More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
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Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
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Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
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We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
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IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\n
Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9210",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Quantum Dots - Fundamental and Applications",title:"Quantum Dots",subtitle:"Fundamental and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Quantum dots (QDs) are luminescent semiconductor nanocrystals with unique chemical and physical properties due to their size and highly compact structure. QDs were first proposed for use in luminescent concentrators to replace organic dye molecules. In this book, the interest is in taking advantage of the emission properties of QDS, which can be tuned by their size, resulting from quantum confinement. In addition, the book discusses the potential of QDs as contrast and therapeutic agents in the field of medicine.",isbn:"978-1-83880-919-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-918-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-920-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83206",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"quantum-dots-fundamental-and-applications",numberOfPages:92,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a4343b3c941808702febf1d6b5bda803",bookSignature:"Faten Divsar",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9210.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4843,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:41,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 29th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 20th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 19th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 7th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 7th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"293418",title:"Dr.",name:"Faten",middleName:null,surname:"Divsar",slug:"faten-divsar",fullName:"Faten Divsar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293418/images/system/293418.jpg",biography:"Faten Divsar received her PhD in analytical chemistry from Kharazmi University, Tehran in 2009. She conducted her postdoctoral training at Nanjing University (Nanjing, China) in 2011 and 2012, where her research was mainly devoted to the design of DNA biosensors by means of electrochemiluminescence spectrometry. Currently she is an Assistant Professor at the Chemistry Department of Payame Noor University, Iran. Her research focuses on two active programs, namely design of bioanalytical and electrochemical sensors, and development of innovative nanomaterials for pollution removal and water treatment.",institutionString:"Payame Noor University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Payame Noor University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"208",title:"Material Science",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science"}],chapters:[{id:"71780",title:"Introductory Chapter: Quantum Dots",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92151",slug:"introductory-chapter-quantum-dots",totalDownloads:823,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Faten Divsar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71780",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71780",authors:[{id:"293418",title:"Dr.",name:"Faten",surname:"Divsar",slug:"faten-divsar",fullName:"Faten Divsar"}],corrections:null},{id:"70534",title:"Quantum Confinement Effect of 2D Nanomaterials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90140",slug:"quantum-confinement-effect-of-2d-nanomaterials",totalDownloads:1016,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Quantum confinement is the spatial confinement of electron–hole pairs (excitons) in one or more dimensions within a material, and also electronic energy levels are discrete. It is due to the confinement of the electronic wave function to the physical dimensions of the particles. In this effect can be divided into three ways, 1D confinement (free carrier in a plane), quantum wells; 2D confinement (carriers are free to move down), quantum wire; and 3D confinement (carriers are confined in all directions), which are discussed in detail. In addition the formation mechanism of exciton and quantum confinement behavior of strong, moderate, and weak confinement have been discussed below.",signatures:"Gopal Ramalingam, Poopathy Kathirgamanathan, Ganesan Ravi, Thangavel Elangovan, Bojarajan Arjun kumar, Nadarajah Manivannan and Kaviyarasu Kasinathan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70534",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70534",authors:[{id:"250055",title:"Dr.",name:"Elangovan",surname:"Thanagvel",slug:"elangovan-thanagvel",fullName:"Elangovan Thanagvel"},{id:"306901",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramalingam",surname:"Gopal",slug:"ramalingam-gopal",fullName:"Ramalingam Gopal"},{id:"307937",title:"Prof.",name:"Poopathy",surname:"Kathikamanagthan",slug:"poopathy-kathikamanagthan",fullName:"Poopathy Kathikamanagthan"},{id:"307938",title:"Prof.",name:"Ganasen",surname:"Ravi",slug:"ganasen-ravi",fullName:"Ganasen Ravi"},{id:"307939",title:"Mr.",name:"Bojarajan",surname:"Arjun Kumar",slug:"bojarajan-arjun-kumar",fullName:"Bojarajan Arjun Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"71659",title:"Temperature Effects in the Photoluminescence of Semiconductor Quantum Dots",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91888",slug:"temperature-effects-in-the-photoluminescence-of-semiconductor-quantum-dots",totalDownloads:764,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Temperature effects in the exciton photoluminescence specific to semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) are reviewed using Si QDs as an example. The processes of direct and indirect optical excitation of spatially confined excitons in quantum dots embedded in dielectric matrix are analyzed. The temperature behavior of the quantum dots photoluminescence (PL) excited by various methods was described in detail by a generalized electronic transitions scheme using different exciton relaxation models. The different types of temperature dependences were analyzed. The analytical expressions were obtained for their description, which allow one to determine the energy and kinetic characteristics of QD photoluminescence. It was found that the shape of the temperature dependence makes it possible to understand whether the process of exciton relaxation contains several different thermally activated stages or this is a simple one-stage process. The applicability of the obtained expressions for the analysis of the luminescence properties of quantum dots is demonstrated by the example of crystalline and amorphous silicon nanoclusters in silica matrix. It has been established that the quantum confinement effect of excitons in quantum dots leads to a decrease in the frequency characteristics and thermal activation barriers for nonradiative transitions.",signatures:"Anatoly Zatsepin and Dmitry Biryukov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71659",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71659",authors:[{id:"230919",title:"Dr.",name:"Anatoly",surname:"Zatsepin",slug:"anatoly-zatsepin",fullName:"Anatoly Zatsepin"},{id:"312874",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitry",surname:"Biryukov",slug:"dmitry-biryukov",fullName:"Dmitry Biryukov"}],corrections:null},{id:"70028",title:"Quantum Dots CdSe/ZnS as a Source Array of Entangled States",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88558",slug:"quantum-dots-cdse-zns-as-a-source-array-of-entangled-states",totalDownloads:734,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A quantum dot is a quantum system in classical space with unique characteristics, as a result of a large quantum limitation. The experimental results of this chapter substantiate the ability of quantum dots to play a key role in purely quantum processes, for example, teleportation of quantum objects, and the generation of macroscopic quantum gravity force and, of course, are a qubit in quantum computing. A quantum dot has the ability to capture (capture) a photo-induced charge carrier by a surface defect of its crystal structure and, thereby, create a second stable long-lived quantum state, which is a necessary requirement for a qubit. This ability puts a quantum dot out of competition with respect to many other quantum objects, like qubits, in terms of the simplicity and cheapness of their continuous generation in standard laboratory conditions. Quantum dots have received wide recognition because of their unique exciton luminescence characteristics; this chapter substantiates a fundamentally new area to use quantum dots in the development and study of both fundamental and applied physics.",signatures:"Anatolii Isaev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70028",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70028",authors:[{id:"308135",title:"M.D.",name:"Anatolii",surname:"Isaev",slug:"anatolii-isaev",fullName:"Anatolii Isaev"}],corrections:null},{id:"71347",title:"Quantum Dot Light-Emitting Diode: Structure, Mechanism, and Preparation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91162",slug:"quantum-dot-light-emitting-diode-structure-mechanism-and-preparation",totalDownloads:1177,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Quantum dot light-emitting diode (QLED) attracted much attention for the next generation of display due to its advantages in high color saturation, tunable color emission, and high stability. Compared with traditional LED display, QLED display has advantages in flexible and robust application, which makes wearable and stretchable display possible in the future. In addition, QLED display is a self-emissive display, in which light is generated by individual subpixel, each subpixel can be individually controlled. Each subpixel in LED display is constituted by liquid crystal and color filter, which make LED display have lower power efficiency and less enhanced functionality. This chapter introduces the QLED based on the QLED structure and light-emitting mechanism of QLED. Then, a novel method for fabricating QLEDs, which is based on the ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) incorporated into QD nanoparticles, will be introduced. The QLED device was fabricated by all-solution processes, which make the QLED fabrication process more flexible and more suitable for industrialization. What is more, as QLED devices were planned to integrate into a display, all-solution fabrication processes also make printing QLED display device possible in the near future.",signatures:"Ning Tu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71347",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71347",authors:[{id:"311315",title:"Dr.",name:"Ning",surname:"Tu",slug:"ning-tu",fullName:"Ning Tu"}],corrections:null},{id:"71984",title:"Retracted: What Did We Attain with Luminescent Quantum Dots?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92209",slug:"retracted-what-did-we-attain-with-luminescent-quantum-dots-",totalDownloads:330,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Quantum dots (QDs) are practically nanoparticles, which are obtained by reducing sizes until they reach the order of nanometers. Their unique optical properties inspire scientists especially in medical sciences in applications such as tumor detection, cardiovascular imaging, and cancer targeting. Here, we first discuss scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) results to evaluate the potential of SAM in the detection of lead-sulfide (PbS), graphene, and cadmium-telluride/cadmium sulfide (CdTe/CdS) quantum dot aggregates. The success of imaging quantum dots by SAM indicated the potential of SAM in monitoring the microenvironment of the disease and also the therapeutic effect of the drug-loaded QDs. Therefore, secondly we present confocal laser scanning microscopy results of graphene QDs engulfed in macrophages, which are in high numbers in the microenvironment of tumors, to evaluate the potential of graphene QDs in tumor targeting.",signatures:"Bukem Tanoren and Ali Eren Guzey",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71984",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71984",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"65",label:"highly cited contributor"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6408",title:"Novel Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Synthesis and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3585d338d78e4d31c200d9991b03692",slug:"novel-nanomaterials-synthesis-and-applications",bookSignature:"George Z. Kyzas and Athanasios C. 