function of the normalized mode order m/M for a silica MMF with a=31.25µm, α=2, and λ=1300nm. An intrinsic attenuation of 0.55dB/km@1300nm has been considered.
2.4. Mode coupling
Mode coupling is rather a statistical process in which modes exchange power with each other. Due to the mode coupling, the optical energy of the low-order modes would be coupled to higher-order modes, even if only the low-order modes would have launched selectively. This effect generally occurs through irregularities in the fiber, whether they are roughness of the core-cladding interface or impurities in the core material leading, for instance, to refractive index fluctuations. This effect can therefore only be described with statistical means. In addition, it is agreed that silica-based MMFs exhibit far less mode coupling compared to POF fibers [36]. This is attributed to the difference in the material properties.
The main effects for generating mode coupling are Rayleigh and Mie scattering which differ in the size of the scattering centers. Rayleigh scattering arises through the molecular structure of matter which is why no material can have perfectly homogenous properties. Its optical density fluctuates around a mean value which represents the refractive index of the material. These fluctuations are very small and have typical sizes in the range of molecules (<μm). Rayleigh scattering depends on the wavelength and decreases with greater wavelengths as of the fourth power (∼λ−4). In constrast, Mie scattering comes from the fluctuations of the refractive index which has greater typical lengths that mostly come about because of impurities in the material such as air bubbles or specks of dust which are large compared with the wavelength of light. The ensuing scattering has more of an effect on the direction of propagation of the light and is independent of the wavelength. Thinking of these aspects mode coupling reveals itself as a complex process which plays a great role in polymer fibers.
There are some approaches for the modeling of mode coupling which cannot be applied equally well in all propagation models [37, 38] while some descriptions present themselves rather in mode models [39]. Moreover, the coupling coefficients which describe the coupling between modes can either be described by analytical attempts which are based on observations of mode overlapping [40, 41]. However, it is demonstrated that in real fibers only very few modes effectively interact with each other and, moreover, neighboring or adjacent modes (those with similar propagation constants, modes m and m±1, respectively) primarily show strong mode coupling [42, 43]. As a matter of fact, larger core refractive index and higher fiber numerical aperture (NA) values are expected to decrease the mode coupling in GIPOFs. In addition, larger mode coupling effects are observed in SIPOFs compared to that GIPOFs counterparts.
Mode coupling alters the achievable bandwidth of a multimode fiber. According to the laws of statistics, the differential delay (or more precisely, the standard deviation) between the different propagating modes does not increase in a linear relationship to the length but approximately only proportional to the square root of the length. The best known approach for approximately determining the coupling length of the fiber is the description with the aid of a length-dependent bandwidth, in the way BW∝Lγ. Here the coupling length is the point in which the linear decrease (γ≈−1) in the bandwidth turns to a root dependency (γ≈−0.5) under mode coupling. From this point, a state of equilibrium arises through mode coupling effects. Typical values of coupling length in silica-based GI-MMFs are in the order of units of kilometers [44] whereas in the case of PF GIPOFs usually range from 50m up to 150m.
3. Multimode optical fiber capabilities
Emerging themes in next-generation access (NGA) research include convergence technologies, in which wireline-wireless convergence is addressed by Radio-over-Fiber (RoF) technologies. Photonics will transport gigabit data across the access network, but the final link to the end-user (measured in distances of metres, rather than km\'s) could well be wireless, with portable/mobile devices converging with photonics. RoF technologies can address the predicted multi-Gbps data wave, whilst conforming to reduced carbon footprints (i.e. green telecoms). NGA networks will provide a common resource, with passive optical networks (PONs) supplying bandwidth to buildings, and offering optical backhaul for such systems.
It has been indicated by several roadmaps that the peak link data rate should be at least 100Mbps (symmetrical) for private customers and 1 to 10Gbps for business applications. Inherent access network requirements are highlighted in Table 1. These hundreds of megabits per second per user are reasonably reachable in the coming future and the Fiber To The Home (FTTH, or some intermediate version such as FTT-curb) network constitutes a fiber access network, connecting a large number of end users to a central point, commonly known as an access node. Each access node will contain the required active transmission equipment used to provide the applications and services over optical fiber to the subscriber.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tParameter\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tRemarks\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Transmission distances
\n\t\t\t
Typ. <10km, max. 20km, e.g. for alternative topologies
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Peak data rate
\n\t\t\t
100Mbps (private customers) Nx1 Gbps up to 10Gbps (business)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Temperature range
\n\t\t\t
Controlled: +10ºC to +50ºC Uncontrolled operation in buildings: -5ºC to +85ºC Uncontrolled operation in the field: -33ºC to +85ºC
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Long lifetime
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Humidity and vibrations (shock) have to be considered at non-weather protected locations
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
No optical amplifiers in the field
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
No optical dispersion compensation
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Access network requirements.
On the one hand, Ethernet is the most widespread wired LAN technology, including in-home networks, and the development of Ethernet standards goes hand in hand with the adoption and development of improved MMF channels [45]. And Ethernet standards for 1Gbps and 10Gbps designed for multimode and singlemode fibers are now in use. Table 2 shows the minimum performance specified by IEEE 802.3 standard for the various interfaces. For example, 10-Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) standard operating at 10.3125Gbps@1300nm supports a range of transmission lengths of 300m over multimode silica fiber and 10km over singlemode silica fiber. Actually OM4 fiber type is under consideration although is not yet within a published standard. OM4 fiber type defines a 50µm core diameter MMF with a minimum modal bandwidth (under OverFilled Launching condition, OFL) of 3500MHz‧km@850nm and 500MHz‧km@1300nm, respectively. Nevertheless, data rate transmission research achievements are not at par as those covered by the standard and report even greater values. Some significant works are reported in [46-48]. Different techniques or even a combination of some of them were applied to achieved these transmission records. Some of them will be briefly discussed in next section.
10-Gigabit Ethernet transmission over fiber standards (IEEE 802.3aq). Approved in 2006.
*TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association), Document 492AAAA compliance. Commonly referred to as \'FDDI-grade\' fiber.
** ISO (International Standards Organization), Document 11801 compliance.
*** n.a.: not available.
Figure 6 provides a brief description of the current 10GbE and the possible future Ethernet standards over copper and fiber links [6]. The trend of extending the reach and data rate of the links is obvious in the previous standards and the 10GbE standards shown in the figure. Although the twisted pair of copper wires is a relatively low-cost and low-power solution compared to the MMF solutions, the motivation for the transition from the copper-based links to the MMF links is their much higher available bandwidth. However, the need for even higher performance MMF solutions is apparent, and much more is to be expected, for example, with new ultra-HDTV format such as 4K (4000 horizontal pixels, with an expected increase in the required bandwidth of a factor of approximately 16).
Figure 6.
Gigabit Ethernet (10GbE) standards over MMF and copper links [44].
On the other hand, another important point in access networks communications is within the field of the wireless signal transmission (for both mobile and data communication), namely Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs). Wireless technologies are developing fast but there is a need to link base stations/servers to the antenna by using fixed links together with the future exploitation of capacities well beyond present day standards (IEEE802.11a/b/g), which offer up to 54Mbps and operate at 2.4GHz and 5GHz, as well as 3G mobile networks such as IMT2000/UMTS
IMT2000: International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 ; UMTS:Universal Mobile Telecommunications System.
, which offer up to 2Mbps and operate around 2GHz. Moreover, IEEE802.16, otherwise known as WiMAX, is another recent standard aiming to bridge the last mile through mobile and fixed wireless access to the end user at frequencies between 2-11GHz. In addition, WiMAX also aims to provide Fixed Wireless Access at bit-rate in the excess of 100Mbps and at higher frequencies between 10-66GHz. All these services use signals at the radio-frequency (RF) level that are analogue in nature, at least in the sense that they cannot be carried directly by digital baseband modulation. Optical cabling solutions can also offer the possibility for semi-transparent transport of these signals by using Radio-over-Fiber (RoF) technology. This RoF technology has been proposed as a solution for reducing overall system complexity by transferring complicated RF modem and signal processing functions from radio access points (RAPs) to a centralised control station (CS), thereby reducing system-wide installation and maintenance costs. Furthermore, although RoF in combination with multimode fibers can be deployed within homes and office buildings for baseband digital data transmission within the Ultra Wide Band (UWB), in general low carrier frequencies offer low bandwidth and the 6GHz UWB unlicensed low band is not available worldwide due to coexistence concerns [49]. These include radio and TV broadcasts, and systems for (vital) communication services such as airports, police and fire, amateur radio users and many others. In contrast, the 60 GHz-band, within millimetre wave, offers much greater opportunities as the resulting high radio propagation losses lead to numerous pico-cell sites and thus to numerous radio access points due to the limited cell coverage. These pico-cells are a natural way to increase capacity (i.e. to accommodate more users) and to enable better frequency spectrum utilisation. Therefore, for broadband wireless communication systems to offer the needed high capacity, it appears inevitable to increase the carrier frequencies even to the range of millimetre-wave and to reduce cell sizes [50]. Considering in-house wireless access networks, coaxial cable is very lossy at such frequencies and the bulk of the installed base of in-building fiber is silica-based MMF. Meanwhile PF GIPOF is also emerging as an attractive alternative, due to the aforementioned low cost potential and easier handling required in in-building networks. It is also mandatory to overcome the modal bandwidth limitation in multimode fibers to deliver modulated high frequency carriers to remote access points.
Following on this, it should be mentioned that PF GIPOFs have been demonstrated capable for transmission of tens of Gbps over distances of hundreds of meters. Some examples are reported in [51-53] in which more than 40Gbps over 100m of PF GIPOF are reported. An overview of some significant works over the years regarding GIPOF transmission can be seen in [54]. This is in contrast with all commercially available step-index POFs (SIPOFs) in which the bandwidth of transmission is limited to about 5MHz‧km [6] due to modal dispersion. Therefore, even in the short-range communication scenario, the SIPOF is not able to cover the data rate of more than 100Mbps that would be necessary in many standards of the telecommunication area. Therefore, the SIPOF is mainly aimed at very short-range data-range transmission (less than 50m), image guiding and illumination.
Although multimode fibers, both silica-based and polymer-based counterparts, are the best candidate for the convergence and achievement of a full service access network context, it has been previously addressed their main disadvantage concerning the limited bandwidth performance, limited by modal dispersion. For instance, for standard 62.5/125µm silica-based MMFs, the minimum bandwidths are only specified to be 200MHz‧km and 500MHz‧km (up to 800MHz‧km) in the 850nm and 1300nm transmission windows, respectively, under OverFilled Launch (OFL) condition
ISO/IEC (International Standards Organization/International Electrotechnical Commission) 11801-“Generic cabling for customer premises”.
. Even though these specifications do satisfy the information rate of many classical short-range links, it is clear that a 2km-long campus backbone cannot be realized for operation at the speed of Gigabit Ethernet. This limited bandwidth hampers the desired integration of multiple broadband services into a common multimode fiber access or in-building/home network. Overcoming the bandwidth limitation of such fibers requires the development of techniques oriented to extend the capabilities of multimode fiber networks to attend the consumer’s demand for multimedia services.
Figure 7.
Feeding microwave data signals over a multimode network by OFM technique.
Novel techniques to expand the MMF capabilities and surmount this bandwidth bottleneck are continuously reported demonstrating that the frequency response of MMF does not diminish monotonically to zero after the baseband bandwidth, but tends to have repeated passbands beyond that [55]. In recent times, these high-order passbands and flat regions have been used in research to transmit independent streams of data (digital or analogue) complementary to the baseband bandwidth in order to exceed the aggregated transmission capacity of MMF [56] as well as to transport microwave and mm-wave radio carriers, commonly employed for creating high-capacity picocell wireless networks in RoF systems, as in [57]. Related to this latter technique, the Optical Frequency Multiplying (OFM) is a method by which a low-frequency RF signal is up-converted to a much higher microwave frequency through optical signal processing [58]. At the headend station, a wavelength-tunable optical source is used, of which the wavelength is periodically swept over a wavelength range with a sweep fSW while keeeping its output power constant. The data is then impressed on this wavelength-swept optical signal, see Fig. 7. After having passed through the optical fiber link, the signal impinges on a periodic optical multi-passband filter (e.g. optical comb or Fabry-Perot filter). In sweeping across N transmission peaks of this filter (back and forth during one wavelength sweep cycle), light intensity burts arrive on the photodiode with a frequency 2‧N‧fSW. Thus, the output signal of the photodiode contains a microwave frequency component at the above frequency and higher harmonics of which the strength depends on the bandpass characteristics of the periodic filter. Then, in order to select the desired harmonic, a bandapss filtering plus some amplification could be implemented. Note that only the optical sweep frequency is limited by the bandwidth of the optical fiber link, and that microwave carrier frequency can exceed this bandwidth by far due to the optical frequency multiplication mechanism. Extremely pure generated microwave signals have been demonstrated, notwithstanding a moderate laser spectral linewidth, due to the inherent phase noise cancellation in the OFM technique [59, 60].
On the other hand, subcarrier multiplexing (SCM) is a mature, simple, and cost effective approach for exploiting optical fiber bandwidth in analogue optical communication systems in general and RoF systems in particular. This technique was firstly addressed at the end of the 1990\'s in [61], which also takes advantage of the relative flat passband channels existing in the multimode fiber frequency response. Basically, in SCM, the RF signal (the subcarrier) is used to modulate an optical carrier at the transmitter\'s side. As a result, there is an optical spctrum consisting of the original optical carrier f0 plus two side-tones located at f0 ± fSC, where fSC is the subcarrier frequency. If the subcarrier itlsef is modulated with data (either analogue or digital), then sidebands centered on f0 ± fSC are produced. Finally, to multiplex multiple channels on to one optical carrier, multiple subcarriers are first combined and then used to modulate the optical carrier [62]. At the receiver\'s side the sucarriers are recovered through direct detection. One of the main advantages of SCM is that it supports broadband mixed mode data traffic with independent modulation format. Moreover, one subcarrier may carry digital data, while another may be modulated with an analogue signal, such as telephone traffic. However, the frequency ranges suitable for passband transmission vary from fiber to fiber as well as with the fiber length, the launching conditions or if the fiber is subjected to mechanical stress. Nevertheless, to overcome this limitation, an adaptative channel/allocation system would be necessary. Another drawback is that being SCM an analogue communication technique, it becomes more sensitive to noise effects and distortions due to non-linearities in the communications system.
It is worth noting that some other methods try to electrically improve this bandwidth performance using, for example, equalization techniques [63, 64]. In addition to, it is well known than an m-ary digital modulation scheme with m>2 (multi-level coding) can enhance transmission capacity by overcoming the bandwidth limitations of a transmitter or a transmission medium and, therefore, multilevel modulation schemes that are used in radio-frequency communications have also been demonstrated in fiber-optic links [65]. Other attempts to overcome the bandwidth limit includes selective excitation of a limited number of modes, so-called Restricted Mode Launching (RML), in different ways: offset launch [66], conventional center launch [67] or even by means of a twin-spot technique [68]. Since the propagating modes are fewer under RML launch conditions, the difference in propagating times between the fastest and slowest modes is smaller, thus decreasing modal dispersion and increasing the corresponding bandwidth. In a similar way, Mode Group Diversity Multiplexing (MGDM) [69, 70] can be applied, in which the bandwidth increase is achieved by injecting a small light spot radially offset from the fiber core center thus limiting the number of modes excited within the fiber and, therefore, performing different simultaneous data transmission channels depending on the group of modes propagating. On the other hand, from the multimode fiber frequency response, the effect of having a wideband frequency-selective channel for data transmission can be overcome by using orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM). In OFDM, the high-data-rate signal is error-correction encoded and then divided into many low-data-rate signals. By doing this, the wideband frequency-selective channel is separated into a series of many narrowband frequency-nonselective channels. OFDM technique has been applied to fiber-optic transmission [71] and shown to offer some protection against the frequency selectivity of a dispersive multimode fiber. Mode filtering techniques, either at the fiber input [72] or its output [73] have also been applied.
As cost is a key issue in local and residential networks, the use of Wavelength Division Multiplexing Passive Optical Network (WDM-PON) architectures for distribution of RoF signals has gained importance recently as WDM enables the efficient exploitation of the fiber network\'s bandwidth. This architecture acts as the starting point from the access node to the subscribing homes and buildings, constituting the all-optical fiber path. WDM-PON promises to combine both sharing feeder fibers while still providing dedicated point-to-point connectivity [74]. A basic scheme of the WDM-PON architecture can be seen in Fig. 1(b). In this case, optical microwave/mm-wave signals from multiple sources, which can be located in a Central Office (CO) or Optical Line Terminal (OLT) can be multiplexed and the composite signal is transported through an optical fiber and, finally, demultiplexed to address each Optical Network Terminal (ONT) or Remote Access Point (RAP), the latter for wireless applications. However, a challenging issue concerns the applications of these signals as the optical spectral width of a single mm-wave source may approach or exceed the WDM channel spacing.
Finally, it is worth mentioning that there is not the desire of making a competition between optical and wireless solutions, since wireless is and will always be present inside the building or home. In contrast, research and development are focusing on the coexistence of both technologies.
4. Theoretical approach of multimode optical fibers
4.1. Introduction
The restricted bandwidth of the multimode fiber has been one of the main causes that makes the specification and designing of the physical media dependent layer very difficult. Moreover, the potentials of MMFs to support broadband RF, microwave and millimetre wave transmission over short, intermediate and long distances to meet user requirements for higher data rates and to support emerging multimedia applications are yet to be fully known. To enable the design and utilization of MMFs with such enhanced speeds, the development of an accurate frequency response model to describe the signal propagation through multimode fibers is of prime importance. Through this multimode fiber modelling more likely performance limits can be established, thereby preventing eventual overdesign of systems and the resulting additional cost.
Since the mid-1970’s, much work has been directed to the investigation of MMFs and their ability for high speed transmission. Different factors have clearly been identified to influence the information-carrying capacity, namely the material dispersion (in combination with the spectrum of the exciting source) [26], the launching conditions [66] as well as the mode-dependent characteristics, i.e. delay [26], attenuation [75] and coupling coefficient [27]. Unfortunately, the achievements, so far accomplished, are not quite complete to enable precise frequency response and bandwidth prediction if an arbitrary operating condition is to be considered.
The most popular technique reported so far for the analysis of signal propagation through MMF fibers is that based on the coupled power-flow equations developed by Gloge [76] in the early 70\'s and later improved by Olshansky [27] and Marcuse [28], to account for the propagation and time spreading of digital pulses through MMFs. Most of the published models and subsequent work on the modelling of MMFs [29, 77-79] are based on this method in which the MMF power transfer function is solved by means of a numerical procedure like the Crank-Nicholson method, for instance [29]. However, other methods rely on solving the system of coupled equations adopting the matrix formalism [80].
The power-flow equations are adequate for the description of digital pulse propagation through MMFs but present several limitations either when considering the propagation of analogue signals or when a detailed knowledge of the baseband and RF transfer function is required since in these situations the effect of the signal phase is important. To overcome these limitations it is necessary to employ a method relying on the propagation of electric field signals rather than optical power signals. Unfortunately, there are very few of such descriptions available in the literature with the exception of the works reported in [54, 81, 82].
From literature, it is demonstrated that the frequency characteristics of multimode fibers should show significant high-frequency components, i.e. higher-frequency transmission lobes, resonances or passbands are expected in the fiber frequency response. And these higher-frequency transmission lobes would allow to transport information signals by modulating them on specific carrier frequencies, as an independent transmission channel each. These modulated carriers can be positioned in such a way that they will optimally fit into the higher-frequency transmission lobes of the multimode fiber link thus increasing the aggregated transmission capacity over MMFs. Furthermore, it has been stated that the contrast ratio between resonances reveals a dramatically reduction as the frequency increases thus providing potential for broadband transmission at even higher frequencies than those determined by the transmission lobes.
The position of these higher-frequency lobes depends on the fiber link length, and on the exact fiber characteristics, which may vary due to external circumstances such as induced stress by bending or environmental temperature variations. Any system that would take advantage of such high-frequency transmission lobes would have to adapt to those variations, e.g. monitoring the fiber link frequency response by injecting some weak pilot tones, and allocating the subcarriers accordingly would be a feasible solution. Anyway, this in turn is contingent on the availability of accurate models to describe the microwave radio signals propagation over multimode fibers. With such a predictive tool, notwithstanding its restricted bandwidth, a single multimode fiber network that may carry a multitude of broadband services using the higher-order transmission lobes would become more feasible. Thus, easy-to-install multimode fiber networks for access and in-building/home can be realised in which wirebound and wireless services were efficiently integrated.
4.2. Mathematical framework
In this section a closed-form analytic expression to compute the baseband and RF transfer function of a MMF link based on the electric field propagation method is briefly presented. By obtaining an accurate model it is possible to evaluate the conditions upon which broadband transmission is possible in RF regions far from baseband. For a deeper comprehension works reported in [81, 82] are recommended.
Figure 8.
Scheme of a generic Multimode Optical Fiber link. IM: Intensity optical Modulator.
Fig. 8 shows a generic optical transmission system scheme which employs a multimode optical fiber as a transmission medium. E(t,r¯,z) represents the electric field at a point located at a distance z from the fiber origin and at a point r¯ of its cross section. E(t,r¯,0) represents the electric field at the fiber origin and at a point r¯ of its cross section and S(t) is the modulation signal composed of a RF tone with modulation index mo.
Thus the optical intensity at a point z, I(t,r¯,z), depends directly on the electric field E(t,r¯,z) at a point located at a distance z from the fiber origin and at a point r¯ of its cross section. Both the electric field and the optical intensity can be expressed, using the electric field propagation model and referred to the system described in Fig. 8, as [82]:
where N is the number of guided modes, hμν(t) is the impulse response at z caused by mode ν at the fiber origin over mode μ at z and eν(r) is the modal spatial profile of mode ν. It has been assumed that non linear effects are negligible.
Let S(t) be the modulation signal composed of a RF tone with modulation index mo assuming a linear modulation scheme (valid for direct and external modulation), which incorporates the source chirp αC, and approximated by three terms of its Fourier series, following:
S(t)=So{1+mo8(1+jαC)ejΩt+mo8(1+jαC)e−jΩt}E13
where So is proportional to the average optical power and Ω represents the frequency of the RF modulating signal. It has also been assumed an optical source which has a finite linewidth spectrum (temporal coherence) defined by a Gaussian time domain autocorrelation function.
Assuming a stationary temporal coherence of the source and assuming that the detector collects the light impinging on the detector area Ar, and produces an electrical current proportional to the optical power given by:
Q(t′,t″)=R(t′,t″)QO(t′,t″) and QO(t′,t″)=∑μ=1N∑ν=1N∑μ′=1N∑ν′=1NCμμ′χνν′〈hμν*(t′)hμ′ν′(t″)〉E15
From the above equations:
The term Q(t′,t″) is referred to the influence of the source/fiber/detector system.
The term QO(t′,t″) depends on the fiber and the power coupling from to the source to the fiber and from the fiber to the detector.
The spatial coherence of the source related to the fiber modes is provided by Cμμ′.
χνν′ is defined as χνν′=∫Areν*(r¯)eν′(r¯)dr¯. In the special case where the detector collects all the incident light χνν′=δνν′.
The term 〈hμν*(t−t′)hμ′ν′(t−t″)〉 is referred to the fiber dispersion and to the mode coupling.
This last term, relative to the propagation along the fiber, is composed of two parts, one describing the independent propagation of modes hμν*(t−t′) and a second one describing the power coupling between modes hμ′ν′(t−t″). For analysing this term, it is required to consider the N coupled mode propagation equations (field amplitudes) in the frequency domain which refer to an N-mode multimode fiber. A detailed study of this analysis can be found in [54, 82].
Although Eq. (14) reveals a nonlinear relationship between the output and the input electrical signals being not possible to define a transfer function, under several conditions linearization is possible yielding to a linear system with impulse response Q(t). This linear response is given by [81]:
P(t)=∫−∞∞S(t′)Q(t−t′,t−t′)dt′E16
The impulse response terms of the fiber can then be found by inverse Fourier transforming the above matrix elements. Upon substitution in Eq. (16) it is found that P(t) is composed of two terms P(t)=PU(t)+PC(t) being PU(t) the optical power in absence of mode coupling and PC(t) the contribution of modal coupling. Moreover, both the coupled and uncoupled parts can be divided into a linear and a non-linear term, respectively. These non-linear terms will contribute to the harmonic distortion and intermodulation effects. Grouping the linear contributions of the uncoupled and the coupled parts, and comparing the power of the lineal part of the total power received (sum of contributions from the coupled and uncoupled parts) with the power of one of the sidebands of the electric modulating signal, it is possible to obtain the final overall RF transfer function, yielding Eq. (17). For a detailed description of the evaluation of both terms, see the works reported in [54, 82].
The expression of Eq. (17) provides a description of the main factors affecting the RF frequency response of a multimode fiber link and can be divided as the product of three terms of factors. From the left to the right, the first term is a low-pass frequency response which depends on the first order chromatic dispersion parameter βo2 which is assumed to be equal for all the modes guided by the fiber, and the parameter σC which is the source coherence time directly related to the source linewidth. The second term is related to the Carrier Suppression Effect (CSE) due to the phase offset between the upper and lower modulation sidebands, as the optical signal travels along a dispersive waveguide, i.e. optical fiber. When the value of this relative phase offset is 180 degrees, a fading of the tone takes place. Finally, the third term represents a microwave photonic transversal filtering effect [83], in which each sample corresponds to a different mode group m carried by the fiber. Coefficients Cmm, χmm and Gmm stand for the light injection efficiency, the mode spatial profile impinging the detector area and the mode coupling coefficient, respectively. This last term involves that the periodic frequency response of transversal filters could permit broadband RF, microwave and mm-wave transmissions far from baseband thus achieving a transmission capacity increase in such fiber links. Parameters αmm and τmm represent the differential mode attenuation (DMA) effect and the delay time of the guided modes per unit length, respectively.
5. Analysis and results on silica-based multimode optical fibers
The MMF transfer function presented in Eq. (17) provides a description of the main factors affecting the RF frequency response of a multimode fiber link, including the temporal and spatial source coherence, the source chirp, chromatic and modal dispersion, mode coupling (MC), signal coupling to modes at the input of the fiber, coupling between the output signal from the fiber and the detector area, and the differential mode attenuation (DMA). Theoretical simulations and experimental results are studied with regards to several parameters in order to determine the optimal conditions for a higher transmission bandwidth in baseband and to investigate the potencials for broadband Radio-over-Fiber (RoF) systems in regions far from baseband using multimode fiber.
For the simulation results in this section it has been considered a 62.5/125µm core/cladding diameter graded-index multimode fiber (GI-MMF) with a typically SiO2 core doped with 6.3 mol-% GeO2 and a SiO2 cladding, and intrinsic attenuation of 0.55dB/km. This typical doping value has been provided by the manufacturer. The refractive indices were approximated using a three-term Sellmeier function for 1300nm and 1550nm wavelengths. Sellmeier coefficients were provided by the manfacturer. Core and cladding refractive indices as a function of wavelength, from the Sellemier equation, Eq. (3), are illustrated in Fig. 9. A comparison of the core refractive index for a different core doped multimode fiber consisting of 7.5mol-% GeO2 is given. The parameters relative to the differential mode attenuation were fitted to ρ=9 and η=7.35. Coefficient Gmm was obtained assuming a random coupling process defined by a Gaussian autocorrelation function [28] with a rms deviation of σ=0.0009 and a correlation length of ς=115⋅a, being a the fiber core radius. The rms linewidth of the source was set to 10MHz and its chirp parameter to zero. A refractive index profile of α=2 was considered. Overfilled launching condition (OFL) was also assumed so that the light injection coefficient was set to Cmm=1/M, being M the total number of mode groups.
Figure 9.
MMF core (ncci) and cladding (ncl) refractive index for different dopant concentration.
Fig. 10 illustrates the frequency response of a 3km-long GI-MMF link in absence and presence of DMA and mode coupling effects. An optical source operating at 1300nm and with 10MHz of linewidth has been considered. The filtering effect caused by the DMA is decreased when considering the presence of the mode coupling phenomenon. Moreover, the RF baseband bandwidth is increased by mode coupling while DMA has little effect on the bandwidth itself. Anyway, not considering mode coupling effects, Fig. 10 illustrates the classical conflict relationship between dispersion and loss in MMFs in general. As a matter of fact, the large DMA of high-order modes necessarily causes a large power penalty during light propagation, but at the same time it yields a bandwidth enhancement as a result of the mode stripping effect. Finally if mode coupling effects are considered, there is no deviation on the resonance central frequencies no matter the fiber DMA whilst DMA has a significant effect when mode coupling is considered to be negligible. fo|n refers to the possible transmission channels far from baseband that could be employed.
Figure 10.
(a) Frequency responses up to 40GHz for a 62.5/125µm GIMMF showing the effect of mode coupling and DMA. L=3km. (b) Zoom up to 5GHz.
The influence of the optical fiber properties over its frequency response is of great importance. Parameters such as the core radius, the graded-index exponent, length and the core refractive index count for this matter. Nevertheless, the most critical parameter that define the behaviour and performance of a graded-index optical fiber type is its refractive index profile α. It should be outlined that this index profile may slightly vary with wavelength, always due to the eventually nonlinear Sellmeier coefficients. As a consequence of this, a profile conceived to be optimal (in terms of bandwidth, for example) at a given wavelength may will be far from optimal at another wavelength. This fact was also addressed in Section 2.2. The α-dispersion is imposed by the dopant and its concentration, so this impairment is not easy to overcome. Furthermore, these latter parameters can also be affected by temperature impairments, as recently reported in [84]. Frequency responses are displayed in Fig. 11(a) for a 2km-long GI-MMF link showing the influence of 1% fiber refractive index profile deviations on the RF transfer function. The rest of parameters for the simulations take the same value as aforementioned. Significant displacements of the high-order resonances over the frequency spectrum are noticed. From simulation conditions, attending to Fig. 11(a), an increase of α\'=α+0.04 produces a change of the first-order resonance central frequency of 3.2GHz. It is also noticeable that the 3-dB passband bandwidth of the high-order resonances is also highly influenced. Both facts could cause a serious MMF link fault if multiple-GHz carriers are intended to be transmitted through this physical medium when performing a RoMMF system.