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\r\n\tThis book should describe in detail sound propagation, process, and characteristics, hearing, and process of speech communication, sound absorption, noise acceptance, the fundamental process of acoustic and how the workplace can be designed to control the surrounding sound and its effects on workers. Use theory and possible practical application to drive the knowledge from human involvement in workplace activities to any possible risk of health and safety hazards of the job.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-651-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-650-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-652-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"769f942393275479acca64e4f4fea958",bookSignature:"Dr. Bankole Kolawole Fasanya and Dr. Sridhar Krishnamurti",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11518.jpg",keywords:"Frequency, Sound Power, Absorption, Noise, Soundproof, Reflection, Inverse Square, Perception, Signal, Background Noise, Building, Noise Barrier",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 18th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fasanya is an Assistant Professor at Purdue University, USA. Prior to his current position, he has worked in different capacities with different institutions: Senior research associate (Auditory Protection and Prevention - US Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory, Adjunct Assistant Professor-NCAT, Facilities Engineer MVA, etc). Dr. Fasanya holds a Ph.D. in Industrial and systems engineering with a specialization in ergonomics and human factors.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Sridhar Krishnamurti is a Professor and Program Director of Audiology at Auburn University. Sridhar has\r\nauthored a book, journal articles, and book chapters in Audiology and Hearing Conservation. He\r\nis a recipient of several Research grant awards, including the 1999 New Investigator Research\r\nAward from the American Academy of Audiology and the 2011 Auburn University Alumni\r\nUndergraduate Teaching Excellence and 2012 Auburn University Faculty Research Awards.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"214494",title:"Dr.",name:"Bankole",middleName:"Kolawole",surname:"Fasanya",slug:"bankole-fasanya",fullName:"Bankole Fasanya",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/214494/images/system/214494.jpg",biography:"Bankole K. Fasanya received a BSc in Mechanical Engineering in 1999 from The Polytechnic Ibadan, Nigeria, his Master’s degree in Industrial and Systems Engineering from Morgan State University, Maryland, USA and his doctorate degree in Industrial and Systems Engineering specialized in ergonomics and human factors from North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, USA. His research focuses on human and environmental safety, ergonomics and human factors, auditory prevention and protection and noise assessment and control at workplaces. Dr. Fasanya is currently an assistant professor at Purdue University Northwest in Indiana, USA. He currently serves as one of the executive members of the American Hearing Conservative Association (NHCA). He is an OSHA-Authorized general industry safety train the trainer and a certified occupational hearing conservationist (COHC).",institutionString:"Purdue University Northwest",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Purdue University Northwest",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"466252",title:"Dr.",name:"Sridhar",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnamurti",slug:"sridhar-krishnamurti",fullName:"Sridhar Krishnamurti",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RKaOOQA1/Profile_Picture_2022-04-08T11:15:28.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sridhar Krishnamurti is a Professor and Program Director of Audiology at Auburn University.\r\nHe has served on the research grants review panel for several agencies and journals including\r\nAlzheimer’s Association, DOD Hearing Restoration Research, Ear and Hearing, American\r\nJournal of Public Health, and Journal of the American Academy of Audiology. Sridhar\r\nKrishnamurti has served as the past-continuing education administrator for Audiology Special\r\nInterest Divisions 6-9 and a Fellow of the American Academy of Audiology. Sridhar has\r\nauthored a book, journal articles, and book chapters in Audiology and Hearing Conservation. He\r\nis a recipient of several Research grant awards, including the 1999 New Investigator Research\r\nAward from the American Academy of Audiology and the 2011 Auburn University Alumni\r\nUndergraduate Teaching Excellence and 2012 Auburn University Faculty Research Awards.\r\nSridhar is currently President of the Council of Au.D Programs and an Executive Council member\r\nfor the National Hearing Conservation Association. 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1. Introduction
Malaria is one of the most serious vector-borne diseases, affecting millions of people mainly in the tropics. Recently, a substantial decline in malaria incidence has been observed all over the world. Vector control is one of the key elements in achieving this world-wide malaria decline, with scaling up of Insecticide Treated Nets (ITNs) and the expansion of Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) programmes contributing significantly. Besides the personal protection, ITNs confer a community protection when wide coverage is assured, meaning that unprotected persons benefit from the large scale intervention [1]. IRS is only meaningful when applied at a large coverage. In the 2011 World Malaria Report [2], the percentage of households owning at least one ITN in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to have risen from 3% in 2000 to 50% in 2011 while the percentage protected by indoor residual spraying (IRS) rose from less than 5% in 2005 to 11% in 2010. Household surveys indicate that 96% of persons with access to an ITN within the household actually use it [2]. Although these numbers might overestimate the real ITN use, they show that in recent years, several vector control measures were scaled up substantially. Despite these large increases in coverage, a widely held view is that with the currently available tools, namely vector control tools, intermittent preventive treatment, and early diagnosis and treatment, much greater gains could be achieved, including elimination from a number of countries and regions [3].
When considering vector control tools, even when hypothesizing a full coverage of ITNs and IRS, malaria transmission may still continue. Indeed, IRS only affects endophilic
Endophily is the tendency for mosquitoes to prefer resting indoors
mosquitoes and ITNs only target night biting mosquitoes. Moreover both intervention methods will mainly affect anthropophilic
Anthropophily is the tendency for mosquitoes to prefer feeding on human hosts
mosquitoes that are endophagic
Endophagy is the tendency for mosquitoes to prefer biting indoors
. This leaves ample opportunity for more exophilic
Exophily is the tendency for mosquitoes to prefer resting outdoors
, zoophilic
Zoophily is the tendency for mosquitoes to prefer feeding on animal hosts
and/or exophagic
Exophagy is the tendency for mosquitoes to prefer biting outdoors
vectors to escape from contact with insecticide treated surfaces and to maintain a certain level of transmission. Independently of the ITN and/or IRS coverage, outdoor and early malaria transmission occurs in many malaria endemic regions. In the west of Eritrea for example over a two year sampling period 36.4% of infective bites were acquired outdoors [4], in southern Tanzania this was 10% for non ITN users [5]. A study in northeastern Tanzania showed that 12% of the malaria transmission occurred before sleeping time [6]. In Uganda, in 6 sentinel sites throughout the country, up to 36% of indoor transmission and 49 % of outdoor transmission occurred before sleeping time, with the highest proportion of early in- and outdoor transmission in the suburban area of Jinja where An. gambiae
In this paper, s.l. (sensu lato) is added to the species name when referred to the species complex (An. gambiae s.l., An. minimus s.l., An. dirus s.l.). In the absence of s.l., the species is concerned (e.g. An. gambiae, An. minimus, An. dirus).
was the main vector [7]. In central Vietnam, where ITNs are used at large scale, 69% of the infective bites in forest plots were acquired before sleeping time [8]. In a study conducted in the east and west of Cambodia before widespread ITN use, 29% of the bites occurred before sleeping time in villages and forest plots [9]. In North-East India, 21% of the indoor infective bites occurred before 21h [10]. Also in Nicaragua, in an area with mainly Vivax malaria, 50% of the infective bites were acquired before sleeping time [11]. This part of the malaria transmission has the possibility to continue despite high coverage of ITNs and IRS, and is defined for the purpose of this review as ‘residual transmission’.
Controlling residual transmission requires a different approach as compared to the currently used vector control measures. This is not new and was already perceived as a major obstacle in the previous malaria eradication era [12]. In 2007 malaria eradication was put as the ultimate goal [3] and renewed attention was given to residual transmission, with vector control models also incorporating outdoor and zoophilic malaria vectors. Recently, an established mathematical model adjusted for human in- and outdoor movements was used to illustrate that even with 50% outdoor biting vectors, transmission suppression can be achieved by a large ITN coverage [13]. However the authors assumed a uniform exposure so that the ITN induced mortality affects equally in- and outdoor biting vectors. When assuming a uniform exposure all individuals of the vector population (belonging to the same or to different species), will exhibit at each gonotrophic cycle a random behaviour (e.g. exo- or endophily, exo-or endophagy, anthropo- or zoophily, early- or late-biting), so that all individual mosquitoes are equally affected by indoor-based vector control measures. In case of non-uniform exposure, two or more subpopulations of vectors (belonging to the same or to different species) are assumed, each exhibiting a specific behaviour. Therefore, each of these subpopulations is affected differently by indoor-based vector control measures [14]. As a result, a fraction of vectors will persist in the presence of these control measures and can be responsible for residual transmission. It was shown that pre-intervention variables reflecting behavior, such as the degree of exophily, may predict the efficacy of a specific intervention [15,16]. Assuming non-uniform exposure, the exophagic fractions of vectors will be less exposed to ITNs, the probability of survival and the vectorial capacity of this subpopulation will be weakly affected, and malaria transmission cannot be reduced further. The model developed in [17] takes into account the non-uniform exposure of the different anopheline species, i.e., the anthropo-endophilic vector species An. gambiae and An. funestus, and the more zoo-exophilic vector An. arabiensis. As would be intuitively expected, this model predicts that even the combination of very effective ITN distribution, twice yearly mass screening and treatment campaigns, and IRS will not succeed in getting the parasite prevalence rate below the 1% threshold if the zoo-exophilic An. arabiensis is present. When only An. gambiae or An. funestus are present, the same combination of interventions are successful in this model [17]. Moreover even within a well-defined species different subpopulations may occur exhibiting different behavioural patterns, resulting in non-uniform exposure within a species.
Therefore, when designing and applying vector control strategies it would be essential to have a good knowledge of the vector behavioural traits particularly those relevant to the chosen control method. However, entomological findings for one region or one anopheline species do not necessarily hold true for the same or different anopheline species encountered in the same or different malaria-endemic regions. In this chapter we will show that even before widespread use of vector control measures, a heterogeneity in behaviour between and within species was present. Because of the heterogeneity in behaviour, mosquitoes have different opportunities to escape from the killing or excito-repellent actions of insecticides used in ITNs or IRS. We will give examples of species shifts, shifts to outdoor- or early biting, shifts to zoophily or to exophily from different malaria endemic regions linked to the use of ITNs and IRS. Although the causes and mechanisms behind these shifts are not yet well understood, we will argue that ITNs and IRS may select for vector populations that predominantly feed early or outdoors, rest outdoors, or that are able to change their behaviour in response to the presence of these insecticides. Therefore, residual transmission will be dominated by vectors that bite outdoors, early or on animals, and that rest outdoors. These vectors require different control strategies, which might also be based on reducing host-vector contact, or target other key environmental resources.