Figure 11.
(a) Influence of the refractive index profile on the GI-MMF frequency response for a 2km-long link. (b) GI-MMF frequency response for different link lengths, covering access reach.
The MMF frequency response dependence on the link length is shown in Fig. 11(b), covering typical access network distances. High-order resonances far from baseband are slightly displaced over the frequency spectrum with changes in attenuation depending on the case. In addition, transmission regions can be easily identified as well as the effect of the carrier suppression (CSE) due to the presence of intermediate notches, as seen in the case of L=20km. This effect can not be overlooked but could be avoided using single sideband modulation
Finally, the following figures illustrate both the influence of the optical source linewidth characteristic as well as the launching condition with regards to the GI-MMF frequency response. The influence of other optical source characterisitics such as the source chirp and the operating wavelength can be seen in [54]. It should be noted that wavelength emission provided by the optical source links with different optical fiber properties to be considered. Parameters such as the core and cladding refractive indices, the material dispersion, the propagation constant, the intrinsic attenuation and the number of propagated modes strongly depend on the optical wavelength launched into the fiber, being not an easy task to determine a real comparison about the influence of this parameter on the frequency response.
Fig. 12(a) illustrates the GI-MMF frequency response of a 3km-long link for three different optical sources operating at 1300nm. The rest of parameters take the same value as those previously indicated. The response for the DFB laser (with a Full Width Half Maximum -FWHM- of 10MHz) behaves relatively flat at high frequencies. The frequency response employing a FP laser with 5.5nm linewidth however suffers from a low-pass effect, determined by a 40dB fall at 40GHz. In the case of using a broadband light source, such a Light Emitting Diode (LED) with 30nm of source linewidth, the response falls dramatically after a few GHz and no high-order resonances are observed. On the other hand, the influence of the launching condition on the frequency response can be seen in Fig. 12(b). A GI-MMF link of 1km and an input power spectral density conforming a Gaussian lineshape from a DFB optical source with 10MHz FWHM have been considered. From the frequency response it is noticeable the dramatic enhancement of the baseband bandwidth as well as the achievement of a flat response in all the 20GHz-spectrum considered.
Figure 12.
(a) Influence of the optical source temporal coherence on the frequency response of a 3km-long GI-MMF link. (b) Influence of the light injection on the frequency response of a 1km-long GI-MMF link.
By evaluating the latter results, it is observed that exploiting the possibility of transmitting broadband signals at high frequencies is contingent on the use of both narrow-linewidth optical sources and selective mode-launching schemes. These requirements were also confirmed in the work reported in [82].
Some measurement examples of the silica-based MMF transfer function are presented highlighting the conditions upon broadband MMF transmission in regions far from baseband can be featured thus validating the theoretical model described and proposed in [81]. The setup schematic for the experimental measurements is shown in Fig. 13.
Figure 13.
Block diagram of the experimental setup for the silica-based GI-MMF frequency response measurement up to 20GHz.
A Lightwave Component Analyzer (LCA, Agilent 8703B, 50MHz–20GHz) has been used to measure the frequency response, using a 100Hz internal filter. In all cases the laser was externally intensity modulated with an RF sinusoidal signal up to 20GHz of modulation bandwidth, by means of an electro-optic (E/O) Mach-Zehnder modulator (model JDSU AM-130@1300nm and JDSU AM-155@1550nm). At the receiver, the frequency response is detected by using a high-speed PIN photodiode, model DSC30S, from Discovery Semiconductors. It should be mentioned that the experimental results of the silica-based GI-MMF link shown in this section have been calibrated with regards to both the E/O intensity modulator and the photodetector electrical responses, being therefore solely attributed to the MMF fiber. It should be also noted that the ripples observed are caused by reflections in the optical system and are not features of the fiber response, although FC/APC connectors are used to minimize this effect. To perform different launching conditions, the optical output of the E/O modulator was passed through a 62.5/125µm silica-based MMF fiber patch cord plus a mode scrambler before being launched to the MMF link. This optical launching scheme provides an OFL condition for light injection. On the other hand, selective central mode launching was achieved by injecting light to the system via a SMF patchcord.
Fig. 14(a) shows the measured frequency response for a 3km silica-based GI-MMF link. As it was expected from the theory, while the response for the DFB laser (@1550nm) behaves relatively flat at high frequencies, with maximum variations of approximately ± 0.8 dB with regards to a mean level of approximately 2.5dB below the low frequency regime, the response relative to the FP laser (@1310nm) suffers from a low pass effect characterized by a 15dB fall at 20GHz. In the case of the Broadband Light Source (BLS), the response falls dramatically after a few GHz. Therefore, as previously stated, exploiting the possibility of transmitting broadband RF signals at high frequencies is contingent on the use of narrow-linewidth sources. This latter performance stands regardless the operating wavelength from the optical source.
Figure 14.
(a) Measured influence of the optical source linewidth on the silica-based GI-MMF frequency response. (b) Measured influence of the launching condition on the silica-based GI-MMF frequency response.
Additionally, two launching conditions, RML and OFL, were also applied to the fiber link. Results are shown in Fig. 14(b), and were performed by using a DFB laser operating at with FWHM of 100kHz. As expected, for the RML condition, in which a limited number of modes is excited, the typical transversal filtering effect of the MMF is significantly reduced, thus achieving an increased flat response over a broader frequency range spectrum. It should be noted that the distance values comprising Fig. 14 are representative of currently deployed moderate-length fiber links.
Figure 15.
(a) Theoretical and measured frequency response of a 3km- and 6km-long silica based GI-MMF link with a FP laser source operating at 1300nm. (b) Theoretical and measured frequency response of a 9km-long silica-based GI-MMF link with a DFB laser source operating at 1550nm [84].
Finally, the above figures show a comparison between the curves predicted by the theoretical model and the experimental results showing good agreement between them. A FP source operating at 1300nm with Δλ=1.8nm of source linewidth has been employed in measurements reported in Fig. 15(a). An OFL excitation at the fiber input end has been applied. Theoretical curves have been obtained considering a silica-based MMF with a SiO2 core doped with 6.3mol-% GeO2 and a SiO2 cladding, with a refractive index profile of α=1.921 and an intrinsic attenuation coefficient of αo=0.59dB/kmat 1300nm. The latter was measured employing Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) techniques. Core and cladding refractive indices have been calculated using a three-term Sellmeier function. It has also been assumed a free chirp source. Differential Mode Attenuation (DMA) effects have been considered by setting ρ=8.7; η=7.35. Additionally, a random coupling process defined by a Gaussian autocorrelation function has beeen defined for the mode coupling with a correlation length of ς=0.0036m and rms deviations of σ=0.0012@3km and σ=0.0017@6km. Fig. 15(a) also addresses the high-order resonances (passband) suppression effect as the source linewidth increases.. This is due to the fact that in this latter case the low pass term in Eq. (17) begins to dominate over the other two. In constrast, in Fig. 15(b), a DFB laser source with 100kHz of linewidth and operating at 1550nm has been employed. An intrinsic fiber attenuation coefficient of αo=0.31dB/km at 1550nm was measured and a rms deviation of σ=0.0022@9km was considered for a link length of 9km. The rest of parameters take the same values as aforementioned. Several passband channels suitable for multiple-GHz carrier transmission over the frequency spectrum are observed as well as a relatively flat region over 17GHz. However, a significant discrepancy can be observed in the resonances excursions, being the measured ones not so pronounced compare to what the model predicts, i.e. the measured filtering effect is decreased compare to what it is expected. Many reasons can be attributed for this behaviour but mainly due to both the DMA and mode coupling modelling approaches considered.
Finally, although the 3-dB bandwidth of the baseband frequency response has not been paid much attention in this analysis, it is commonly agreed that the measurement uncertainty in characterizing this parameter is quite large and a standard deviation on the order of 10%-20% or more is not uncommon. This performance depends on the care of a particular lab in setting up the launch conditions and acquiring the data. This was verified in 1997 with an informal industry wide round robin [85]. Furthermore, it was, in fact, because of this that the industry standardized the overfilled launch (OFL) condition during the late 1990s [86].
6. Analysis and results on graded-index polymer optical fibers
This section, comprising Graded-Index Polymer Optical Fibers (GIPOFs) will follow the same scheme as previous section. Furthermore, this section proves that the same principles are essentially valid for silica-based MMFs and GIPOFs in order to extend their capabilities beyond the RF baseband bandwidth.
For the simulation results in this section it has been considered a 120/490µm core/cladding diameter graded-index polymer optical fiber (PF GIPOF) with intrinsic attenuation of 60dB/km at 1300nm and 150dB/km at 1550nm. The refractive indices for the fiber core and fiber cladding were calculated using a three-term Sellmeier. These coefficients were provided by the manfacturer. Core and cladding refractive indices as a function of wavelength, from the Sellemier equation, Eq. (3), are illustrated in Fig. 16. The parameters relative to the differential mode attenuation were fitted to ρ=11 and η=12.2. Coefficient Gmm was obtained assuming a random coupling process defined by a Gaussian autocorrelation function with a rms deviation of σ=0.0005 and a correlation length of ς=1.6×104⋅a, being a the fiber core radius. This latter value of the correlation length provides similar mode coupling strengths than that of reported in other works for PF GIPOF fibers such as in [35, 44]. The rms linewidth of the optical source was set to 5nm and its chirp parameter to zero. A refractive index profile of α=2 was considered, unless specified. Overfilled launching condition (OFL) was also assumed so that the light injection coefficient was set to Cmm=1/M, being M the total number of mode groups.
Figure 16.
PF GIPOF core and cladding refractive index as a function of wavelength.
It is worth mentioning that with PF GIPOFs, a thermally determined alteration in the dopant material can come about, leading to changes in the refractive index, although new materials have just recently become available and behave with admirable stability in this issue [87]. This dopant concentration during the manufacturing process is also directly related to the fiber refractive index profile.
Fig. 17(a) depicts the frequency response of a 200m-long PF GIPOF link operating at 1300nm in absence and presence of DMA and mode coupling effects. The theoretical curve for a 200m-long PMMA GIPOF in presence of both DMA and mode coupling is also given for comparison. As expected, much greater baseband bandwidths are obtained by using fluorine dopants in the core instead of classical PMMA-based composites. The results indicate that the presence of both effects is favorable for improving the frequency response of the GIPOF. It can be observed a more than a three-fold RF baseband bandwidth enhancement caused if only DMA effect is considered. This result shows that the DMA is a determining factor for accurate assessment of the baseband in GIPOFs. No high-order resonances are shown due to both the high fiber attenuation and the OFL launching condition considered. As in the case of silica-based MMFs, the influence of the optical fiber properties over its frequency response is of great importance. Parameters such as the core radius, the graded-index exponent, length and the core refractive index count for this matter. Similar mechanisms as those stated for silica-based GI-MMFs rule for PF GIPOFs concerning these parameters. This fact is illustrated in Fig. 17(b), in which PF GIPOF frequency responses are displayed for a 200m-long link showing the influence of 5% fiber refractive index profile deviations on the RF transfer function. The rest of parameters for the simulations take the same value as aforementioned. Similarly to silica-based counterparts, significant displacements of the high-order resonances over the frequency spectrum are noticed. However, it is worth pointing out that PF GIPOFs are less sensitive to α-tolarences compared to that of silica counterparts.
Figure 17.
(a) Frequency responses up to 20GHz for a 200m-long PF GIPOF link showing the effect of mode coupling and DMA. Similar PMMA-based link is also illustrated for comparison. (b) Influence of the refractive index profile on the PF GIPOF frequency response for a 200m-long link.
On the other hand, Fig. 18(a) illustrates the frequency response of present commercially available PF GIPOFs with different core radius. Identical simulation parameters have been considered. From the theoretical curves, similar RF baseband bandwidths at OFL condition are obtained, independent from the core radius considered, although high-order resonances start to notice as core radius decreases. However, this fact turns to be different if RML launching is applied. Simulations under this light injection condition predict that lower fiber core radius results in a RF baseband bandwidth enhancement. This result is quite in agreement with the fact that the bandwidth reduction is to be connected with the larger number of excited modes, directly related to the fiber core radius. Nevertheless, this dependence is strongly reduced as nearer OFL is reached. Moreover, the frequency response dependence on the operating wavelength is shown in Fig. 18(b). As expected, due to the high chromatic dispersion of PF GIPOFs at 650nm, see Fig. 3(a), RF baseband bandwidth at this wavelength falls dramatically after few GHz. On the other hand, baseband bandwidths achievable at 1300nm are greater than those obtained at 1550nm despite the similar PF GIPOF material dispersion (even slight smaller at 1550nm) and despite the use of a relatively narrow-linewidth optical source. Thus, bandwidth must mostly be limited by modal dispersion. The reason for this bandwidth difference is supported by the fact that DMA effects are supposed to be stronger at 1300nm than that of 1550nm, leading to a RF baseband bandwidth enhancement.
Figure 18.
(a) Influence of the core radius on the PF GIPOF frequency response at OFL condition. (b) Influence of the operating wavelength on the PF GIPOF frequency response.
Finally, the following figures illustrate both the influence of the optical source linewidth characteristic as well as the launching condition with regards to the PF GIPOF frequency response. The influence of other optical source characterisitics such as the source chirp and the operating wavelength can be seen in [54]. Fig. 19(a) illustrates the PF GIPOF frequency response at 1300nm of a 200m-long link for: a DFB optical source with 10MHz of FWHM; a FP laser of 2nm of linewidth; and a LED with 20nm of source linewidth. The rest of parameters take the same value as those previously indicated. As expected, the frequency response is progressively penalised as source linewidth increases, hampering the possible observance of high-order resonances. On the other hand, the influence of the launching condition on the frequency response can be seen in Fig. 19(b). A PF GIPOF link of 200m and an input power spectral density conforming a Gaussian lineshape from a DFB optical source with 0.2nm have been considered. From the frequency response, a dramatic enhancement of the RF baseband bandwidth is observed when applying a RML condition as well as a reduction of the filtering effect, similarly of what it was expected from the silica-based MMF analysis.
Figure 19.
(a) Influence of the optical source temporal coherence on the frequency response of a 200m-long PF GIPOF link. (b) Influence of the light injection on the frequency response of a 200m-long PF GIPOF link.
Some measurement examples of the PF GIPOF transfer function are presented highlighting the conditions upon broadband transmission in regions far from baseband can be featured thus validating the theoretical model proposed [88]. A comparison between the curves predicted by the theoretical model and the experimental results is also provided. Good agreement between theory and experimental results is observed. The results have been tested over an amorphous perfluorinated (PF) graded-index polymer optical fiber. In all cases, such fiber type fulfils the requirements of the IEC
International Electrotechnical Commission
60793-2-40 standard for the PF polymer-based POFs (types A4f, A4g and A4h) which fits a minimum bandwidth of 1500MHz@100m for A4f type and 1880Mhz@100m for A4g and A4h types, respectively. The setup schematic for the experimental measurements follows the same concept as that reported in Fig. 13. The experimental results have been calibrated with regards to both the E/O intensity modulator and the photodetector electrical responses. Similar optical sources as those used in silica-based MMFs experiments were employed. An OFL excitation at the fiber input end has been applied. Theoretical curves have been obtained considering a PF GIPOF with a refractive index profile of α=2.18 and an intrinsic attenuation coefficient of αo=42dB/km at 1300nm. The latter was measured employing Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) techniques. Core and cladding refractive indices have been calculated using a three-term Sellmeier function. It has also been assumed a free chirp source. Differential Mode Attenuation (DMA) effects have been considered by setting ρ=11; η=12.2. Additionally, a random coupling process defined by a Gaussian autocorrelation function has beeen defined for the mode coupling with a correlation length of ς=0.005m and rms deviation of ς=1.6⋅104×a, being \'a\' the core radius of the fiber considered.
Figure 20.
(a) Theoretical and measured frequency response of a 50µm core diameter PF GIPOF link for different lengths with a FP laser source operating at 1300nm. (b) Theoretical and measured frequency response of a 100m-long 62.5µm core diameter PF GIPOF link under identical operating conditions.
Fig. 20(a) depicts the theoretical (dashed line) and measured (solid line) frequency responses of a 50µm core diameter PF GIPOF link for different lengths. On the other hand, the theoretical and measured frequency response of a 100m-long 62.5µm core diameter PF GIPOF link is shown in Fig. 20(b). In both cases, a FP optical source operating at 1300nm and 1.8nm of linewidth was employed. Results reveal the presence of some latent high-order resonances in the PF GIPOF frequency response. Although these passbands suffer from a power penalty in the range of 5dB per passband order, attending to Fig. 20(a), this high attenuation could significantly be improved with lower fiber attenuation values. Nevertheless, the presence of these periodicities in the PF GIPOF frequency response opens up the extension of the transmission capabilities beyond baseband thus increasing the aggregated capacity over this optical fiber type.
Figure 21.
(a) Theoretical and measured frequency response of a 150m-long 120µm core diameter PF GIPOF link, under similar operation conditions as in Fig. 20. (b) Theoretical and measured frequency response of a 62.5µm core diameter PF GIPOF link employing DFB optical sources.
Figure 22.
(a) Influence of the optical source temporal coherence on the frequency response of a 50m-long 62.5µm core diameter PF GIPOF link. (b) Measured influence of the launching condition on the 50m-long 120µm core diameter PF GIPOF frequency response.
Another example can be seen in Fig. 21(a), where the theoretical and measured frequency response of a 150m-long 120µm core diameter PF GIPOF link is depicted. Similar operating conditions as above were applied. In constrast, Fig. 21(b) reports the RF bandwidth enhancement when employing a narrow-linewidth DFB optical source. A 62.5µm core diameter PF GIPOF was used. As expected, the available bandwidth is increased if we compare the curves within this figure with those obtained in Fig. 20(a). However, it is important to observe that the frequency response at 1550nm falls at 17dB at 20GHz. This is due to the fact that the PF GIPOF intrinsic attenuation at this wavelength was measured to be 140dB/km. In both figures an OFL condition was also applied.
Finally, the following figure evaluates the conditions upon which broadband transmission over PF GIPOF beyond the RF baseband bandwidth is possible. Fig. 22(a) shows the measured frequency response for a 50m-long 62.5µm core diameter PF GIPOF link at an operating wavelength of 1300nm. As it was expected from the theory, the frequency response dramatically decreases when increasing the rms source linewidth. When a LED with W=98nm of spectral width is employed as the optical source, the frequency response falls after a few GHz. In contrast greater baseband bandwidths when employing a FP laser with W=1.8nm and a DFB source with 100kHz of FWHM are achievable. In addition, the presence of high-order resonances in the frequency response is also identified. On the other hand, Fig. 22(b) illustrates the frequency response of a 50m-long 120µm core diameter PF GIPOF link at launching conditions OFL and RML, respectively. In both cases a FP laser operating at 1300nm and 1.8nm of source linewidth was employed. As expected from theory, RML increases the RF baseband bandwidth as well as flattens the frequency response. However, possible transmission regions beyond baseband are penalised in power due to the high PF GIPOF attenuation compared to that of silica-based counterparts. From both figures, we can therefore conclude, and similarly to silica-based MMFs, that exploiting the possibility of transmitting broadband RF signals in PF GIPOFs at high frequencies is also contingent on the use of narrow-linewidth sources and selective mode-launching schemes.
7. Conclusions
Future Internet Access technologies are supposed to bring us a very performing connection to the main door of our homes. At the same tine, new services and devices and their increase use, commonly grouped as next-generation access (NGA) services, will require data transfers at speeds exceeding 1Gbps inside the building or home at the horizon 2015. Both drivers lead to the deployment of a high-quality, future-proof network from the access domain even to inside buildings and homes. There is a widely-spread consensus that FTTx is the most powerful and future-proof access network architecture for providing broadband services to residential users. Furthermore, FTTx deployments with WDM-PON topologies are considered in the long-term the target architecture for the next-generation access networks. This environment may end up taking advantage of optical cabling solutions as an alternative to more traditional copper or pure wireless approaches.
Multimode optical fibers (MMF), both silica- and polymer-based, can offer the physical infrastructure to create a fusion and convergence of the access network via FFTx for these next-generation access (NGA) services. Both fiber types may be used not only to transport fixed data services but also to transparently distribute in-building (and also for short- and medium-reach links) widely ranging signal characteristics of present and future broadband services leading to a significant system-wide cost reduction. The underlying reason is that multimode fibers have a much larger core diameter and thus alignment in fiber splicing and connectorising is more relaxed. Also the injection of light from optical sources is easier, without requiring sophisticated lens coupling systems. And these facts seem to be critical as all optical networks are being deployed even closer to the end users, where most of interconnections are needed. Moreover, polymer optical fiber (POF) may be even easier to install than silica-based multimode fiber, as it is more ductile, easier to splice and to connect even maintaining high bandwidth performances as in the case of PF GIPOFs. However, their main drawback is related to the fact that their bandwidth per unit length is considerably less with respect to singlemode fiber counterparts. However, this may not be decisive as link lengths are relatively short in the user environment.
On the other hand, it is obvious that the deployment of such emerging NGA network technology and its convergence would be not possible without the research and evaluation of predictive and accurate models to describe the signal propagation through both MMF fiber types to overcome the inherent limitations of such a transport information media. However, the potentials of MMF to support broadband RF, microwave and millimetre-wave transmission beyond baseband over short and intermediate distances are yet to be fully known, as its frequency response seems to be unpredictable under arbitrary operating conditions as well as fiber characteristics. The different experimental characterizations and the theoretical model presented in this chapter allow understanding and an estimation of the frequency response and the total baseband bandwidth. In addition, can give an estimation of the aggregated transmission capacity over MMFs through analyzing the high-order resonances as well as the presence of relatively flat regions that are present beyond baseband, under certain conditions, in the MMF frequency response.
From the theoretical and experimental results, it is demonstrated that, next to its baseband transmission characteristics, an intrinsically multimode fiber link will show passband characteristics in higher frequency bands. However, the location and the shape of these passbands depend on the actual fiber characteristics, and may change due to environmental conditions and/or the light launching conditions as well as the number of guided modes excited and the power distribution among them. Also the length of the fiber, the mode coupling processes, the source wavelength, the launching scheme, and the fiber core diameter influence the fibre frequency response. This fact imposes a great challenge for the extension of the bandwidth-dependent multimode fiber performance. And, the influence of most of all these parameters that can have a large impact on the date rate transmission performance in MMF links has been addressed. Although no accurate agreement can be expected due to the many approximations made in the theoretical analysis as well as the amount of parameters involved in the frequency response, the results reveal a quite good assessment in the behavior of the multimode optical fiber frequency response compared to the curves predicted by the model
The use of selective mode-launching schemes combined with the use of narrow-linewidth optical sources is demonstrated to enable broadband RF, microwave and millimetre-wave transmission overcoming the typical MMF bandwidth per length product. Under these conditions it is possible to achieve flat regions in the frequency response as well as passband characteristics far from baseband. Transmission of multiple-GHz carrier in these MMF links can be featured at certain frequencies albeit a small power penalty, enabling the extension of broadband transmission, with direct application in Radio-over-Fiber (RoF) systems, in which broadband wireless services could be integrated on the same fiber infrastructure, thereby reducing system costs. The results also reveal that PF GIPOF has some latent high-order passbands and flat regions in its frequency response, which however suffer a high attenuation due to the higher intrinsic attenuation of polymer optical fibers compared to that of silica-based counterparts. Anyway, this power penalty could significantly be improved with lower fiber attenuation values.
To resume, MMFs (both silica- and polymer-based) are still far from SMF bandwidth and attenuation, but they are called to the next step on access network links due to its low cost systems requirements (light sources, optical detectors, larger fiber core,…) against the high cost of the singlemode components. It is worth mentioning that in-building networks may comprise quite a diversity of networks: not only networks within residential homes, but also networks inside office buildings, hospitals, and even more extensive ones such as networks in airport departure buildings and shopping malls. Thus the reach of in-building networks may range from less than 100 metres up to a few kilometers. A better understanding of the possibilities of signal transmission outside the baseband of such fibers are investigated, in order to extend their capabilities, together with the evaluation of current fiber frequency response theoretical models becomes of great importance.
Acknowledgments
The work comprised in this document has been developed in the framework of the activities carried out in the Displays and Photonics Applications group (GDAF) at Carlos III University of Madrid.
This research work has been supported by the following Spanish projects: TEC2006-13273-C03-03-MIC, TEC2009-14718-C03-03 and TEC2012-37983-C03-02 of the Spanish Interministerial Comission of Science and Technology (CICyT) and FACTOTEM-CM:S-0505/ESP/000417 and FACTOTEM-2/2010/00068/001 of Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid.
Additional financial support was obtained from the European Networks of Excellence: ePhoton/One+ (FP6-IST-027497)
ePhoton/One+ is supported by the Sixth Framework Programme (FP6) of the European Union.
and and BONE: Building the Future Optical Network in Europe (FP7-ICT-216863)
BONE is supported by the Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) of the European Union.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/45023.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/45023.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45023",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45023",totalDownloads:3440,totalViews:544,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:8,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 9th 2012",dateReviewed:"October 10th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 13th 2013",dateFinished:"May 28th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/45023",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/45023",book:{id:"3360",slug:"current-developments-in-optical-fiber-technology"},signatures:"David R. Sánchez Montero and Carmen Vázquez García",authors:[{id:"159007",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez Montero",fullName:"David Sánchez Montero",slug:"david-sanchez-montero",email:"dsmontero@ing.uc3m.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"160248",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Vázquez García",fullName:"Carmen Vázquez García",slug:"carmen-vazquez-garcia",email:"cvazquez@ing.uc3m.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fundamentals of multimode optical fibers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Attenuation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Dispersion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1. Dispersion modelling approach",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3. Differential mode attenuation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.4. Mode coupling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Multimode optical fiber capabilities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1. Multimode optical fiber expanded capabilities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Theoretical approach of multimode optical fibers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.1. Introduction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2. Mathematical framework",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Analysis and results on silica-based multimode optical fibers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Analysis and results on graded-index polymer optical fibers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Broadband Network Strategies; Strategy Analytics. Global Broadband Forecast: 2H2011 18 Nov 2011.'},{id:"B2",body:'Charbonnier, B. End-user Future Services in Access, Mobile and In-Building Networks. 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Analysis of the electric field propagation method: theoretical model applied to perfluorinated graded-index polymer optical fiber links. Optics Letters 2011; 36(20) 4116-4118.'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode. "},{id:"fn2",explanation:"CATV: Community Antena TeleVision."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"FM: Frequency Modulation. "},{id:"fn4",explanation:"IMT2000: International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 ; UMTS:Universal Mobile Telecommunications System."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"ISO/IEC (International Standards Organization/International Electrotechnical Commission) 11801-“Generic cabling for customer premises”."},{id:"fn6",explanation:"International Electrotechnical Commission"},{id:"fn7",explanation:"ePhoton/One+ is supported by the Sixth Framework Programme (FP6) of the European Union. "},{id:"fn8",explanation:"BONE is supported by the Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) of the European Union. "}],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"David R. Sánchez Montero",address:null,affiliation:'
Displays and Photonics Applications Group (GDAF), Electronics Technology Dpt., Carlos III University of Madrid, Leganés (Madrid), Spain
Displays and Photonics Applications Group (GDAF), Electronics Technology Dpt., Carlos III University of Madrid, Leganés (Madrid), Spain
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1. Introduction
Sportswear has emerged as one of the most promising and technologically driven textile segment with massive innovations and advancements involved right from raw material procurement to design and development of sports specific clothing. The field is promising and innovative with several avenues as far as research and development, pioneering new technologies and trailblazing concepts are concerned.
The basic requirements of thermo physiological as well psychological comfort, dexterity, agility to wearer, breathability, moisture management, light weight, antimicrobial and anti-odor properties can be incorporated into sportswear by correct selection of fibers, yarns and fabric variables for sportswear. The sports clothing is no longer restricted to sportsperson involved in performance sports or strenuous physical activities. However, there has been a surge for sports apparels and accessories among health conscious, fitness freak and gym enthusiasts. Accordingly, the sportswear industry has witnessed revolutionary advancements in development of different sportswear categories like active wear, leisurewear and athleisure to fulfill the requirements of sportsperson as well as health-conscious millennials. Apart from functional requirements, a lot of emphasis is being laid on esthetic aspects as well considering increasing number of females involved in yoga, gyming and other sporting activities who give precedence to silhouette, colors and other design details of sportswear. Accordingly, the technological as well as ergonomic advancements in sportswear design and development have opened new avenues for researchers to explore the field further.
2. Sportswear categorization
The sportswear can be categorized based on a number of factors such as:
Sportsperson’s level of physical activity and fatigue
Stress involved during strenuous activity
Duration for which the sportsperson doffs the clothing
Ambient conditions.
2.1 Categorization based on level of physical activity
The sportswear can be classified into active and leisure wear based on the sportsperson’s level of physical activity.
2.1.1 Active wear
Active wear also referred to as professional sportswear encompasses the sportswear attire that are usually worn by sportspersons for short time duration when indulging in rigorous, high level of physical activities such as skiing, long jump, high jump and other such adventure sports etc. All such sports demand active, stressful and maximum physical performance thereby resulting in profuse sweating (sensible perspiration) experienced by the sportsperson. The designing of active wear is not as challenging a task as the design considerations for leisure wear because sportsperson during the entire duration of active sport is exposed to constant ambient conditions within the boundaries of the playing ground irrespective of indoor or outdoor conditions Moreover, the factors like sportsperson’s age, gender and frequency of doffing the clothing is predetermined which can serve as quick guide for designers while designing active wear.