The concept of uniform versus non-uniform exposure is illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Effect of control measures on mosquito populations in the assumption of uniform exposure and non-uniform exposure. The density of a uniform population (belonging to the same or to different species) A. before applying the control measure. B. after applying the control measure. The control measure reduces the density of the whole population by 80%. The density of a non-uniform population C. before applying the control measure. D. after applying the control measure. The population consists of two subpopulations (Subpopulations 1 and 2, belonging to the same or to different species) each with a different behavioural tendency. Limited contact with the insecticide due to its behavioural tendency makes that Subpopulation 1 is reduced by 20% only, while Subpopulation 2 is reduced by 80% of its initial density. As a result, a fraction of vectors will persist in the presence of these control measures and can be responsible for malaria transmission.
2. Heterogeneity in anopheline behaviour
Heterogeneity in behaviour of anopheline mosquitoes between and within species is present in all malaria endemic regions. In Africa, the two most efficient malaria vector species, An. gambiae and An. funestus, are very anthropophilic, endophilic, endophagic, and late-night biting [18]. In contrast, An. arabiensis, a species belonging to the same complex as An. gambiae, is more plastic in its behaviour, exhibiting more often zoophily, exophily, exophagy, and early-night biting as compared to An. gambiae and An. funestus. However, different factors can influence the behaviour of the anophelines. Host availability for example plays an important factor in the final host choice of the vector. This has been shown for An. gambiae in several study sites. In Burkina Faso for example, a double choice experiment shows that 88% of the An. gambiae choose for a human odour baited trap and only 12 % for a cattle odour trap. In contrast, the human blood index of indoor-resting An. gambiae collected in the same locality was only 40% [19], showing that this population of An. gambiae will adapt its host choice in case of a lower availability of human hosts. An. gambiae in São Tomé feeds more on dogs and was observed to be extremely exophagic most probably due to a combination of preference and the ease to reach the dogs sleeping outside under pillar houses [20]. On the Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea), An. gambiae was also observed to be partly exophagic and early-biting [21]. This means that when humans are not available inside, e.g. because of a high bed net use, some populations of An. gambiae are observed to feed outside or on animal hosts. In those cases, the frequency of human-vector contact will be lowered although humans will still be bitten in the evening. As a consequence, the longevity of these exophagic or zoophilic vectors will slightly, or not, be affected by ITNs, meaning that the vectorial capacity is not affected and malaria transmission continues.
Also in South-East Asia, heterogeneity of behaviour is observed for the primary and secondary vector species [22]: An. dirus is for example very anthropophilic, whereas An. minimus, depending on the geographical region, has both anthropophilic and zoophilic tendencies. An. maculatus has a high tendency for early biting as compared to An. dirus or An. minimus, but there are large differences between localities. Different populations of An. minimus observed in various localities also differ in their endophilic and endophagic tendencies [22]. Whereas An. dirus is generally observed to be very exophagic and exophilic, populations in Lao PDR have shown highly endophilic and endophagic trends [23]. Moreover, as reviewed in [24], An. dirus s.l. can even take blood-meals during daylight in the jungle.
In Latin-America, one of the most efficient vectors, An. darlingi is mainly anthropophilic, whereas the other dominant vectors, such as An. albimanus, An. nuneztovari, and An. aquasalis also have zoophilic tendencies or are more opportunistic. Most of the vectors in Latin America are mainly exophilic, but within each species, the degree of exophily can vary between geographical regions. An. albimanus for example is predominantly exophagic and exophilic, as observed in the Dominican Republic, Colombia, and Haiti. However, in Mexico and Central America, 80% of the An. albimanus was observed to have an endophilic resting behaviour [25]. Also the time and place of biting differs between sites for most of the species. In some localities for example, An. darlingi bites mostly during sleeping hours, or early in the morning [26], whereas in other localities, the main biting peak is early in the evening [27]. In French Guiana, An. darlingi was endo-exophagous with a clear predilection for biting outdoors [28].
3. How can the indoor use of insecticides select for exophilic, exophagic, zoophilic and/or early biting mosquito populations?
Insecticides can elicit different actions with different results on mosquitoes [29–31]. These various modes of action are important when talking about selection of ‘insecticide avoiding’ mosquitoes. Toxic or cidal actions result in knockdown or death after contact with the insecticide. Excito-repellent actions, including contact irritancy and non-contact repellency, result in above-normal levels of undirected movements coupled with loss of responsiveness to host cues. The insecticidal actions and their results depend among others on the insecticidal product used and on the mosquito species present. Large differences in actions of insecticides used in IRS have been observed: dieldrin for example only elicits a cidal action, while alphacypermethrin has both contact-irritant and killing actions, and DDT elicits mainly a repellent effect and secondarily a toxic action. [30]. Pyrethroids, the only family of insecticides used on ITNs, have well-documented excito-repellent actions [21] which are dose-dependent, but with for example higher toxic actions of alphacypermethrin as compared to deltamethrin and permethrin [31].
The general concepts of stress-induced variation in evolution [32] can be applied to the effect of insecticides on mosquito populations. Indoor use of insecticides will pose a stress on the female anopheline population, but only when the insecticides present a barrier for indoor feeding or indoor resting. At least three processes can be at the origin of perceived shifts in mosquito behaviour by insecticides:
A first protective mechanism can be behavioural plasticity in response to the presence of the insecticide. The ability to actively remove from the insecticide by either relocation or avoidance requires an ability to detect (either by contact or non-contact) or anticipate the presence of the insecticide and the ability to exhibit insecticide avoidance strategies or adjustments [32]. The insecticide, or the unavailability of the host, can then trigger the expression of gene variants that have been accumulated, but were phenotypically neutral under a normal range of environments [32]. Many mosquitoes indeed naturally possess a high degree of irritability or repellency which is evident at the very first exposure of the population to residual insecticides [29]. Where this irritation is such that mosquitoes settling on the insecticide deposit are activated before they have absorbed a lethal dose of insecticide, and are able to avoid further contact and to escape unharmed, the term “protective avoidance” has been suggested. In the presence of a high coverage of IRS or ITNs, mosquitoes exhibiting this protective avoidance should then be able to redirect their behaviour to low-risk behaviour which also can lower their survival. For example, for a species that is normally endophilic changing its behaviour to resting outdoors, the external environment may be unfavourable to the survival of the species [12].
A second protective mechanism for the mosquito is a consistent “protective behaviour” [29] such as exophily, exophagy, zoophily or early-biting resulting in a minimal contact with the insecticides used indoors. As mentioned above, some mosquito populations naturally exhibit this kind of protective behaviour, which is probably genetically determined (see further). Also differences in responses to the insecticides can result in diverse exposure rates of different species or subpopulations to the insecticide. An. minimus for example, shows very strong repellency responses to several insecticides and would have a higher survival chance in the presence of insecticides as compared to An. harrisoni which shows a much lower repellency response [33]. In this case, insecticides will favour the (sub) populations of mosquitoes that have this innate preference for protective behaviour or for avoidant strategies by which they will escape the exposure to the insecticide. This is probably the mechanism that is occurring for many of the perceived species shifts that are illustrated below.
Where these phenomena of protective avoidance or protective behaviour are not evident at the very first exposure of the population to the insecticides, but develop only gradually, perhaps over several years under continued insecticide pressure, the term “behaviouristic resistance” is employed [29]. The presence of the insecticide will in that case result in the selection of mutations and recombination that favour the survival of the mosquito in the presence of the insecticide, eventually leading to a directional selection. This can be compared to the development of insecticide resistance, although selections of many mutations will probably be required before an appropriate behavioural change may occur. Classification as “behaviouristic resistance” is only valid on the basis of accurate comparisons made before and subsequent to the widespread use of residual insecticides in any particular area. As shown below, very few behaviour shifts observed so far, would fit this definition of behaviouristic resistance.
4. Shifts observed in the presence of indoor insecticidal pressure
In the following paragraphs we will review the shifts that were observed in the presence of IRS and ITNs. For the purpose of this review, a ‘shift’ means an observed change, including relative changes, with a reasonable link to the indoor use of insecticides (ITNs or IRS). A distinction is made between different kinds of shifts: species shifts describe changes in the species composition which can also be within species complexes, whereas shifts to early biting, exophagy, zoophily or exophily describe changes in biting time, biting place, host, or resting place within a species, or within a species complex if no species information was available. Because a large part of the shifts in literature are described in the Afrotropical region, this region will be handled separately.
5. Afrotropical region
5.1. Species shifts
An IRS campaign resulted in the elimination of An. funestus from the South Pare District (at the Tanzania-Kenya border), at the same time reducing the numbers of indoor-resting An. gambiae s.l. [34]. In the years immediately following this IRS campaign, populations of endophilic An. gambiae s.l. slowly regained their former levels, whereas gradual resurgence of An. funestus was not observed until almost 10 years after the campaign was abandoned. IRS campaigns in two Kenyan villages resulted in a large decrease (up to total disappearance) of An. funestus, with an increase in the more exophagic An. rivulorum [35] or An. parensis [36], both not considered as malaria vectors in the study sites. In Niger, nation-wide Long-lasting insecticidal net (LLIN) distribution caused a marked decrease of An. funestus, without effect on An. gambiae s.l. abundance [37]. Following an IRS campaign, An. gambiae was completely eliminated from Pemba Island (Tanzania), leaving the salt-water breeding An. merus, an exophilic mosquito with a preference for cattle [38]. In Kenya and Tanzania, large scale ITN use significantly decreased the proportion of indoor-resting An. funestus [39] and An. gambiae [39–42] while the proportion of An. arabiensis increased. The shift from An. gambiae to An. arabiensis was also observed in the larval collections [40,41]. As larvae of An. gambiae and An. arabiensis show no habitat segregation, larval sampling reflects true proportions of the two species. The change from sub-populations dominated by An. gambiae to those dominated by An. arabiensis took about a decade, as would be expected if caused by a constant ITN selection pressure [43].