2.1.2 Leisure wear
Leisure wear comprises sportswear worn during sports activities like cricket, hockey and golf. The aforesaid sports activity demands intermittent performance with alternating active and rest phases by sportsperson and with prolonged exposure to varying ambient conditions. Leisure sportswear are worn by players belonging to varying age and gender groups and those indulging in low to moderate physical activity. Moreover, the duration and frequency of wearing and ambient conditions are all variable during the course of the activity. Consequently, the designing of leisure wear is a challenging task for designers as they need to consider the varying ambient conditions and extended durations on the field to which wearer would be subjected. The wearer is expected to don the clothing the entire day or several hours at stretch in changing environmental conditions. Thus, the designing of leisurewear needs special consideration of wearer’s physiological requirements and changing environmental conditions to which sportsperson will be exposed while indulging in sports activity. Furthermore, casual and exercise wear, parkas, hoodies, pants, and crew neck fleece sweaters that provide a combination of esthetic, style, comfort, and functionality in a less competitive mode can also be included in category of leisurewear.
2.2 Categorization based on sport specific requirements
The sportswear can also be classified based on specific requirement of sports. Different sports involve different level of physical exertion and are performed in varying ambient conditions. Consequently, the clothing worn for a particular sport like cycling may not be suitable for another sport such as under water sports, mountaineering etc. performed in contrastingly different environment. The sportswear can be classified into dry, damp and wet fast action sportswear based on sports specific requirements.
2.2.1 Dry fast action sportswear
Dry fast action sportswear are worn during sports activities such as football, rugby, tennis and track games that demand optimum moisture management properties enabling quick sweat absorption and dissipation thereby providing cooling effect to wearer.
2.2.2 Damp-fast action sportswear
Damp-fast action sportswear is suitable for sports where rapid sweat evaporation from the skin surface is a prerequisite. Apart from rapid transfer of liquid perspiration, the sportswear should ensure good water vapor permeability, water proofing and protection from cold along with high degree of stretch ability.
2.2.3 Wet-fast action sportswear
Wet-fast action sportswear is specially designed for sporting activities like swimming and other under water sports activities which require a high degree of stretch and form fitting. The clothing plays a vital role in enhancing the athlete’s performance by reducing drag and fatigue.
2.3 Categorization based on weather conditions
The weather conditions to which sportsperson are exposed during the activity also dictates the classification of sportswear. Accordingly, the sportswear may be classified as cold, moderate and hot weather sportswear. The material selection and design aspects for three categories will vary drastically owing to different set of properties required for each clothing type.
2.3.1 Cold weather sportswear
Cold weather sportswear is generally worn during ice skating, mountaineering and any such winter outdoor activity where the wearer is at risk of heat loss and thus hypothermia. The cold weather sportswear should be able to trap the body heat and provide protection against cold and humid conditions. Consequently, the clothing is designed in such a manner that it exhibits high thermal insulation for entrapment of body heat and breathable for moisture vapor sweat to easily escape out but prevent the ingress of liquid from external sources through clothing.
2.3.2 Moderate weather sportswear
Moderate weather sportswear is preferred by sports enthusiasts when ambient conditions are conducive with moderate temperature and humidity. Accordingly, sportswear worn in moderate climate should be breathable, permeable to air and heat passage to ensure dry and comfortable feel to wearer.
2.3.3 Hot weather sportswear
Hot weather sportswear are generally preferred when the ambient temperature is high and the wearer may be at risk of hyperthermia as he experience profuse sweating (sensible perspiration) and elevated body temperature as a synergistic effect of his own metabolic heat generation and the hot weather. The clothing should thus be light weight, quick drying, and wick able to push the liquid moisture away without sweat absorption in next to skin layer and should exhibit high thermal conductivity for rapid heat dissipation thereby ensuring dry and cool feel next to skin [1, 2, 3].
The requirements and key design aspects of sportswear will be discussed elaborately in the next sections of the chapter.
3. Requirements of sportswear
The categorization of sportswear discussed in previous section highlighted that sportswear are categorized based on level of wearer’s physical activity, specific sports and ambient conditions. The requirements for each sportswear category will be drastically different as the clothing is worn in altogether different ambient conditions, for varying durations and frequency. Sportswear designed as active wear for outdoor applications should provide protection to wearer against external elements and environmental extremities such as wind, sunlight, rain and snow. Moreover, the clothing should possess optimum thermal and moisture management properties in order to maintain the heat balance between the metabolic heat produced as a result of physical activity and the outside environment. Perspiration both in vapor (insensible) and liquid (sensible) form should be readily dissipated to the outside environment to provide dry microclimate next to skin for the wearer. This requirement can be met by designing the sportswear that exhibit low resistance to heat transfer and evaporative heat loss. Sportswear should ensure rapid liquid transfer by means of wicking and should have good drying ability to prevent condensation of liquid sweat near skin. However, a high level of thermal insulation is prerequisite for cold weather sports clothing so as to prevent body heat to escape to outside environment. Contrastingly, low thermal insulation is desirable for sportswear intended for warmer climates. The concept of “Onion-skin” principle encompassing clothing system with several layers and consisting of several clothing items is applied in sportswear to achieve variable thermal insulation as per the capricious ambient conditions. The clothing can thus be adapted to the changing environment by donning or doffing individual clothing items for effective protection against the external elements [1, 2, 3, 4].
Furthermore, the requirements for sportswear can be as categorized into functional and esthetic requirements, both of which play a crucial role in determining the performance and consumers acceptability for the clothing. Functional attributes of sportswear pertain to light weight, low fluid resistance, high tenacity, strechablility, thermal regulation, UV protection, vapor permeability, and sweat absorption and release while esthetics requirements entail softness, surface texture, handle, luster and color of the sportswear.
In general, the most common characteristics sought in sportswear can be enlisted as follows:
Optimum thermal and moisture regulation
Good air and water vapor permeability
Rapid moisture absorption and wicking property
Absence of dampness & dry feel next to skin
Rapid Drying ability
Low water absorption of next to skin layer clothing
Dimensionally stable even when wet
Durable, easy care and lightweight
Soft and pleasant touch
Effective protection against external elements such as extreme cold, sunlight, wind, rain etc.
Stretch ability, form fitting and shape retention
Antimicrobial & antistatic properties.
4. Fiber, yarn and fabric interplay for sportswear design and development
The type of sport, ambient conditions and level of physical activity as discussed in the previous section dictates the functional requirements and performance characteristics of sportswear.
Sportsperson involved in high active sports such as tennis and soccer usually experience heat stress owing to high amount of metabolic heat generation and profuse sweating. Therefore, the thermo-physiological comfort aspect of sportswear is of utmost importance for such sports to ensure well-being of sports person without any hindrance to their performance and efficiency. Dry microclimate for wearer involved in intensive physical activity and in hot, humid conditions is ensued by engineering fabrics exhibiting effective moisture vapor and liquid moisture transmission through fabric. The effective heat and moisture dissipation through fabrics intended for active wear requires special consideration of geometry, packing density and structure of the constituent fibers in yarn and fabric construction.
Thermo-physiological comfort properties of sportswear are influenced by multitude of fiber, yarn and fabric variables that influence inter yarn spaces, capillary geometry and in turn the moisture vapor and liquid moisture transmission through textile structures.
Sportswear engineered with specialized fibers, yarns and fabric structures exhibit excellent moisture management properties. Accordingly, sportswear designers experiment with variable fiber cross-sectional shape, shape factor and specific surface area of fiber, yarn variables like twist, linear density, structure and packing coefficient and fabric variables like loop length and porosity, varying knit structures like plated, elastene fabrics and those designed with bio mimic concepts to design sportswear intended for performance sports to keep the wearer comfortable with dry sensation next to skin.
Undoubtedly, the role of fibers, yarns and fabric structure in engineering textile structures suitable for sportswear cannot be undermined. The following section will discuss the role of fibers, yarns and fabric variables and their selection criteria for sportswear design and development.
4.1 Fiber variables and their influence on thermo-physiological comfort aspects
A combination of natural and synthetic fibers is an optimal solution when designing clothing for next to skin and sportswear applications. However no single fiber or different fiber blends can ensure ideal clothing suitable for varied applications. The right type of fiber needs to be in the right place according to the fabric’s end use. Any wrong selection of fiber combinations may lead to thermal and wetness discomfort to the wearer if water absorption and liquid transfer properties of the selected fibers are not according to level of sweat generated.
The primary requirements of effective liquid transmission, better wick ability and faster drying in sportswear can be achieved by incorporation of varying fiber profiles like tetra channel, hexa channel, five-leaf, trilobal and triangular cross-sections that offer enlarged surface area for transmission of liquid sweat compared to their circular counterparts (Figure 1a and b).
Figure 1.
(a) Different fibers for sportswear, (b) fibers of varying cross sections.
Coolmax is modified polyester fiber developed by Dupont. The fiber resembles double scallop with four channels having 20% more surface area than conventional polyester fiber therefore offering better wicking, moisture vapor permeability and water spreading over greater area in fabric.
4 DG fiber is speciality fiber with eight-legged cross section made of polyester and other polymers and large surface area/volume and bulk compared to round fibers. The fiber is capable of moving, storing and trapping the fluids owing to the unique grooved shape. Accordingly, fibers of varying cross sections are finding applications in sportswear owing to their effectiveness in heat, moisture and liquid transmission through fabrics.
Incorporation of non-circular fiber profile are characterized by increase in fiber’s shape factor which influences the fiber capillary spaces, inter yarn pore spaces, packing density, specific surface area and in turn the thermo-physiological properties of fabrics.
Fibers with greater specific surface area possess good moisture absorption and release properties. The micro grooves present on fiber surface enhance capillary absorbency, cause siphoning of moisture which can thus be dissipated by spreading over fiber surface. Figure 1b shows the different fiber cross-sections generally used in sportswear.
Moisture transmission properties of individual components can be drastically improved by blending two or more fibers into single yarns. Polyester and cotton fibers in blended form are increasingly being used for specialized yarn production to achieve good wicking and low absorbency.
Wicking and thermal resistance can further be improved by creation of hollow and microporous yarn core by combination of different fibers such as cotton and PVA fibers (Figure 2a).
Figure 2.
(a) Core hollow yarn composed of cotton & PVA fibers. (b) Micro loops on surface of Naiva Fabric.
Welkey is fiber with hollow core and body of fiber has proliferation of small holes. Thermal resistance increases as a result of increased number of air spaces inside fibers. Wicking of sweat next to skin is possible by capillary action caused by small holes forming proliferations in fiber body. The fiber can thus be effectively utilized for designing winter wear sportswear to obtain efficient moisture management along with rapid sweat dissipation.
Bicomponent fiber is classified based on fiber cross-section into side- by side, sheath core, islands in the sea, segmented pie cross-section. Matrix of one polymer contains another polymer and micro denier fibers can be generated by this type of bi component structure. Polyester, polypropylene, nylon forms the island in the structure.
Bi-component filament yarn, Naiva developed by combination of 55% Naiva (Eval/ Nylon) yarn and 45% nylon microfiber is used for development of light weight, soft and moisture absorbing Naiva fabric suitable for mountaineering and other active sportswear. The extraordinary thermal and moisture management properties of Naiva fabric may be attributed to micro loops on the surface of Naiva fabric (Figure 2b) as a result of high thermal shrinkage property of yarn.
Eval, one of the components of bi component yarn is the copolymer resin of ethylene vinyl-alcohol [1, 2, 3].
Several researchers have explored the possibilities of combining different commodity and speciality fibers to engineer a textile structure suitable for sportswear with desirable thermal and moisture management properties.
Gurudatt et al. [5] studied the absorption and drying behavior of textile using cotton, polyester of regular cross section, polyethylene glycol modified polyester and scalloped oval cross-section fiber. It was suggested that absorption capacity of polyester enhances by cross-section and polymer modification. Knitted fabrics using scalloped oval cross section had higher absorption rate compared to regular polyester fiber.
Das et al. [6] studied the effect of fiber cross-sectional shape on moisture transmission properties of the fabrics and suggested that wicking rate through fabrics increased while water vapor permeability reduced as the fiber shape factor increased.
Matsudaira and Kondo [7] reported that more water could be absorbed by polyester fibers by making grooved or non-grooved hollow in fiber due to increase in space ratio and surface area of fiber in their studies on moisture transport properties of fabrics having different ratio of space to polymer in fiber cross-section.
Su et al. [8] developed composite knitted fabrics by blending profiled polyester fibers and cotton fibers. Fabrics with decreasing cotton content showed higher diffusion rate and drying rate. Worst water absorption ability was shown by fabrics made of profiled polyester alone. They suggested that moisture absorption and release of fabrics could be improved by making fabrics from core and cover yarns of polyester profile filament, profile polyester spun and cotton in different blend ratios.
Troynikov and Wardiningsih [9] suggested that blending wool fiber with polyester and regenerated bamboo fiber, produced fabrics with better moisture management properties than fabrics without blending.
Fangueiro et al. [10] studied the wicking and drying ability of knitted fabrics produced from blends of wool- coolmax and wool- fine cool. It was reported that fabrics with coolmax fibers could transport perspiration quickly from the skin to environment and showed the best capillarity performance, fine cool fabrics had higher drying rates whereas wool fiber-based fabrics showed low water absorption but good drying rate.
Oner et al. [11] observed higher overall moisture management capacity values for polyester fabrics compared to cellulose based fabrics and suggested that cotton fabrics caused wetness to be felt more than other fabrics.
Long [12] stated that liquid water transfer from the back to the face layer depends upon the water absorption of the fiber materials of the two layers and to a greater extent their difference.
Adams and Rebenfeld [13] observed that polyester fabrics showed better liquid water diffusion due to fast capillary action as the contact angle of polyester and water is small compared to wool. Highly hygroscopic fibers like wool took longer to reach equilibrium during process of water diffusion compared to less hygroscopic fibers like polyester.
Supuren et al. [14] investigated the moisture management properties of the double face fabrics and suggested that polypropylene (back) and cotton (face) fabric had better moisture management property.
Mehrtens & Mcalister [15] reported low wick ability for nylon fabrics when compared to cotton and orlon fabrics and suggested combination of lower fabric weight and thickness led to better comfort in their studies on knitted sport shirts for hot and humid conditions.
Ozturk et al. [16] studied the influence of fiber type on wicking properties of cotton- acrylic yarns and fabrics and suggested that wicking ability of yarns and fabrics increased with the increase in acrylic content in the blends.
The exhaustive reported research emphasizes that the fiber types owing to difference in their chemical nature and surface geometry have strong influence on heat, moisture, liquid transfer and moisture management properties of textiles.