In contrast, in Kenya and on the Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea), the same species compositions were observed regardless of the use of ITNs or IRS [21,44]. Moreover, in the north-east of Tanzania, a species shift has been observed in the absence of insecticide selective pressure, in a region without organized vector control activities reported [45]: An. gambiae, the most dominant in the past, was replaced by An. arabiensis without any known reason.
5.2. Shifts to early-evening or early-morning biting
Studies have shown that widespread ITN use increases the proportion of early bites by An. gambiae [46] and An. funestus [42,46] in Tanzania. Such shift was not observed for Culex quinquefasciatus which is highly resistant against pyrethroids [46]. According to the authors [46], this suggests that for anophelines, where there is considerable killing by contact with ITNs, several years of selection has begun to produce an upward shift in the proportions of insects biting at a time when people are accessible. Also in southern Benin, a significant change in host seeking behaviour of An. funestus was observed after achieving a universal coverage of ITNs. The shift in biting time was here not to the early evening but to the early morning. Moreover in one locality about 26% of the An. funestus bites were observed after sunrise [47].
The use of ITNs resulted in a shift towards earlier biting of An. gambiae s.l. in Kenya [48] and Tanzania [42,49], possibly [48,49] or certainly [42] related to a species shift from An. gambiae to An. arabiensis.
In other studies however, no evidence for a shift in biting time after the introduction of ITNs or IRS was obtained for An. gambiae s.l. in Tanzania, Kenya, The Gambia and Nigeria [44,50–52], for An. gambiae the Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea) [21], or for An. funestus in Kenya [44]. Widespread use of mostly untreated bed nets did not result in more early biting of An. gambiae [5].
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\n\t\t\t\tCountry\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tVector control measure a\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tInsecticide b\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tCollection methods c\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tSpecies shift d\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tShift to early-biting d\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
c IRS: Indoor resting collection; ORC: Outdoor resting collection; CDC LT: Center for Disease Control light trap; HLC: Human landing collection; WET: Window exit trap; LD: Larval dipping; CMR: Capture-Mark-Recapture
d ND: Not done
5.3. Shifts to exophagy
In Nigeria, IRS resulted in a threefold increase of the proportion of An. gambiae s.l. biting outdoors [14,52]. Several years of vector control by IRS and later ITNs in the Bioko Island, increased the trend for outdoor biting of An. gambiae [21] as compared to historical data in the same region of preferred behaviour for indoor biting. Also in Tanzania, high ITN-use resulted in an increased outdoor biting for An. funestus [42]. In the latter study the proportion of indoor contact with An. funestus bites had dropped to only half of the indoor contact before widespread ITN-use. In southern Benin as well, after achieving universal ITN coverage, a higher proportion of outdoor biting was observed for An. funestus [47], although this was only observed in one out of two localities that were studied.
Some studies have shown that distribution of ITNs in Niger, Kenya, and The Gambia decreased the endophagic rate of An. gambiae s.l. [37,48,55], and to a lesser extend of An. funestus [37]. However, as the species of the An. gambiae complex were not determined in these studies, a possible reason for this decrease would be a species shift from An. gambiae to An. arabiensis.
In other studies however, no evidence for a shift to outdoor biting of An. gambiae s.l. due to widespread IRS or ITNs use was found in Tanzania [42,50], Burkina Faso [53] and The Gambia [51]. Also widespread use of mostly untreated bed nets did not result in a higher outdoor biting rate of An. gambiae [5].
5.4. Shifts to zoophily
In Kenya, ITN-use caused a shift in host selection of An. gambiae s.l. and An. funestus [54] from humans towards cattle or other animals. Similar observations were made in Burkina Faso with An. gambiae [19]. In other studies in Kenya and The Gambia, the use of ITNs caused only small and insignificant decreases in human blood index (HBI) for An. gambiae s.l. [40,48,51] and An. funestus [40].
The use of ITNs, IRS, or insecticide treated curtains caused no shift in host selection (or decrease in HBI) for An. arabiensis in Zambia [56], for An. gambiae s.l. in Nigeria, Burkina Faso, The Gambia, Tanzania and Kenya [34,50,52,53,55], and for An. funestus in Tanzania and Kenya [34,50].
5.5. Shifts to exophily
As summarized in [57], different populations of An. arabiensis, e.g. in the Pare-Taveta malaria scheme, Mauritius, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Nigeria and other West African localities, became either completely exophilic or, at most, remained only partially endophilic after IRS campaigns. ITN distribution reduced the indoor resting fraction of An. gambiae s.l. in Niger and Kenya [37,48], and of An. funestus in Kenya [48]. No evidence for a resting place shift after introduction of ITNs or after IRS was observed in Tanzania [50].
6. Australasian, Oriental, and Neotropical Regions
6.1. Species shifts
In the Solomon Islands, IRS in the 1960s has nearly eliminated the major malaria vectors An. koliensis and An. punctulatus, which are mainly endophagic and late-biters. The density of An. farauti, a more exophagic and early-biting malaria vector, remained quite high, particularly in outdoor man-biting situations [58]. The latter species is now the primary vector in the Solomon Islands, with the former major malaria vectors being totally absent. An. hinesorum, which is not considered a vector, has now occupied the breeding sites commonly used by An. koliensis [59].
In the forested hilly areas of Thailand, IRS resulted in a higher proportional decrease of An. dirus s.l. as compared to An. minimus s.l. [60]. Widespread use of IRS resulted in a different behaviour of the An. minimus s.l. present [61], which probably reflects a species shift from An. minimus to An. harrisoni, as also observed in Vietnam as a result of widespread use of ITNs [62]. Residual spraying did effectively control indoor resting species in Nepal such as An. annularis, An. culicifacies, An. splendidus and An. vagus. The abundance of the partially outdoor resting species, An. fluviatilis s.l. and An. maculatus s.l. also decreased markedly after the spray application, but then rebounded rapidly within 1 or 2 months after treatment [63]. ITN use in China caused a higher decrease of the endophilic and anthropophilic An. lesteri (syn. An. anthropophagus) [64] and An. minimus s.l. [65] than of the exophagic and zoophilic An. sinensis.
In British Guiana, the primary malaria vector An. darlingi (both larvae and adults) was rapidly eliminated by IRS, whereas larvae and adults of a zoophilic species, Anopheles aquasalis, a possible malaria vector, were completely unaffected [66]. In Guatemala, An. vestitipennis decreased in abundance in communities with a wide distribution of ITNs, while An. albimanus did not change. Whether this change was an effect of the ITNs could not be concluded as the study was not designed for answering that question [67].
6.2. Shifts to early biting
In Papua New Guinea, ITN distribution immediately changed the biting cycles of both An. farauti and An. koliensis from a post-midnight peak towards a pre-midnight peak [68]. Also on the Solomon Islands, intervention and longitudinal studies have shown that IRS, ITNs, or a combination of both, changed the biting cycle of An. farauti to an earlier biting peak [58,69,70].
IRS changed the indoor biting peak of An. dirus s.l. in the forested hilly areas of Thailand to one hour earlier. Outdoors, the peak remained the same, but a higher proportion bite earlier. Also for An. minimus s.l., a shift to earlier biting was observed [60]. In the foothills on the other hand, where An. minimus s.l. was the main vector, no effect of DDT was seen on the already early biting An. minimus s.l. population [71]. Also recent studies in Vietnam have shown that in the prolonged presence of impregnated bed nets, 45% of the Anopheles bites are acquired before sleeping time in the forest, and 64% before sleeping time in the village [8]. In Cambodia, in a period when ITN coverage was still low, already 29% of the Anopheles bites were acquired before sleeping time [9].
Although we have not encountered studies in Latin-America with evidence for shifts to earlier biting, some studies indicated that also in this region, early biting vectors can maintain residual transmission. In an area in Brazil covered by IRS for example, blood-feeding of An. darlingi started at sunset, remained high during the first half of the night, and decreased gradually until early morning [72]. Also in the Bolivian Amazon, in an area with high ITN use, peak outdoor biting of An. darlingi occurred between 19:00 and 21:00 hours, when 48% of the total night’s biting took place, and 83% of the night’s biting had occurred by 22:00 hours when most local people go to bed [73].
6.3. Shifts to exophagy
On different islands of the Solomon, proportional shifts to outdoor biting (from 47% to 67%) were observed for An. farauti after IRS [58]. Moreover, compared to An. koliensis and An. punctulatus, the exophagic An. farauti population recovered completely within nine months after the spraying campaign. However, in other intervention and longitudinal studies on the Solomon Islands, the shift to outdoor biting of An. farauti due to ITNs and/or IRS was not so obvious [59,69].
IRS increased the outdoor biting rate of An. dirus s.l. [60,74], and of An. minimus s.l. in forested and foothill regions in Thailand [60,61]. In contrast, in another foothill region of Thailand, an initial effect of DDT was seen on the malaria transmission, but this was not sustained for this already outdoor biting An. minimus s.l. population [71]. Also wide scale use of ITNs caused a higher decrease in the indoor biting populations as compared to the outdoor biting populations of An. sinensis, An. lesteri (syn. An. anthropophagus) and An. minimus s.l. in China [64,65]. In Vietnam, after prolonged ITNs distribution, outdoor biting densities of the main vectors, An. dirus, An. maculatus s.l. and An. minimus s.l. were significantly higher than indoor biting density [8]. In Laos, in contrast, the use of ITNs did not stop An. dirus from entering the houses [75].
In an IRS area in Brazil, An. darlingi fed more frequently outdoors, whereas in earlier years before IRS this species mainly fed indoors [72]. In contrast, in Colombia, IRS did not stop malaria vectors to bite both indoors and outdoors [76]. The combined use of ITNs and IRS has preceded the collapse of a mainly exophagic An. darlingi population in Suriname. However, this collapse can also be attributed to an unusual, extensive flooding which coincided with the onset of the control interventions [77].
6.4. Shifts to zoophily
A significant decrease in HBI of An. farauti was observed immediately after the distribution of ITNs in Papua New Guinea, although this shift could be due to a slightly changed sampling method [68].
In Thailand, in the prolonged presence of DDT use in IRS, An. minimus s.l. exhibited a marked zoophily, whereas in villages with lower DDT pressure, no preference was observed [61], although this apparent ‘change in behaviour’ could have been due to a species shift within the An. minimus complex as observed in Vietnam [62]. In an intervention study in India, the HBI of An. culicifacies was lower in areas with ITNs as compared to areas with untreated bed nets or no nets [78].
In Mexico, a much lower HBI was observed in areas where IRS was implemented as compared to historical data [79]. Also in areas covered by IRS in Brazil, An. darlingi was mostly zoophilic [80].
6.5. Shifts to exophily
A very low endophily rate was observed for An. farauti after several DDT spraying campaigns in the Solomon Islands [58].
IRS also significantly reduced the indoor resting abundance of all anopheline species except for An. fluviatilis s.l. in Nepal [63], and of An. dirus s.l. in Thailand [74]. In India, An. culicifacies s.l. has been observed to be highly exophilic in areas where residual spraying with DDT was widely used [81]. Also in areas with wide scale use of ITNs in India fewer An. culicifacies s.l. were collected indoors (resting collections) as compared to control areas. However, in this area more An. culicifacies s.l. were found indoor-resting in individual houses with untreated bed nets as compared to houses with ITNs, both located in the ITN-area [78]. This suggests that this mosquito population did not shift entirely to exophily, but that this behaviour mainly reflects the excito-repellent effect of the permethrin.
IRS has brought the disappearance of An. darlingi from the interior of houses in Brazil and French Guiana [28,80]. However, outdoor-resting still persists, either in the vicinity of the houses [80] or outside the peridomestic environment [28]. ITNs as well caused less indoor-resting in an intervention trial in Guatemala [67]. In contrast, in Mexico, after prolonged use of DDT no deterrence was observed anymore for An. pseudopunctipennis, with as many mosquitoes seeking shelter in sprayed huts as in unsprayed huts [82].
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\n\t\t\t\tInsecticide b\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tCollection methods c\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tSpecies shift d\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tShift to early-biting d\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
c IRC: Indoor resting collection; ORC: Outdoor resting collection; CDC LT: Center for Disease Control light trap; HLC: Human landing collection; WET: Window exit trap; LD: Larval dipping; CMR: Capture-Mark-Recapture
d ND: Not done
7. Discussion
7.1. The importance of residual transmission by outdoor and early biting malaria vectors
In this chapter we have shown that outdoor and early biting malaria vectors are widespread among malaria endemic countries and, as relative shifts to outdoor, early or animal-biting and outdoor resting vectors occur due to the use of IRS and ITNs, these vectors will increasingly contribute to malaria transmission in regions with a high coverage of ITNs and IRS. However the reported shifts are not always well documented: species identification of complexes are often missing, and confounding factors such as changes of the environment, habitat, human behaviour and occupation are not considered.
In Africa, most of the species shifts observed resulted in a large decrease of the important endophagic, endophilic and anthropophilic malaria vectors, An. funestus and An. gambiae, while the more exophagic, exophilic, and/or zoophilic species An. arabiensis persists. Reports on such species shift are recently increasing, with most of these shifts described in East-Africa. But also in the other geographical regions, shifts in species abundances have been observed. It is however important to note that the majority of shifts described are shifts in relative abundances, where the more endophagic, endophilic and/or anthropophilic species declines more (or is being eliminated) while the more exophagic, exophilic and/or zoophilic species maintains at the same density or declines less. Only in some cases, the density of the latter species actually increases (e.g. the non-vector species An. rivulorum [35] or An. parensis [36]), probably because they take over the breeding sites of the declining species. Moreover, as also mentioned in [83], the vectorial capacity of the species predominating after the intervention does not necessarily increase, but persisting species that are malaria vectors, such as An. arabiensis, will be responsible for the residual malaria transmission, while the role of e.g. An. gambiae or An. funestus decreases.
Therefore, one of the most plausible reasons for species shifts to occur in the presence of ITNs or IRS is the non-uniform exposure of the different species to the insecticides, as described above. This hypothesis is supported by a study in Kenya in which the persisting An. arabiensis in an area with high ITN coverage had little to no pyrethroid resistance compared to the declining An. gambiae, with moderate to high levels of pyrethroid resistance [41,43]. Moreover, in experimental hut trials on northeast Tanzania, the mortality of An. arabiensis measured in experimental huts was consistently lower than that of An. gambiae and An. funestus [83], which probably is a major contributing factor to the species shifts observed in East Africa following scale up of ITNs. The authors state that, as cone tests on the nets prior to the trials produced rather similar levels of mortality among An. gambiae and An. arabiensis, the most likely explanation for lower An. arabiensis mortality was behavioural avoidance of treated net surfaces. As feeding inhibition in this experiment was similar for An. arabiensis and An. gambiae, outdoor blood-feeding would be the major mechanism to which An. arabiensis avoids contact with the ITN, as opposed to abandoning host-searching when confronted with ITNs.
Besides the species shifts, shifts to earlier-, outdoor-, and animal-biting have been observed for primary vectors such as An. gambiae, An. funestus, An. farauti, An. koliensis, An. dirus s.l., An. minimus s.l., An. culicifacies, and An. darlingi. These shifts might also be linked to the non-random exposure of subpopulations of vectors to insecticide treated surfaces (ITNs or IRS). Several studies have indeed shown that the feeding and resting behaviour of anophelines is consistent in certain subpopulations and/or linked to certain genetic markers. Most of the studies on genetic determination of biting and resting behaviour are based on chromosomal inversions. Alleles captured within chromosome rearrangements are protected from recombination and can as such favour local adaptation by capturing sets of locally adapted genes which might lead to reproductive isolated entities or subpopulations [84]. In the Garki District in Nigeria, chromosomal arrangements in An. arabiensis and An. gambiae have been associated with exophagy and exophily [85,86] and with zoophily [87]. Exophagy and exophily were associated with the standard chromosomal arrangements 2R+a for An. arabiensis and 2R+b for An. gambiae, and the inverted arrangement 2Rbc for An. arabiensis. Moreover, the chromosome arrangements associated with indoor biting or resting are the ones adapted to drier environments, while arrangements more frequent in outdoor collected specimens are those associated with more humid environments [85]. In the Zambesi valley, 2Rc An. arabiensis heterozygotes were associated with exophily and zoophily [57]. In Ethiopia An. arabiensis heterozygotes of the 2La and/or 2Rb chromosomal arrangements tended to bite later at night than the double homozygotes [88]. Also in laboratory experiments an association between chromosomal arrangements and circadian flight activity has been found [89]: female An. stephensi homozygotes for the 2Rb inversion showed more activity following light-on (corresponding to early morning) as compared to homozygous females for the standard 2R+b arrangement. Other field-based evidence on the existence of subpopulations showing consistent behaviour was obtained by studying behaviour of An. balabacensis in a capture-mark-recapture experiment in Borneo (Malaysia) [90]. This study revealed significant trends of An. balabacensis to be recaptured on the same host or resting site of the original capture. In contrast, a similar capture-mark-recapture study on resting behaviour of An. gambiae s.l. in Tanzania showed no faithful tendencies of endo- or exophily [91]: the same individuals within the An. gambiae s.l. population mixed indoor and outdoor resting. More recent genetic studies are based on the frequencies of enzyme polymorphisms. In the Malaysian study [90], faithfully indoor and outdoor-resting populations showed significant differences in isozyme frequencies (loci Est-3 and Idh-3). Also in Burundi, isozyme frequencies were significantly different between in- and out-door biting An. arabiensis (locus Mdh-2) and in- and out-door resting An. gambiae (Mpi and Got-2 loci) [92]. Such differences were not observed for An. gambiae in Burkina Faso [93]. Moreover, mosquitoes carrying a specific genotype [93] or chromosome karyotypes [87] were found to be significantly more infected with sporozoites, suggesting the occurrence of subpopulations having different vector behaviours. These independent genetic studies, either based on karyotyping or on genotyping, provide evidence that active choice for the best place, time or host to bite, or the best place to rest can be associated with specific genotypes. This suggests the existence of subpopulations characterized by specific behavioural patterns which implies a non-uniform exposure to IRS or ITNs. Selection of specific behavioural patterns can then not be excluded.
However, other mechanisms can also explain these kinds of shifts. More early biting could occur as females that fail to obtain a blood meal during the previous night, might be more likely to commence host seeking in the early evening [44]. By disrupting the feeding behaviour, the ITNs would increase the length of the oviposition cycle of the overall population [68]. This mechanism could explain the immediate change in biting cycles of both An. farauti and An. koliensis after ITN distribution in Papua New Guinea. Both species shifted from a post-midnight biting peak towards a pre-midnight peak [68], with an extended oviposition cycle. Also in the Solomon Islands, the oviposition cycle was extended from 3 to 4 days due to ITN use, possibly explaining the higher tendency for early biting observed in the village with ITN use [69]. Shifts to outdoor biting by An. farauti also occurred immediately after DDT spraying [58]. This first effect would be caused by the deterrent effect of DDT, while only in second instance the endophilic fraction of An. farauti is being killed. Moreover, compared to An. koliensis and An. punctulatus, the An. farauti population recovered completely within nine months after the spraying campaign, indicating that this change of behaviour is due to a plastic response to the deterrent effect of DDT. Moreover, it has been shown that the occurrence of a shift in host selection does not necessarily reflect a selection of a more zoophilic vector subpopulation, but can also indicate plasticity in host selection. The An. gambiae population in Burkina Faso that showed a high proportion of cattle feeding (HBI of only 40%), had an innate preference for humans (88%) in a choice experiment using an odour-baited trap [19]. The weak accessibility of humans due to the use of ITNs, forces the mosquitoes to feed on cattle. According to the authors of the study, this suggests that in this area a plastic foraging strategy could provide greater benefits than a specialist strategy for this species.