4.2 Yarn variables and their influence on thermo-physiological comfort aspects
The yarn variables namely twist level, linear density, spinning system and yarn types play a crucial role in influencing the moisture vapor and liquid moisture transmission and in turn the thermo-physiological comfort aspects of sports textiles. The variation in any of these yarn variables influence the yarn structure which in turn depends on fiber geometry. Distribution of fibers in yarn dictates thermal as well as moisture transfer properties of fabrics.
Yarn structure is not rigid and capillary flow may produce lateral stress, which affects capillary sizes during liquid rise. Disruption of the continuity, length and orientation of the capillaries occurs due to changing packing density throughout yarn structure. Heterogeneity of pore size, shape and orientation affects the penetration of liquid into the yarn structure and hence its liquid retention properties. Likewise, number of filaments, yarn tension and twist significantly affect the yarn wicking performance by influencing the way in which individual filaments can pack in the yarn thus determining the amount of void spaces between filaments.
Moisture transfer is affected by degree of yarn twist, higher twist yarns improve capillary effect in moisture transfer as they are compact and provide less air volume. Lower twist generally results in reduced water transport through fabrics due to reduction in number and continuity of inter fiber capillaries. Twist in the yarn also affects the size of capillaries due to helical path of fibers in the yarn. More liquid on surface of twisted yarn is retained due to rough surface profile of these yarns compared to filament yarns.
Awadesh Kumar and Ramratan [17] studied the moisture management properties of different knit structures composed of micro polyester, texturized polyester and polyester –spandex blend and concluded that micro polyester fiber fabrics exhibited better liquid transmission properties compared to their counterparts owing to more capillary channels.
Linear density of constituent yarns affects the radial spread of water in fabrics. Fast liquid flow through inter yarn spaces in fine yarns is possible due to reduced capillary radius and low water retention of finer count yarns.
The yarns produced on different spinning system play a crucial role in dictating thermo-physiological properties of textiles intended for varied applications. The difference in the yarn structure and packing density of yarns produced on different spinning systems account for different thermal, moisture and liquid transfer properties of fabrics made from these yarns. Physical features of yarns and fabrics produced from these yarns are influenced by the type of yarn production (ring-spun, compact, open end) and in turn affect the performance properties of fabric.
A variety of yarns like ring, rotor, friction, vortex and compact spun yarns are used for varied applications in sports textiles. Dimensions and structure of inter yarn and intra yarn pores, pore size and their distribution along fabrics are influenced by density and structure of yarn.
Ring and rotor spun yarns vary widely in their structure which contributes to the entirely different properties of the two yarns. Ring-spun yarn has an ideal cylindrical helical structure with same number of turns per unit length in each helix, uniform specific volume and maximum packing density in the outermost zone of the yarn cross-section. Rotor spun yarn has a bipartite structure with an inner core which forms the bulk of the yarn and an outer zone of wrapper fibers occurring irregularly along the core length. Rotor yarn shows maximum packing density in first zone from core. Core part of rotor yarn is relatively dense structure; sheath part is less dense structure with belly-bands (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
SEM images of ring & rotor spun yarns.
Yarn types can significantly influence the performance properties of textiles by affecting the fabric’s bulk properties. Yarn hairiness and roughness can bring about changes in thermal properties of fabrics by entrapment of still air layer. Likewise, the moisture and liquid transfer properties of textiles are significantly affected by yarn types owing to difference in yarn roughness and arrangement of fibers in yarns. Increase in yarn roughness results in reduced rate of water transport through fabrics due to increase in effective advancing contact angle of water on yarn. Yarns with more random fiber arrangement can retard the liquid transfer by wicking as a result of disruption in continuity of capillaries formed by fibers. Wicking of yarns and fabrics is affected by difference in yarn surface roughness. Rough yarns are formed by wool fibers with high apparent contact angle owing to random distribution of fibers in the yarns and the natural crimp. Yarns made of synthetic fibers have smooth surfaces and are well aligned.
Water transfer by capillary process is thus affected by two factors:
Increase in yarn roughness causes an increase in effective advancing contact angle of water on yarn
Random fiber arrangement decreases the continuity of capillaries formed by fibers in yarn
The following section reviews the studies undertaken and reported to determine the effect of various yarn variables on thermo-physiological aspects of textiles.
Y Jhanji et al. [18] studied the moisture management properties of polyester-cotton plated fabrics of ring vis a vis rotor yarns. They observed that ring yarn fabrics exhibited higher moisture vapor transmission rate, trans planar wicking, lower wetting time and higher one-way transport capacity as compared to rotor yarn fabrics, making the former suitable where body needs to dissipate sweat both in vapor and liquid forms, with respect to fabrics using combination of rotor-spun cotton yarns, which show higher absorbent capacity and would be slow drying with poor one way transport capacity. They concluded that yarn spinning system plays an important role in influencing moisture management properties of fabrics intended for next to skin applications.
Ansary [19] studied the influence of number of filaments on air permeability of polyester woven fabrics and reported a decrease in air permeability with increase in the number of filaments in the cross section of filling yarns.
Li and Joo [20] compared nano-scale filament, micro filament and normal filament knitted fabrics for their liquid transfer properties and concluded that nano-scale filament fabrics showed low porosity, high aerial density and increased absorption capacity and absorption rate. Better water absorption ability of nano scale filament fabrics compared to micro filament fabrics was attributed to smaller pore size of nano scale filaments compared to micro filaments.
Das et al. [21] varied the denier per filament for polypropylene knitted fabric to assess its influence on thermo-physiological comfort properties and observed that water uptake and wicking increases with increase in the number of filaments.
Behera et al. [22] compared the comfort properties of ring, rotor and friction spun yarn fabrics and suggested that ring and rotor spun yarns were comparable in thermal comfort aspects, friction spun yarn being the most suitable. They pointed out that in the normal wear conditions and in the absence of perspiration, rotor spun yarn would be superior to ring-spun yarns.
Kumar et al. [23] compared ring, rotor and vortex yarn knitted fabrics and observed that ring yarn knitted fabrics showed good knitting performance and smooth feel, however abrasion resistance of rotor and vortex spun yarn fabrics were higher than ring spun yarn fabrics.
Erdumlu and Saricam [24] studied the wicking and drying properties of vortex spun yarns and knitted fabrics in comparison with ring-spun yarns and fabrics. They observed that yarn type significantly affected the yarn wicking, fabric wicking and water absorbency. Vortex spun yarn owing to crimped yarn axis and tight wrappings along yarn length had lower yarn and fabric wicking values than ring-spun yarn fabrics. Fabrics knitted from ring-spun yarns wicked and absorbed water more evenly than fabrics knitted from vortex spun yarns.
Singh and Nigam [25] compared carded, combed and compact spun yarn woven fabrics for their comfort performance and reported that carded weft yarn-based fabric samples showed higher resistance against air drag than combed and compact weft filled fabric samples. Compact weft yarn fabrics showed high water vapor permeability and were reported to be suitable for summer wear shirting. Carded yarn woven fabrics showed high thermal insulation and were.
Sengupta and Murthy [26] reported that open- end spun yarns showed lesser wicking time for any given vertical weight compared to ring- spun yarn fabrics. They observed that owing to dense core and less dense skin of open-end yarns it showed differential dyeing behavior in core and skin with dye wicking to greater height in the core than in surrounding sheath fibers.
Chattopadhyay and Chauhan [27] compared ring and compact yarns for their wicking performance and suggested that ring yarns showed faster wicking compared to compact yarns as evident from higher equilibrium heights for ring yarns. They explained the lower wicking of compact yarn due to less average capillary size of compact yarn compared to ring yarn owing to higher packing coefficient of compact yarn.
4.3 Fabric variables and their influence on thermo-physiological comfort aspects
The thermo-physiological properties of textile materials particularly sportswear depend on constructional variables and bulk properties of fabrics. Fabric structure, thickness, cover factor, aerial density, bulk density, fabric porosity and finishing treatments affect the thermal and moisture management properties and hence determine the comfort properties of fabrics.
Woven and knitted fabrics are generally used for varied applications like inner wears, outerwear, work wear and sportswear. Knitted fabrics owing to lower cover factor have more pores in their structure and the porous structure ensures good air, moisture and heat transfer properties and show better liquid transmission properties than woven fabrics. The difference in basic structures of textile materials account for variation in amount of water absorbed by different fabric constructions. The structural differences are related to fiber arrangement in yarn thereby affecting yarn roughness factor Cos θ and size and continuity of capillaries. Random fiber arrangement leads to high contact angle; while lower contact angle associated with faster movement of water in yarns and fabrics is attributed to high degree of fiber alignment.
The different fabric structures used for sportswear vary in their bulk properties such as fabric tightness, porosity, aerial density and thickness that in turn dictate the heat, moisture and liquid transfer through the fabrics. Availability of inter yarn spaces for heat transmission, passage of air and moisture diffusion depend on the fabric’s tightness factor. Thus, the bulk properties of fabric structures are crucial for optimum air, heat and moisture transmission through sportswear.
Several researchers have attempted to engineer different knit structures and compared the structures in terms of their comfort and performance properties intended for sportswear and other functional textiles. Innovative knit structures like plated fabrics, moisture management fabrics with different combinations of yarns in alternating courses, multilayered fabrics and fabrics mimicking the biometrics of plant structure have been developed for providing effective thermal and moisture management properties and sense of well-being to the wearer.
Structured or engineered fabrics are used in application areas relevant to commercial interest. Class of structured fabrics is moisture management fabrics; utilizing two or more fiber types in layered structures rendering two sides of fabrics distinctly different in character. Each side of fabric has the ability to exhibit different performance characteristics and thermo-physiological properties. Light weight two sided fabrics finding applications in varied areas are produced by plated knitted technique.
Both hydrophobic and hydrophilic yarns can be fed to single set of knitting needles and two separate yarns thus pass through each single needle of the set appearing distinctly on face and back sides of fabrics. Careful control of feed and positioning of two yarns is important to position distinct yarns in the two layers.
Plated knit structure is a double layered construction characterized by distinct face and back layers. The two layers are composed of different materials and accordingly serve different roles in providing wearer comfort.
One layer of plated fabric is the inner layer which is in direct contact with skin and serves the role of quick removal and transportation of sweat from body in vapor and liquid form. This layer serves as a separation layer and is composed of conductive and diffusive yarns generally characterized by low water absorption properties.
Another layer of plated fabric is the outer layer which is not in direct contact with the skin and prevents humidity build up near skin and vaporizes it to environment. This layer serves as absorptive layer and is composed of hydrophilic fibers and governs the liquid spreading and drying ability of fabrics. Figure 4 shows the schematics of face and back layers of plated fabric.
Figure 4.
Schematics of plated fabric (a) face and (b) back layer.
Selection of fiber and yarn combinations in the two layers can have a great bearing on the comfort properties, performance, esthetic appeal and end use of the knit structures.
Fibers of different chemical nature and thus different water absorbing properties can be used in different combinations to appear in face and back layers of plated fabrics.
Double layered knitted fabrics can be divided into following four types based on different fiber combinations and difference in water absorption properties of different fibers used in the two layers.
4.3.1 Double layered fabrics with hydrophobic fibers in face and back layer
The fabric has hydrophobic fiber in both face and back layers as shown in Figure 5a.
Figure 5.
Water transfer from skin to different fabric layers. (a) Hydophobic yarns in inner & outer layer, (b) Hydrophillic yarn in inner & hydrophobic yarn in outer layer, (c) Hydrophilic yarn in inner & outer layers, (d) Hydrophobic yarn in inner & hydrophilic yarn in outer layer.
Liquid sweat next to skin cannot be absorbed by inner layer owing to its hydrophobicity and the only means by which sweat can be removed from skin is water vapor diffusion through pores within fabric. The diffused water vapor will evaporate slowly from the face layer in turn causing thermal and wetness discomfort to the wearer.
4.3.2 Double layered fabrics with hydrophilic fiber in back and hydrophobic fiber in face layer
The fabric has hydrophilic fiber in back/next to skin layer and hydrophobic fiber in face layer as shown in Figure 5b.
Liquid sweat next to skin can be absorbed by the back hydrophilic layer but the transfer of sweat to the face layer is restricted owing to hydrophobicity of the face layer. Thermal insulation of fabric decreases and fabric gives sensation of wetness and coolness as the pores in the inner layer are filled with water, removing the static air from the pores.
4.3.3 Double layered fabric with hydrophilic fibers in face and back layers
Figure 5c shows the fabric with hydrophilic fiber in face as well as back layers.
Sweat from skin is picked up by hydrophilic fibers of back layer resulting in moisture accumulation and poor transfer to face layer. Water remains in the back layer and evaporation rate will be small owing to smaller wet area. The fabric will feel cool and wet to the wearer.
4.3.4 Double layered fabric with hydrophobic fiber in back and hydrophilic fiber in the face layer
Figure 5d shows the fabric with hydrophobic fiber in the back and hydrophilic fiber in the face layer. The back hydrophobic layer without absorbing the sweat itself transfers it to the face layer by means of capillary wicking. Face layer owing to hydrophilic fibers has good water absorption property and hence enables quick evaporation of sweat to environment by providing larger wet area.
Based on classification of double layered fabrics, Lord [28] indicated that that structure (d) with hydrophobic fiber in the back and hydrophilic fiber in the face layer would be most effective in maintaining dry skin micro climate by rapid liquid transfer to face layer. Additionally, several other researchers have unanimously recommended the use of hydrophobic fibers in next to skin and hydrophilic fibers in the face layer to achieve desirable moisture management and comfort properties in plated fabrics.
Plated fabrics designed with contrastingly different fiber and yarns exhibit the push- pull effect. Layer of hydrophobic fibers repel the perspiration next to skin and pushes or wicks it into outer layer of hydrophilic fibers which absorb or pulls away the moisture. Structured arrangement of hydrophobic and hydrophilic fibers in the two layers of plated fabrics and large difference in humidity between inner layer and ambient environment causes moisture movement from skin to outer atmosphere thus making the structures preferred choice for sportswear.
The structures are increasingly gaining popularity in apparels, next to skin applications, active wear and leisure sportswear owing to freedom in selection of contrastingly different constituents in the two layers. Therefore, the functional clothing intended for such applications are often specially engineered or structured such that the fabrics are normally two sided and are produced from a minimum of two yarns of different fiber content or characteristics.
Toda developed multi layered knitted structures composed of non-hygroscopic fibers. The structure was characterized by smaller inter fiber spaces in the face layer than in back layer by careful selection of fiber fineness, knitted structure and yarn type in face and back layers.
Yamini Jhanji et al. [29] investigated the effect of fiber type and yarn linear density on the thermal properties such as thermal resistance, thermal conductivity and thermal absorptivity along with air permeability and moisture vapor transmission rate of single jersey plated fabrics. They suggested that plated fabrics with nylon in the next to skin layer seemed suitable choice for warm conditions as these fabrics would feel cooler on initial skin contact owing to high thermal absorptivity and were permeable to passage of air and moisture vapor. Fabrics knitted with yarns of high linear density were found to be unsuitable in warm conditions owing to higher value of thermal resistance and lower values of air permeability and moisture vapor transmission rate.
Jhanji et al. [30] compared the moisture management properties of plated fabrics with altering hydrophilic and hydrophobic fibers in top and bottom layers and different types of hydrophobic fibers in top layers. They concluded that fabrics knitted with hydrophobic fibers (polypropylene, polyester) in top layers were suitable for next-to-skin applications as they were classified as moisture management fabrics owing to high values of accumulative one-way transport index and bottom spreading speed. It was further suggested that fabric knitted with nylon in top layer was classified as water penetration fabric due to poor liquid transfer properties. Fabrics knitted with cotton in top layer irrespective of the hydrophobic fiber in bottom layer were poor in moisture management properties.
Ghosh and Kaur [31] studied the effect of tightness factor on liquid transport properties of plain knitted fabrics and observed that with increase in tightness factor, fabrics showed higher wicking and lower water absorbency. They suggested that higher tightness factor resulted in less tortuosity thus providing less complicated path for liquid flow and offering less resistance to fluid flow compared to fabrics knitted with lower tightness factor.
Suganthi and Senthilkumar [32] studied moisture management properties of double layered fabrics varying the fiber types in inner and outer layers and observed that bi layered fabrics with micro fiber polyester in inner and modal in outer layer was the preferred choice for active sportswear owing to fabric’s better moisture management properties.
The published literature suggests that fabric structures engineered by strategic combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic fibers, speciality fibers and yarns exhibit variations in their bulk, physical and comfort characteristics thereby influencing thermal and mass transport properties of textiles. The fabric structure and in turn the fabric properties determine the suitability of textiles for sportswear applications. Having discussed, the significance of fiber, yarn and fabric variables on functional aspects of sportswear in the previous section, it becomes necessary to highlight the key trends and innovations in sportswear which serve to enhance the performance as well as esthetic attributes of the sportswear. The designing aspects and innovative approaches employed to render smart functionality to sportswear will be covered in details in the following sections of the chapter.
5. Key trends in sportswear design and development
Key trends in sportswear design and development encompasses performance and esthetic evolution of sportswear from next to skin to exterior or outer wear.
The inception of new functional and high-performance fibers and waterproof and breathable materials like polypropylene, polyester, polyamide in micro fine denier and Goretex respectively led to innovations in first layer sportswear such as performance underwear. The functional properties like wicking, fast drying, anti-odor and UV blocking have been considerably enhanced by inclusion of new, innovative fibers. However, the raw material selection has not brought about radical changes in design aspects of the first layer.
5.1 Designing sportswear as first layer garments with enhanced functionality and unconventional styling
The first layer garments have undergone a major transformation with more emphasis on design and development of all-in-one suits in competition swimming and running, winter sport wear and athletics.
Furthermore, sportswear manufacturers are exploring the avenues for creating garments offering multiple functionalities in a single layer as per specific requirements of wearer’s body parts.
The first layer sportswear is particularly popular among runners and top level athletes who seek comfort, unhindered bodily movement, light weight, fast drying and stretch ability in their attires. Apart from functional aspects, first layer sportswear have witnessed huge esthetic transformation with emergence of racier styles featuring attractive and variable designs, funky colors, quirky prints, patterns and strategic placement of trimming as means of surface ornamentation. The sportsperson and fitness freaks who once merely considered the performance aspects of their clothing, no longer follow a taciturn approach to doff a stylish, funky sportswear that can render psychological well-being to wearer and visual delight to viewers.
Accordingly, designers are fostered to include innovative design concepts such as elaborate patchwork, asymmetrical styling and unconventional placement of trimmings, notions and labels in their sportswear design collections with due consideration to the changing preferences of sportspersons and consumers.
The functional aspects of performance under wears are enhanced by incorporation of innovative technologies like application of moisture management, UV protective, bacteriostatic finishes, controlled release of chemicals and other auxiliaries via microencapsulation. Accordingly, the underwear exhibit exceptionally superior moisture management properties, thermal and UV protection, antimicrobial and antistatic properties. Apart from functional attributes, the performance underwear have evolved significantly with vibrant fabric colors, contrasting trimming and off-center patterns widely used in their designing.
Introduction of asymmetrical design concepts like placing the closures along the side seam serve both esthetic and functional aspects by rendering unorthodox fashion appeal, layering and enhanced wearer agility. The trendy styles are thus becoming asset for youth oriented sportswear.
The first and second skin sportswear segment once considered a dowdy category, has emerged as top notch sportswear segment bringing new dynamics to sportswear market with all the innovative design concepts enjoying consumer acceptance.
5.2 All in one suits
The classic example of all in one suit is the body-covering Speedo swimwear intended for competition swimming introduced during Olympics.
The swimwear design fostered the concept of bio mimetics in sportswear designed later as the former closely mimicked the sharkskin as far as design orientation was concerned.
The success story of all-in-one swim suits paved the way for designing athletic sportswear, speed skating and cross country skiing suits. Nike, a popular sportswear brand was trailblazer in designing an elaborate, paneled speed skating suits comprising of seven different fabric types for cyclists. The novel suit with patchwork was designed to enhance the cyclist’s performance, protection level and comfort in spite of the unfavorable ambient environment and excruciating conditions which cyclists generally encounter. The high tech suits are the state of the art suits offering multiple functionalities such as elasticity, compression, thermal insulation, protection against external elements and aerodynamics. The patch work design unique to high-end cycling sportswear has been adopted in second skin and first layer garment design as well.
5.3 Designing smartly via incorporation of sensors and electronic components
Another design perspective in sportswear segment envisages the incorporation of smart features via sensors and other electronic components that are comparable to high tech trimmings. A microphone with its associated embroidered control buttons on a garment sleeve or collar renders graphic yet functional embellishment to the clothing. The elimination of wind and rain flaps by inclusion of water tight zippers for medium level performance outerwear, switching to leaner and pared styles of trims and notions like printed and embroidered labels and motifs, drawstrings, velcro, snap closures and mesh lining for pockets to offer storage and ventilation both are some approaches to enhance the functionality and esthetic appeal without adding any additional bulk to the sportswear.
The sportswear designers are thus fascinated by concept of stealth design that implies less detailing, fewer accessories yet not at tradeoff with functional and smart features.
5.4 Design approaches to render breathability and waterproofing to sportswear
Waterproofing and breathability becomes all the more crucial while designing sportswear intended for outdoor sports where sports person is doomed to be exposed to humid, rainy conditions.
The technologies generally employed for development of waterproof breathable sportswear include:
Development of high density fabric
Application of polymeric coating
Film lamination.
Development of High density fabric - The densely woven fabrics consisting of cotton or synthetic microfilament yarns with individual filament diameter of less than 10 micron and produced with high cover factor exhibit water proofing and breathability. The high cover factor of fabrics reduces the inter yarn spaces thereby preventing liquid penetration through fabric structure. The fabric on exposure to liquid causes cotton fibers to swell transversely reducing the pore size in the fabric structure. The dimensions of pore are smaller than water droplet thus effectively preventing water penetration however the pores allow the transmission of water vapor molecules (insensible perspiration) on account of smaller size of vapor molecules compared to water droplets thereby rendering breathability to the fabrics. The classic example of water proof breathable fabric is VENTILE, a high density oxford woven cotton fabric that effectively prevents the penetration of fluid but is permeable to passage of water vapor through the clothing.
Coated fabrics - Fabrics intended for sportswear can be imparted water proofing and breathability by application of polymeric coating either on one or both fabric surfaces. Polyurethane is the most commonly used coating for imparting water proofing to textiles. Micro-porous and hydrophilic membranes can be used for development of coated textiles. The micro-porous membrane features a coating containing very fine inter connected channels of the dimensions smaller than the finest raindrop. However, the size of channels is larger than that of water vapor molecules enabling water vapor passage through the air-permeable channels. Although, the hydrophilic membrane exhibit similar structure as that of micro-porous membrane, however, the mechanism of water vapor transmission in former is via adsorption-diffusion and de-sorption in contrast to passage of water vapor molecules through the air-permeable channels in the latter.
Lamination involves bonding a waterproof and breathable film to textile substrate. Thin polymeric membranes of maximum thickness up to 10 micron when bonded with base fabrics offer water proofing and breathability to textile substrate. Micro-porous membrane of poly-tetra fluoro ethylene (PTFE), poly-vinyldene fluoride PVDF and hydrophilic membrane composed of poly ethylene oxide are utilized for development of laminated water proof textiles for sports applications.
The ingress of water through seams in a water proof garment needs to be prevented through seam sealing. Apart from waterproofing, the laminated garments should be lightweight, flexible and comfortable to wearer. Thus, thinner strips, elasticized tapes and improved glues are increasingly being used for designing bulk free laminated sportswear. The traditional three ply composite construction comprising of fabric, film and mesh lining have undergone major transformation by elimination of mesh linings and addition of silicone touch finish to films imparting cleaner finishing and convenient doffing of the clothing. The overall freedom of wearer movement is thus ensured as a result of reduced friction within garment layers.
The sportswear designers prefer to do away with seams as they are a major source of friction, added fabric layers and bulk. Thus, designers prefer seamless knitting or heat sealing for reduction and elimination of seams to achieve a clean, compact performance wear.
The three layer sportswear are generally preferred for outdoor activities like hiking and cycling owing to their ability to provide protection against external elements (extreme cold or humidity) along with basic sportswear requirement of being lightweight, breathable and comfortable.
Each layer of a three layered assembly is designed to serve a specific function. The first, next to skin layer is designed with hydrophobic fibers to wick away sweat from skin to the outer layers, thereby rendering dry feel next to skin. Additionally, the innermost layer offers thermal protection to wearer in cold ambient conditions.
Second layer garments generally composed of fleece, assist in keeping the wearer warm and dry by drawing sweat from skin to the outer layer. The modifications in second layer are targeted to achieve high warmth to weight ratio without compromising the thermal insulation of clothing. However, the traditional three layer protective clothing assemblies are being rapidly replaced by advanced composite textile structures referred to as soft shell clothing designed by bonding multiple knits and fleece layers together.
The latter offers agility to wearer, protection against adverse environmental conditions with an additional advantage of being light weight and compact.
The second layer is further improvised to impart multiple functionalities such as warmth retention and insulation, water resistance, elasticity and wind protection. Therefore, sportswear has been witnessing a transition from complete water proofing by hard shell to water resistance by soft shell.
There are three approaches to design soft shell with augmented thermal insulation and wind protection. The first approach involves the utilization of windproof shell as a separate clothing entity while the second involves bonding fleece to wind blocking membrane. The membrane laminated sportswear thus offer thermal insulation along with water proofing and breathability. A new range of laminates designed with wind defender type membranes namely Gore – Tex Windstopper, Symptex Windmaster underscore protection against wind over water proofing, are being specifically developed for windy climatic conditions (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Water proof & breathable sports wear.
Adequate warmth and wind protection can also be achieved by third approach wherein fleece is bonded to tightly woven fabric or knitted structure.
Moreover, the comfort level, warmth and protection to wearer can further be provided by four layer system comprising of four garments - first layer, fleece, soft shell and hard shell.
Soft shells comprising of fleece and treated with water repellant surface finish are ideal candidates for outdoor activities as they primarily focus on enhanced thermal insulation, elasticity and abrasion resistance. The jackets have evolved radically as far as design and style elements are concerned and are increasingly being designed devoid of multiple drawstrings, elasticized hems or double storm flaps thereby eliminating cumbersome and bulky garment features. A closer-fitting, bulk free silhouette for better mobility, warmth retention and comfort to wearer has thus become synonymous to performance outerwear. The designing of hard shell jacket is also not aloof of the close fitting approach and thus designers have been striving to design leaner, fitted hard shell attires taking design inspirations from soft shells.
5.5 Design approaches for enhanced thermal insulation of sportswear
Other approaches for designing outdoor, winter sportswear are based on fundamental concept of exploiting the good insulation properties of still air layer and thus engineering textile structures with an ability to trap large volumes of still air. The entrapped air layer being good thermal insulator can provide enhanced thermal insulation to clothing incorporating hollow fibers, three dimensional spacer fabrics and alveolar or nodular raised knit structures. Hollow fibers on account of their light weight and improved thermal regulation outshines conventional fibers and are considered ideal for all such applications where high thermal resistance is sought for.
Accordingly, knitted structures like pique, honeycomb or ribbed raised textures are generally used for designing sportswear intended for winters. The honeycomb knits in conjunction with raised fabric in next to skin layer offers effective thermal insulation and are suitable for cold weather clothing and sportswear. Likewise, the structure of fleece can be modified for enhanced warmth by trimming the piles and creation of three dimensional grid thereby increasing the air entrapment next to skin.
The high performance thermo regulation along with light weight and wearer comfort can be engineered into sports apparels and accessories via three dimensional knit structures, spacer fabrics.
5.6 Nature as source of inspiration for sportswear designers
Nature is a big source of inspiration for human beings and capturing nature’s beauty and functionality by biomimetic is a concept frequently explored in functional clothing particularly sportswear and protective clothing.
Speedo, a sportswear manufacturing company developed one of its own kinds of Fast skin biomimetic swimsuit taking inspiration from shark skin (Figure 7). The denticles of shark’s skin were imitated on the fabric to impart super stretch property and thus the performance of swimmer donning the swimsuit could be considerably enhanced by shape retention, muscle compression and reduced drag coefficient.
Figure 7.
Biomimetic principles for sportswear designing.
Inotek® fabric based on “Pine cone effect” is quite popular among sportswear designers and manufacturers owing to exceptionally excellent thermal regulation and moisture management properties exhibited by the fabric. Pine cones comprises of two layers of stiff fibers that are oriented in different directions (Figure 7). The cones tend to close as the humidity increases to prevent moisture from getting in while they open up releasing their seeds and falling to the ground as a response to decreasing humidity. Likewise, the Pine Cone Effect based on reaction of plants to humidity is explored for designing fabrics that can respond to changing humidity conditions. The textiles based on biomimetic concept are composed of layer of thin wool spikes that open up on encountering increased humidity as a result of sweating by wearer. However, as the sweat evaporates and humidity drops down, the spikes on the fabric closes again in response to changing humidity.
The designers of long jump suit named SKYNFEEL exclusively designed for professional athletes might have been enticed by the salient characteristics of fauna to exhibit unhindered flights with their wings. The suit is designed with laterally positioned flaps much like the wings of dragonfly. The dragon fly wing inspired flaps feature geometric lased cut panels that enhance the athlete’s elevation during jumping via closing and opening up as per athlete’s movement. The flaps remain closed during run-up however they open up as the wearer is preparing for jump. The opening of panels leads to creation of air pockets thereby resulting in aerodynamic effect. Consequently, the jumper’s performance is enhanced due to his ability to suspend in air for longer duration and gaining distance while jumping.