Regardless of the mechanism that causes these behavioural shifts, the case studies show that in several areas the proportion of outdoor-, early- and/or animal biting primary vectors are relatively increasing, which will then be responsible for residual transmission. Moreover, in a similar way, transmission by ‘secondary’ vectors that have outdoor or early biting behaviour might become more important than transmission by primary vectors in contexts of high coverage of ITNs and IRS. In a malaria endemic region of Thailand, one specimen of the Barbirostris Subgroup (An. barbirostris/campestris) was found to contain Plasmodium oocysts, in the prolonged absence of the main malaria vectors, showing that An. barbirostris s.l., an outdoor biting mosquito [94], might be responsible for maintaining malaria transmission in the absence of the main vectors [95]. As secondary vectors are often less anthropophilic, and might be more exophagic and early biting, planning of vector control should also take into account their behaviour. Moreover, as pointed out in [8], secondary vectors might be better vectors of P. vivax as compared to P. falciparum, as the extrinsic incubation period of P. vivax is shorter. In British Guiana, for example, An. aquasalis, a mostly zoophilic and exophilic mosquito species breeding in brackish water, was vector of several Vivax malaria outbreaks after An. darlingi was eliminated by DDT spraying [96]. Also more recently in Vietnam, An. sawadwongporni, a very early biting secondary vector, was found positive for P. vivax [8].
7.2. ITNs and IRS are very effective, but additional measures are needed for reaching malaria elimination
ITNs and IRS have been shown to have a large impact on malaria infection and disease [97,98]. Moreover, several entomological studies have also shown that where the vectors are mostly endophagic, endophilic and anthropophilic, ITNs and IRS are very effective in reducing their population density. This was for example shown for An. minimus in India [99] and for An. dirus in Laos [100], both of them being anthropophilic, indoor- and late-biting in the respective study sites. A recent study in Zambia also showed that even at a high coverage of ITNs and IRS, the highest probability for malaria transmission based on human and vector behaviour, still occurs indoors [101], making ITNs and IRS valuable tools.
ITNs can also have an effect on malaria transmitted by more zoophilic and exophagic mosquitoes. In Sao Tomé for example, where An. gambiae is zoophilic and very exophagic, increased bed net use decreased the malaria prevalence in both bed net users and non-users [102]. The differences in prevalence between users and non-users were greatest in children under 5 years old, who are more likely to use the bed nets in the evening, showing that indeed the bed nets were the cause of the decrease. However, in older age groups, that are more likely to remain outside in the evening, no such difference was observed. Moreover, even at an almost 80% ITN coverage, still a 30% malaria prevalence was observed among bed net users. This means that, as expected, a part of transmission by these zoophilic and exophagic mosquitoes could not be prevented by ITNs [102]. Also in other parts of the world it has been shown that ITNs are less performing in areas with outdoor biting or resting vectors, for example in Peru and Nicaragua [11]. In the Garki District (Nigeria), the impact of the IRS campaign with propoxur was related to the prespraying ratio between the man-biting density and the indoor-resting density and to intraspecific cytogenetic variation [52]. Moreover, as reviewed in [103], even low levels of exophagy, exophily or zoophily may attenuate the impact of ITNs and IRS because this allows mosquitoes to obtain blood while avoiding fatal contact with insecticides.
As we have shown that outdoor-, animal- and early biting behaviour, as well as outdoor resting behaviour is widespread among malaria vectors all over the world and might be increasing as a result of widespread IRS or ITN use, there is an urgent need for additional control measures tackling malaria transmission by these vector populations [103–106]. In other words, there is a ‘gap’ in protection, not only before sleeping time, but also for people that remain outdoors during the night (Figure 2) and this gap needs to be tackled by additional vector control measures. There are many ways of additionally reducing host-vector contact, including the use of topical repellents, spatial repellents, insecticide treated clothing, long lasting insecticidal hammocks, etc. Recently much research is carried out on the effectiveness of these kind of tools. For example, in the Bolivian Amazon, where the primary vectors An. darlingi has a peak biting activity before sleeping time, a household based cluster randomized trial has shown that the combined use of a topical repellent (para-menthane-3,8-diol, PMD) and ITNs can reduce the incidence of malaria by 80%, which was only significant for P. vivax and not for P. falciparum, as compared to the use of ITNs alone [107]. DEET-based repellents also had an additional protective efficacy against malaria disease in a small scale community based trial in India [108], and DEET-based repellent soap against P. falciparum malaria in a household randomized trial in a refugee camp in Pakistan [109]. In an ongoing study in Cambodia, Picaridin based repellents are shown to provide a protection of more than 90% against the bites of the main malaria vectors An. dirus and An. minimus (MalaResT project led by ITM-Antwerp, preliminary results). Whether the mass use of this repellent will result in a decrease of malaria infection is currently under investigation using a cluster-randomized controlled trial in Ratanakkiri province in Cambodia. In a refugee camp in Kenya, permethrin treated clothing and blankets reduced malaria infection significantly [110]. In Southeast Asia, long lasting insecticidal hammocks have been shown to be effective against malaria disease [111] and against An. minimus bites, but not An. dirus bites [112]. For zoophilic mosquitoes, intervening in the host-vector contact could be more efficient by focusing on its preferred hosts, e.g. by insecticide treatment of cattle. However, killing partly zoophilic mosquitoes in sufficient numbers to suppress malaria transmission would require high protective coverage of both human and animal blood sources [104]. Moreover, it has been observed in Ethiopia that more than 90% of the blood meals taken by zoophilic vectors were taken from the legs of cattle [113], which are more difficult to treat.
Figure 2.
Protection ‘gap’ when only indoor insecticide-based vector control measures are applied. Anophelines generally bite between 6pm and 6am. ITNs will only protect from infective bites that are acquired indoors, and during sleeping time. IRS only target mosquitoes that rest indoors. Therefore, there is a gap in protection both indoors and outdoors before and after people go to bed (A), but also for people conducting outdoor activities during the night (i.e. ‘risk behaviour’) (B).
Alternative personal protection measures are also of interest for people that work or reside in the forest, a risk area of malaria transmission in Southeast Asia [114]. For temporary shelters in the forest, insecticide treated plastic sheeting could be useful as this has proven to be effective in protecting against malaria disease in emergency camps [115]. Their effectiveness will rely both on their repelling effect and their killing effect, and whether mosquitoes will rest on this sheeting. Alternatively, other more accepted insecticide treated bed net-designs (V-shaped nets, long lasting insecticidal hammocks, etc.), could provide protection for people staying in the forest during the night.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTool\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMosquito behaviour that is targeted\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPersonal (P) or community (C)b protection\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPlace of biting (I/O)a\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPlace of resting (I/O)a\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Tools relying on host-vector contact
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
ITNs
\n\t\t\t
N
\n\t\t\t
A
\n\t\t\t
I
\n\t\t\t
I
\n\t\t\t
P & C
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Long lasting insecticidal hammocks & other net designs adapted to outdoor conditions
\n\t\t\t
(E &) N
\n\t\t\t
A
\n\t\t\t
O
\n\t\t\t
O
\n\t\t\t
P & C
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Insecticide treated plastic sheeting for shelters in the forest
\n\t\t\t
E & N
\n\t\t\t
A & Z
\n\t\t\t
I & O
\n\t\t\t
O
\n\t\t\t
P
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Personal protection including Topical & spatial repellents, Insecticide treated clothing
\n\t\t\t
E & N
\n\t\t\t
A
\n\t\t\t
I & O
\n\t\t\t
I & O
\n\t\t\t
P & C*
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Insecticide treatment of cattle
\n\t\t\t
E & N
\n\t\t\t
Z
\n\t\t\t
I & O
\n\t\t\t
I & O
\n\t\t\t
C*
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Tools not relying on vector-host contact
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
IRS
\n\t\t\t
E & N
\n\t\t\t
A & Z
\n\t\t\t
I & O
\n\t\t\t
I
\n\t\t\t
C
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Larval source management
\n\t\t\t
E & N
\n\t\t\t
A & Z
\n\t\t\t
I & O
\n\t\t\t
I & O
\n\t\t\t
C*
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Toxic sugar baits
\n\t\t\t
E & N
\n\t\t\t
A & Z
\n\t\t\t
I & O
\n\t\t\t
I & O
\n\t\t\t
C*
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Treatment of outdoor resting places, e.g. with fungal biopesticides
\n\t\t\t
E & N
\n\t\t\t
A & Z
\n\t\t\t
I & O
\n\t\t\t
O
\n\t\t\t
C*
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
Vector control tools and their targets.
a E: Early evening & morning biting; N: Night biting; A: Antropophilic; Z: Zoophilic; I: Indoor; O: Outdoor
b Community protection can only be achieved if the coverage of the intervention is large enough.
* Community protection is assumed or shown in a limited number of studies, but more evidence is required for confirmation of community protection.
The more zoophilic, exophagic, or early biting a mosquito species or population, the more personal protection will act simply by blocking host-vector contact (through lethal or repellent effects). As shown by a mathematical model, malaria transmission involving zoophilic vectors (with 10% feeding on humans) can only be significantly decreased if the personal protection measures confer high levels of individual protection to users (80%) and be used by the majority of human population (80%) [116]. Therefore, the success of any intervention in this context will depend on its entomological efficacy, but also on the human behaviour, including acceptance and adherence to the preventive measures within the community. In São Tomé for example, many people watch communal television outdoors, posing them at risk for early-evening malaria transmission [117]. In Thailand, people do not take their ITN from the village to their farm plot [118]. Also in Vietnam, people often combine living in the village with a second home at their fields located in the forest [119], creating other malaria control needs, such as, for example, long lasting insecticidal hammocks. Taking into account human behaviour when adapting vector control strategies will then be crucial. In Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea) for example, an increased trend of outdoor biting was observed for the main malaria vector An. gambiae [21]. However, the main malaria risk group, namely children under 15 years old, rarely stay outdoors when it is dark, and there is no evidence that children who report to stay outdoors during the night are at higher risk for malaria infection as compared to those who do not [120]. Implementing control measures that target outdoor biting mosquitoes in this age group would then provide no additional benefit and would be a waste of resources, as personal protection tools might be very expensive to implement.