Stomatex®, another smart fabric designed using the biomimetic principles finds application in compression athletic wear for enhanced performance and recovery. The salient feature of fabric is dome and pore mimicking the stomata (tiny pores) on the plant’s leaves responsible for respiration and gaseous exchange in plants (Figure 7). The phenomenon of opening of stomata in daylight and closure at night is attempted to be recreated by the way of opening and closing of pores present on domes embossed in the outer knitted layer of fabric. The sportswear utilizing aforesaid fabric is generally designed in close-fitting silhouette to be able to react to wearer’s bodily movements. During static conditions, the energy consumption by sports person is reduced and thus wearer comfort is ensured by release of excess heat and moisture rising into the domes and ultimately released via the pore. As the wearer is actively involved in some physical activity, the flexing and movement of domes (and pores) enables passage of cooler air into clothing and escape of heat and moisture to outer environment.
6. Innovative approaches for sportswear design and development
The sportswear industry is taken by storm by path breaking innovations as far as procurement of raw materials like high performance and specialty fibers, yarns and engineering of fabric structures like double layered, elastane and breathable fabrics are concerned. Furthermore, smart functionalities like antimicrobial, antistatic, anti-odor properties, monitoring sportsperson’s physiological parameters, incorporation of smart materials like phase change materials and shape memory polymers, wearable sensors, tracking performance record of sportsperson and incorporation of smart technologies like smart coatings, nano technology and wearable electronics are engineered into sportswear (Figures 8 and 9).
Figure 8.
Phase change materials & shape memory polymers for sportswear.
Figure 9.
Nano technology for antimicrobial sportswear.
6.1 Innovative raw materials for sportswear
The fibers suitable for sportswear have already been discussed in the previous section. However, the innovations in sportswear cannot be conscripted without the mention of high performance fibers and their role in improving the moisture transmission properties of sportswear. The utilization of high performance fibers such as Coolmax®, Thermolite®, Thermocool® in performance and active wear results in increased surface area, better wicking and moisture management and in turn dry, cooler microclimate to wearer. Thermolite® is particularly suitable for cold weather sportswear due to fabric’s exceptionally high thermal insulation and moisture transmission properties. Winter sportswear comprising hollow core fibers possess the ability to trap higher volumes of static air and thus provide enhanced warmth and wearer comfort without any additional weight or bulk unlike conventional fleece fabrics. The clothing is thus gaining popularity among sports persons indulging in outdoor, winter sports like ice skating, mountaineering etc.
Dryarn, an innovative sustainable fiber from Aquafil is recyclable polypropylene microfiber and a preferred choice for developing sportswear fabrics that are sustainable, soft, anti-bacterial, light weight, quick drying, comfortable and exhibits high thermoregulatory capacity.
Sportwool®, a two layered moisture management fabric featuring wool on the inner side and synthetic fiber on the outer side and Field sensor TM® with brushed inner side are other options for winter sportswear.
Field Sensor, high performance fabric from Toray is a multilayered structure suitable for varied sports applications. The excellent moisture management properties and wick ability for rapid liquid transmission from next to skin to outer layer can be attributed to the fabric’s specially engineered structure with distinct inner and outer layers composed of coarser denier yarn and fine denier hydrophobic polyester yarn in a mesh construction respectively.
Additionally, thermo regulating materials like phase change or latent heat storage materials capable of sensing varying ambient conditions and responding by changing their phase are increasingly finding application in sportswear where sportsperson is exposed to prolonged, drastic environmental conditions. Outlast technology is involved in development of microencapsulated PCM coated fabric intended for sportswear and other smart textile applications. The sportswear developed with PCM treated fabrics provides thermal balance and maintain constant body temperature to wearer by absorbing excess body heat at elevated temperatures due to metabolic heat production and releasing it as the temperature drops down during cooling.
The potential of shape memory polymers to obtain effective thermal and moisture management properties was first explored in sailor suit designed for Swedish sailors. The suit based on membrane technology employed waterproof, windproof and breathable Diaplex membrane. The smart membrane can sense the changing ambient conditions and respond by changing its shape, memorizing the original shape and returning to the orginal, memorized shape accordingly. The membrane undergoes Micro-Brownian motion as it senses elevated temperature thereby creating micro-pores for heat and moisture transmission through the membrane (Figure 8).
6.2 Innovative wearable sensors and AI based technologies for sportswear
The concept of sportswear design and development has been drastically changing with sportsperson anticipating technological features in their attire apart from basic requirements of functionality and comfort. It thus becomes mandate for sportswear designers and manufacturers to conform to the expectations of their consumers and come up with technology laced sportswear that can serve best of both worlds by offering comfort, protection and other functional attributes along with serving as a personal trainer, activity tracker and can monitor physiological parameters of the sports persons (Figure 10). The new generation of sportswear exhibits such smart features which would be considered fantasy a decade ago. The myriad of innovations in sportswear as far as incorporation of smart features are concerned will be discussed in detail in this section of the chapter. Figure 10 show the technology laced smart sportswear for performance & health monitoring. An innovation in athletic wear is development of Skin® 400 compression athletic wear series. The athletic wear is composed of elastane warp knitted fabric that can foster oxygen delivery to athlete’s active muscles via dynamic gradient compression.
Figure 10.
Technology laced smart sportswear for performance & health monitoring.
Smart sportswear like fitness pants feature built-in haptic vibrations and signal the wearer to be agile or hold position as per pulse generated at the stress prone zones like hips, knees and ankles. The smart pants can be synched to wearer’s phone via bluetooth and provides additional feedback through the companion app.
Ambiotex’s smart shirt intended for athletes is designed with integrated sensors and clip-on box for recording athlete’s data pertaining to heart rate variability, threshold, fitness and stress levels.
Sabine Seymour’s smart bra is designed with an integrated invisible biometric sensors and can be effectively worn to track heart rate and workout routines during sporting, gyming activities.
Compression sleeve by Komodo technologies is beneficial for sportspersons and heart patients as the sleeve is capable of monitoring heart rate activity via electrocardiogram (ECG) technology. The sensors integrated in the sleeve can monitor wearer’s body temperature, sleeping patterns, workout intensity, air quality and UV rays.
A smart shirt laced with blue tooth smart sensor can be paired with fitness apps like Map My Run, Run Keeper and Strava to capture the real time data and monitor physical activity and physiological parameters of sportspersons such as intensity and recovery; consumed calories fatigue level and sleep patterns.
Athos deals in range of training clothes intended for gym goers. The ensemble is designed with micro-EMG sensors that can detect muscle movement and in turn transfer the workout data such as sports person’s muscle effort, heart rate and breathing to a smartphone. The app serves as a personal trainer for fitness freaks by providing insights on correct exercise protocol and injury avoidance.
Hexo skin smart sportswear are designed with embedded textile sensors for monitoring cardiac, respiratory phenomenon, physical training, sleep patterns, and mundane activities of an individual involved in rigorous sports. The visualization, reporting and analysis of data becomes very convenient with Hexo skin as the smart clothing is equipped with an accelerometer to quantify body movements, track heart rate to be viewed in real time. Furthermore, it prevents the sports person from over training by determining lung capacity for each activities performed and measurement of stress and training fatigue.
Boltt, a sports tech-brand pioneer in design and development of consumer-centric health and fitness clothing and smart shoes laced with stride sensors and activity tracker. The real-time audio feedback and customized workout suggestions generated by the brand’s advanced artificial intelligence (AI) ecosystem can provide customized health and fitness coaching to wearers.
An on demand inflatable- deflate able textile tubing network in a jacket developed by Sympatex can provide the extra warmth to wearer when inflated while the jacket can be deflated to release the air held inside the tubes into the environment as it senses an elevation in body temperature ow wearer’s activity level.
A Cyberia survival suit intended for arctic environment serves as a personal GPS and monitors the wearer’s physical conditions. The suit derives its sensing and monitoring capabilities from an array of sensors and connecting electrodes embroidered onto textile substrate.
Qardio Core, an ECG monitor is a hardware fitness tracker capable of providing continuous medical grade data by incorporated sensors in the tracker. The smart tracker is designed for people indulging in active lifestyles but with a family history of chronic diseases. The doctors can analyze the obtained data from sensors to monitor the health record and can act instantly in event of any abnormal data.
Wearable X, pioneer in bringing design and technology together, launched smart yoga wear incorporating haptic feedback. Posture monitoring and vibrational reaction by smart garment assists in guided yoga.
Vitali smart bra is another state-of-the-art smart sport wear designed for fitness freak females. The bra is equipped with sensors to track heart and breathing rates. The stress levels of women can be monitored via data collected from sensors thereby sending reminder to wearer to take deep breath on detection of high stress levels.
Exercise routine for elderly people can be managed by smart knitted cardigan designed by Dutch designer Pauline van Dongen. The ordinary looking cardigan is equipped with four stretch sensors comprising conductive yarns and can transmit the information to an app for generating feedback. The obtained feedback serves as a guide for physiotherapist to suggest the best exercising options as per age and physical stamina of the wearer.
7. Conclusions
Sportswear constitutes an integral part of technical textiles and encases great potential as far as technological and design innovations are concerned. The sports textiles have witnessed tremendous evolution and that too at a much faster pace compared to ready to wear segment. The sports clothing is no longer restricted to sportsperson involved in performance sports or strenuous physical activities. However, there has been a surge for sports apparels and accessories among health conscious, fitness freak and gym enthusiasts. Accordingly, the sportswear industry has witnessed revolutionary advancements in development of different sportswear categories like active wear, leisurewear and athleisure to fulfill the requirements of sportsperson as well as health-conscious millennials. The basic and functional requirements of comfort, breathability, light weight, anti-static and anti-odor properties can be engineered into sportswear by optimum selection of fibers, yarns, fabrics and garments’ designing aspects.
Sportswear has emerged as one of the most promising and technologically driven segments of technical textiles with massive innovations and advancements involved in design and development of sport specific attires.
The basic requirements of sportswear vary as per the sportsperson’s level of physical activity, the specific nature of sport and the ambient conditions to which the sportsperson is exposed. The technological and ergonomic aspects for designing under water diving suit will be contrastingly different from those incorporated in designing clothing for a golfer. Thus, a lot of brain storming and research is involved in designing a clothing that meets the specific requirement of sports along with providing comfort, dexterity, agility to wearer, breathability, moisture management, light weight, antimicrobial and anti-odor properties. The correct selection of fibers, yarns and fabric variables for sportswear is of paramount importance to engineer the desired properties in the sport clothing.
Apart from functional requirements, a lot of emphasis is being laid on esthetic aspects as well considering increasing number of females involved in yoga, gyming and other sporting activities who give precedence to silhouette, colors and other design details of sportswear. Accordingly, the technological as well as ergonomic advancements in sportswear design and development have opened new avenues for researchers to explore the field further.
8. Future scope in design and development of sportswear
The field is promising and innovative with several avenues as far as research and development, pioneering new technologies and trailblazing concepts are concerned. Furthermore, the role of technology, bio mimics, fashion and mediation of interdisciplinary fields like wearable electronics, bio medical avenues have brought about a major transformation in design and development of smart sportswear thereby enhancing functionality and esthetics of sportswear. Apart from functional and esthetic appreciation of sportswear, the need of the hour is switching over to sustainable practices in sportswear supply chain. Consequently, the sportswear designers and manufacturers understanding their social and economic responsibilities should commit to sustainable practices for design and development of sportswear.
It can thus be recapitulated that the future belongs to smart sportwear spanning from ethical, to technology laced wearable electronics to camouflage clothing to convertible, modular sports ensembles which not merely serves as clothing for wearer but can be multifunctional entities with an ability to be transformed into a travel bag or a sleeping bag as per the sportsperson’s convenience and requirements.
\n',keywords:"Accessories, Active wear, Comfort, Sportswear, Knitted fabrics, Leisure Wear",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79278.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79278.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79278",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79278",totalDownloads:256,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 26th 2021",dateReviewed:"August 4th 2021",datePrePublished:"November 10th 2021",datePublished:"December 22nd 2021",dateFinished:"November 10th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Sportswear constitutes an integral part of technical textiles and encases great potential as far as technological and design innovations are concerned. The sports textiles have witnessed tremendous evolution and that too at a much faster pace compared to ready to wear segment. The sports clothing is no longer restricted to sportsperson involved in performance sports or strenuous physical activities. However, there has been a surge for sports apparels and accessories among health conscious, fitness freak and gym enthusiasts. Accordingly, the sportswear industry has witnessed revolutionary advancements in development of different sportswear categories like active wear, leisurewear and athleisure to fulfill the requirements of sportsperson as well as health conscious millennials. The basic and functional requirements of comfort, breathability, light weight, anti-static and anti-odor properties can be engineered into sportswear by optimum selection of fibers, yarns, fabrics and garments’ designing aspects. The chapter will provide an insight on the classification, requirements, design aspects, raw material procurement, innovative and sustainable concepts employed in sportswear to enhance the functionality and comfort characteristics of sportswear. Furthermore, the role of technology and fashion in sportswear transformation is also covered in the last sections of the chapter.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79278",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79278",signatures:"Yamini Jhanji",book:{id:"10410",type:"book",title:"Textiles for Functional Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Textiles for Functional Applications",slug:"textiles-for-functional-applications",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",bookSignature:"Bipin Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10410.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-630-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-629-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-631-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"177114",title:"Dr.",name:"Bipin",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"bipin-kumar",fullName:"Bipin Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"291745",title:"Dr.",name:"Yamini",middleName:null,surname:"Jhanji",fullName:"Yamini Jhanji",slug:"yamini-jhanji",email:"yjhanji@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Sportswear categorization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Categorization based on level of physical activity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Active wear",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Leisure wear",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.2 Categorization based on sport specific requirements",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.1 Dry fast action sportswear",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.2 Damp-fast action sportswear",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.3 Wet-fast action sportswear",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.3 Categorization based on weather conditions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.3.1 Cold weather sportswear",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.3.2 Moderate weather sportswear",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.3.3 Hot weather sportswear",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"3. Requirements of sportswear",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"4. Fiber, yarn and fabric interplay for sportswear design and development",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.1 Fiber variables and their influence on thermo-physiological comfort aspects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.2 Yarn variables and their influence on thermo-physiological comfort aspects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.3 Fabric variables and their influence on thermo-physiological comfort aspects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"4.3.1 Double layered fabrics with hydrophobic fibers in face and back layer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"4.3.2 Double layered fabrics with hydrophilic fiber in back and hydrophobic fiber in face layer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"4.3.3 Double layered fabric with hydrophilic fibers in face and back layers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"4.3.4 Double layered fabric with hydrophobic fiber in back and hydrophilic fiber in the face layer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23",title:"5. Key trends in sportswear design and development",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"5.1 Designing sportswear as first layer garments with enhanced functionality and unconventional styling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"5.2 All in one suits",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"5.3 Designing smartly via incorporation of sensors and electronic components",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"5.4 Design approaches to render breathability and waterproofing to sportswear",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"5.5 Design approaches for enhanced thermal insulation of sportswear",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"5.6 Nature as source of inspiration for sportswear designers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30",title:"6. Innovative approaches for sportswear design and development",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"6.1 Innovative raw materials for sportswear",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"6.2 Innovative wearable sensors and AI based technologies for sportswear",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33",title:"7. 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The Technological Institute of Textile and Sciences, India
Indian Institute of Technology, India
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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"},selectedSubseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/45023",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"45023"},fullPath:"/chapters/45023",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()