Also other tools not relying on the host-vector contact can supplement ITNs and IRS as they are not specific for indoor biting and indoor resting mosquito populations [105,106]. Vector control tools could for example target key environmental resources such as the aquatic larval habitat, sugar sources, and resting behaviour. Very little is known about how to manipulate these environmental resources so that malaria transmission is interrupted [105]. Knowledge on vector ecology and behaviour therefore remains crucial. However, despite large knowledge gaps, several examples exist of malaria control by targeting non-blood meal related steps of the mosquito cycle. Larval source management has indeed shown to be effective where vectors breed in large water bodies [121]. However, when larval habitats are more dispersed and not permanent, this approach is considered less feasible. Renewed attention has been given to larval source management as complementary tool to ITNs as recent studies in Africa have shown that it provides substantial additional protection with a high cost-effectiveness in specific settings [122]. Moreover, other innovative ideas combined with knowledge on the vector behaviour can lead to successful vector control. Toxic sugar baits for example were successfully used in a targeted way for the control of the cistern dwelling malaria vector An. claviger in the desert oases of Israel [123]. Fungal biopesticides also have the potential to significantly reduce densities of malaria vectors [124] as well as associated malaria transmission [125]. These fungi could be delivered through outdoor odour-baited stations, and in this way slowly eliminate a high proportion of outdoor-resting vectors [126].
8. Conclusion
For malaria eradication to succeed, all elements in the transmission cycle must be sufficiently targeted. With the current vector control tools, only indoor- and late-biting, and indoor-resting vectors are tackled. In this paper, we have shown that there is a ‘gap’ in protection, not only before sleeping time, but also for people that remain outdoors during the night. Moreover, by describing different shifts in vector species, and vector behaviour within species or species complexes, we have shown that the importance of this gap can increase as a result of widespread ITN or IRS use. Therefore, to eliminate residual malaria transmission, additional vector control tools will be needed. These new vector control tools should be designed to target outdoor and early feeding mosquitoes. Moreover, they should be accessible and acceptable for the populations at risk. A specific mosquito behaviour assuring its vectorial status is only relevant in relation to a specific human behaviour and the relation people have with their surrounding environment. Interrupting malaria transmission may than require different combinations of mosquito control methods addressing each mosquito behaviour at risk for transmission, but also taking into account possible changes in soil occupation, housing conditions, sleeping habits, and outdoor occupation. In conclusion, there is no ‘silver bullet’ in vector control and malaria prevention. New paradigms for controlling and/or interrupting malaria transmission should then be explored for their protective efficacy and adapted to the local context for a good efficiency. Although implementation of such new approaches might be very expensive, they will be crucial if malaria elimination is the final aim.
Acknowledgments
This review was initiated under the impulse of the Roll Back Malaria - Vector Control Working Group – Work Stream Outdoor Malaria Transmission (http://www.rbm.who.int/mechanisms/vcwgWorkstream2.html), the MalaResT research Project (B&M Gates Foundation OPP1032354) and the Third ITM-DGCD Framework Agreement Programme. We would like to thank Vincent Sluydts and Sylvie Manguin for their critical review of this paper.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/43874.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/43874.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/43874",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/43874",totalDownloads:4700,totalViews:2701,totalCrossrefCites:76,totalDimensionsCites:170,totalAltmetricsMentions:3,impactScore:117,impactScorePercentile:100,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"March 7th 2012",dateReviewed:"January 22nd 2013",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 24th 2013",dateFinished:"March 22nd 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/43874",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/43874",book:{id:"3092",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors"},signatures:"Lies Durnez and Marc Coosemans",authors:[{id:"152754",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Coosemans",fullName:"Marc Coosemans",slug:"marc-coosemans",email:"mcoosemans@itg.be",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Institute of Tropical Medicine Antwerp",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}},{id:"169018",title:"Dr.",name:"Lies",middleName:null,surname:"Durnez",fullName:"Lies Durnez",slug:"lies-durnez",email:"deleted@email.com20",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Heterogeneity in anopheline behaviour",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. How can the indoor use of insecticides select for exophilic, exophagic, zoophilic and/or early biting mosquito populations?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Shifts observed in the presence of indoor insecticidal pressure",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Afrotropical region",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1. Species shifts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2. Shifts to early-evening or early-morning biting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3. Shifts to exophagy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.4. Shifts to zoophily",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.5. Shifts to exophily",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Australasian, Oriental, and Neotropical Regions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.1. Species shifts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.2. Shifts to early biting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.3. Shifts to exophagy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.4. Shifts to zoophily",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.5. Shifts to exophily",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"7. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"7.1. The importance of residual transmission by outdoor and early biting malaria vectors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"7.2. ITNs and IRS are very effective, but additional measures are needed for reaching malaria elimination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Killeen, G F, Smith, T A, Ferguson, H M, Mshinda, H, Abdulla, S, Lengeler, C, & Kachur, S P. Preventing childhood malaria in Africa by protecting adults from mosquitoes with insecticide-treated nets. PLoS Medicine (2007). 4, e229.'},{id:"B2",body:'WHO. World Malaria Report 2011. 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Biologically meaningful coverage indicators for eliminating malaria transmission. Biology Letters (2012). 8, 874-877.'},{id:"B105",body:'Ferguson, H M, Dornhaus, A, Beeche, A, Borgemeister, C, Gottlieb, M, Mulla, M S, Gimnig, J E, Fish, D, & Killeen, G F. Ecology: a prerequisite for malaria elimination and eradication. PLoS Medicine (2010). 7, e1000303.'},{id:"B106",body:'The malERA Consultative Group on Vector Control. A research agenda for malaria eradication: vector control. PLoS Medicine (2011). 8, e1000401.'},{id:"B107",body:'Hill, N, Lenglet, A, Arnéz, A M, & Carneiro, I. Plant based insect repellent and insecticide treated bed nets to protect against malaria in areas of early evening biting vectors: double blind randomised placebo controlled clinical trial in the Bolivian Amazon. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) (2007).335, 1023.'},{id:"B108",body:'Dutta, P, Khan, A M, Khan, S A, Borah, J, Sharma, C K, & Mahanta, J. 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Science (2005). 308, 1638-41.'},{id:"B126",body:'Lwetoijera, D W, Sumaye, R D, Madumla, E P, Kavishe, D R, Mnyone, L L, Russell, T L, & Okumu, F O. An extra-domiciliary method of delivering entomopathogenic fungus, Methariziuman isopliae IP 46 for controlling adult populations of the malaria vector, Anopheles arabiensis. Parasites & Vectors (2010). 3, 18.'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Endophily is the tendency for mosquitoes to prefer resting indoors"},{id:"fn2",explanation:"Anthropophily is the tendency for mosquitoes to prefer feeding on human hosts"},{id:"fn3",explanation:"Endophagy is the tendency for mosquitoes to prefer biting indoors"},{id:"fn4",explanation:"Exophily is the tendency for mosquitoes to prefer resting outdoors"},{id:"fn5",explanation:"Zoophily is the tendency for mosquitoes to prefer feeding on animal hosts"},{id:"fn6",explanation:"Exophagy is the tendency for mosquitoes to prefer biting outdoors"},{id:"fn7",explanation:"In this paper, s.l. (sensu lato) is added to the species name when referred to the species complex (An. gambiae s.l., An. minimus s.l., An. dirus s.l.). In the absence of s.l., the species is concerned (e.g. An. gambiae, An. minimus, An. dirus)."}],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Lies Durnez",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerpen (Wilrijk), Belgium
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1. Introduction
Smart coatings are special covering materials which are able to sense and respond to an external stimulus. They are made with programmable materials, which respond to changes in light, chemical, thermal, or other stimuli. This brings them new performances, typically self-healing, self-cleaning, self-sensors, etc. due to their piezoelectric, thermoelectric, piezoresistive, and chemical properties (Figure 1). Most of the current smart coatings are based on nanoreinforced polymers. The incorporation of functional organic and inorganic nanofillers usually improves the thermal and mechanical properties of polymers, providing them new functionalities. As it is well-known, one of the main advantages to add nanofillers is their high specific area, which reduces significantly the nanofiller content and enhances the load transfer from the matrix, when the interface is suitable.
Figure 1.
Summary of smart coatings with carbon nanoparticles.
In this work, we focused on the addition of carbon nanoparticles, mainly graphene (G), graphene nanoplatelets (GNP), and carbon nanotubes (CNT). They have extraordinary electrical and thermal conductivity and a unique combination of mechanical properties with great stiffness and high toughness [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. They are composed of carbon, exhibiting low toxicity and environmental friendliness. For all these reasons, they are considered as multifunctional fillers of polymer matrix. In fact, polymer nanocomposites reinforced with carbon nanoparticles usually present enhanced mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties together with new performance as smart materials.
They can act as strain sensors due to their piezoresistive behavior, varying the electrical resistance of composite induced by the deformation of the electrical network formed by graphitic nanofillers. On the other hand, the nanofillers can be used as actuators, for example, as self-heater due to Joule’s heating or as chemical absorbents. In this case, the matrix is a neat stimulus-responsive polymer, while the carbon nanofillers provide the stimuli to induce the polymer response.
2. Synthesis, processing, and main properties of polymer coatings
2.1 Synthesis and processing
The synthesis and processing of nanocomposite polymer coatings usually have at least two separated stages: the dispersion of nanofillers into the monomers, prepolymers, or polymers and the coating manufacture.
There are numerous different techniques to disperse the carbon nanofiller into monomers and polymers. In fact, there are numerous articles and reviews published. For this reason, in this chapter, they are only mentioned. It is well-known that the improvement of properties, in special mechanical ones, on nanocomposites is strongly dependent on the dispersion quality together with the polymer-nanofiller interface, which relies on the chemical and physical interaction between functionalized nanofillers and polymer matrix. Good dispersion of nanoparticles is critical to achieve high-performance nanocomposite. The most common processing techniques of nanocomposites can be organized on three ways: direct mixing, in situ polymerization in the presence of nanoparticles, and solution mixing. One more processing way is the in situ synthesis of particles, which is usually based on in situ sol–gel process inside polymers, but it is only used for inorganic nanofillers.
Carbon nanofillers must be dispersed on polymer or prepolymers depending on the polymer nature. The dispersion of nanofillers on thermoplastic polymers often carries out during the polymer manufacturing process, as extrusion or calandering. However, the nanofiller dispersion on rubber and thermosetting polymers is usually carried out in a previous step of curing process into monomers or prepolymers. In this last case, different dispersion techniques can be also applied, based on the application of mechanical forces or an electric or magnetic field.
As it was mentioned above, the second step consists on manufacturing the own coating, applying different common processing techniques of coatings. Cold spray process is commonly used for processing polymer nanocomposite coatings, avoiding the thermal deterioration of substrate. Dispersion, emulsion, and latex in situ polymerizations are other applied manufacturing processes.
2.2 Properties of nanocomposite polymer coatings
Graphitic nanofillers are often used to improve the mechanical properties of polymer coatings. The poor tribological performance of polymer coatings can be improved by adequately addition of graphitic nanofillers into the matrix because graphite is a solid lubricant. Polymer coating containing graphene can present excellent tribological properties, with low friction coefficient and reduced wear rate [7]. The increment of graphene content gradually decreases both friction coefficient and wear rate of composite coating. Under high temperature, graphene-reinforced thermosetting coatings show better friction reduction and wear resistance than neat coating. The values of these properties are enhanced by the increase of graphene content. Meanwhile, the friction coefficient and the wear rate of the graphene/composite coatings do not show a clear tendency with the increase of temperature. This behavior could be explained by the formation of a transfer film on the surface, which suppresses the huge heat and contact pressure [7]. CNT/polymer coatings can induce anti-friction, wear-proof, and self-lubrication performance [8], reducing the friction and improving the wear resistance. However, numerous factors affect their tribological behavior, such as the composition and properties of sliding pairs, such as their surface roughness and main mechanical properties (hardness, stiffness, and fracture toughness) and the sliding parameters, such as load, speed, temperature, and lubrication state, among others. This behavior is explained by the different involved mechanisms: bridge crack of CNT and lock the propagation of cracks, lubricant effect by dislodgement of individual graphene layers, strengthening of reinforced polymer matrix and dissipation of heat, and reducing the temperature induced wear [8]. It is worthy to note that there is an optimum carbon nanoparticle content to achieve the best tribological properties. However, this value depends on many factors such as aspect ratio of nanofiller, the dispersion degree and orientation of nanofillers, and the interactions with polymer matrix at interfaces.
The incorporation of carbon nanoparticles into polymer composites also increases their hardness. Increasing nanofiller content leads to improvement of hardness; however, the slope of the curve is reduced as the amount of graphitic nanofiller increases, which is attributed to agglomerations in the composite coating [9].
One of the most important applications of polymers reinforced with graphitic nanofillers is as anticorrosive coatings. The anticorrosive coatings can be classified in accordance to the protection mechanism against corrosion [10]: barrier protection, cathodic protection, anodic passivation, electrolytic inhibition, and active corrosion inhibition.
Graphitic nanoparticles enhances the barrier properties of polymer coating due to the “torturous path effect” and “nano-barrier wall effect,” which strongly depends on exfoliation, dispersion, and orientation degree of nanofiller, their aspect ratio, the polymer-nanofiller interface, and the crystallinity of thermoplastic polymer or cross-linking degree of thermosetting resins. The presence of nanofillers constructs tortuous paths, decreasing the diffusion coefficient. The orientation of graphene and their high surface area forms a zigzag diffusion pathway hindering the diffusion of corrosion species. In addition, their excellent electrical conductivity prevents the electrons form the cathodic site by providing an alternative path [11]. The functionalization of graphitic nanofillers with polar groups [12] enhances the ionic resistance of coating by the creation of negative charge on the graphitic nanofillers surface when exposed to alkaline and neutral environment, preventing the diffusion of chlorine and hydroxyl anions.
In the last years, the development of superhydrophobic surfaces is being extensively researched. Superhydrophobic coatings have a wide range of applications in textile, automotive parts, construction, agriculture, optical, and maritime industry. It is well established that three factors are needed to create a superhydrophobic surface: low surface energy, microscaled roughness, and nano- and microscaled hierarchical surfaces [13]. The hierarchical multiscale surface can be achieved in coatings with high CNT content, forming CNT agglomerates at the microscale and CNT themselves at nanoscale. Polyvinylidine fluoride (PVDF) are commonly used as hydrophobic polymer coating. Water contact angle increases from 105° for neat PVDF to 170° with very high content of CNT [14]. Similar enhancement of hydrophobicity is reached by the addition of graphene nanoplatelets [15]. The superhydrophobicity is usually requested together with other functionalities, such as self-cleaning, anti-icing, and deicing, which will be addressed further on.
The incorporation of graphene into polymers allows increasing the thermal stability of polymer composite [16]. Higher specific area and aspect ratio of carbon nanofillers induce higher stability [17]. This enhancement is also accompanied with an important increase of the low thermal conductivity of polymers. Very high enhancements have been reported, from 0.2 W/mK for neat epoxy coating to 20 W/mK for composite with 30% graphene [16]. Graphene is more effective nanofiller than CNT in order to enhance the thermal conductivity of polymer composites. The thermal conductivity of graphene is attributed to phonons and electrons [18], justifying their excellent thermal conductivity (2000 W/mK). For example, copper is considered a good thermal conductor, whose conductivity is 400 W/mK. Here, the contribution of phonons is limited to 1–2% of total. The addition of nonfunctionalized graphene can induce an enhancement of 50% of thermal conductivity. However, when graphene is modified with functional groups, which is able to form covalent and non-covalent bonds with the polymer matrix, the increment can reach 100%. Moreover, a higher 300% of thermal conductivity increment is reached when graphene is modified with a titanium-coupling agent [19]. The researchers [18, 19] explained it by the reduction of interfacial thermal resistance between graphene and polymer due to the surface modification. For the same reason, higher dispersion degree of graphene into polymer matrix also enhances the thermal conductivity of composite.
It is well-known that the electrical conductivity is also increased by the addition of graphitic nanofillers. Higher specific area and higher aspect ratio of nanofillers decrease the nanoparticles which lead to reach an important enhancement of electrical conductivity, from 10−8 to 1010 S/m for the isolating polymers to 0.01–10 S/m for nanocomposites. Here, the functionalization of nanofillers usually implies a low enhancement of electrical conductivity of composites. This is associated to the reduction of the electrical conductivity of neat nanofillers due to the partial breakage of some C-C structure during the functionalization and the surrounding isolating polymer layer formed over the functionalized nanofillers, which hinders the direct contacts between electrical nanoparticles.
Nanoreinforced coatings are being studied to improve the flame retardancy (FR) of flammable substrates [20]. The addition of graphene usually reduces the total heat release (THR) because they reduce the release of deleterious gas during thermal decomposition, arising from the radical trapping and layered hindering effect. CNT also enhances the FR behavior due to the strengthening of carbonized layers [21]. Also, they act as excellent physical barrier, reducing significantly the peak heat release rate (PHRR).
3. Smart nanocomposite coatings: Self-sensing
Among other functionalities, the concept of structural health monitoring (SHM) is of great interest in polymer coatings. It is based in an online inspection of the damage extent. In this context, a proper SHM technique must accomplish the following four levels, established by Rytter et al. [22]: (1) detection, (2) localization, (3) quantification of the damage, and (4) the estimation of remaining life, also known as prognosis (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Schematics of the four SHM levels established by Rytter et al.
Nowadays, there are a lot of different SHM techniques such as lamb waves, fiber optics, and acoustic emission, among others. However, they usually involve complex mathematical and statistical tools and do not often give an overall information of the health of the structure [23, 24]. Therefore, the development of SHM techniques is now gaining a great deal of attention.
3.1 Fundamentals of SHM with carbon nanoparticles
As commented before, carbon nanoparticles present unique mechanical and, especially, electrical properties in comparison to other materials [25]. Therefore, their addition into an insulating media promotes the creation of electrical networks. This fact induces an enhancement of the electrical conductivity of several orders of magnitude, becoming the polymer coating electrically conductive [26, 27].
Here, it is important, firstly, to define the concept of percolation threshold. It is the critical volume fraction of nanoparticles in which an efficient electrical network is formed, allowing the current flow. It depends on several factors mainly related to the geometry of the nanofiller (including their 0D, 1D, or 2D nature) as well as their dispersion state, that is, their distribution inside the nanocomposite. The determination of the percolation threshold is a crucial factor that determines the minimum content of nanofiller that is needed for electrical applications.
Furthermore, the influence of the different parameters of the nanoparticle network in the percolation threshold has been widely studied in the last years. Li et al. [28] proposed a simple analytical model correlating the geometry, aspect ratio, and dispersion state with the value of the percolation threshold. They concluded that the lower the aspect ratio and the higher the degree of agglomeration of nanoparticles, the higher the percolation threshold. In this context, carbon black (CB) reinforced polymers show very high values of percolation threshold [29] due to their low aspect ratio Bauhofer et al. [30] did an extensive review of percolation threshold in carbon nanotube (CNT)-based polymer nanocomposites by analyzing the effect of nanofiller geometry and dispersion technique. It was observed that the most aggressive dispersion procedures, such as ultrasonication, although leading to the most homogeneous distribution of nanoparticles, lead to a very significant breakage of the CNTs. This prevalent reduction of the aspect ratio leads to increasing values of percolation threshold.
However, the effect of dispersion procedure varies depending on the nanofiller. In this case, ultrasonication has proved to be a good dispersion technique for graphene nanoplatelet (GNP)-based nanocomposites. GNPs are formed by several layers of graphene, and it is widely used as reinforcement in polymer nanocomposites because of the lower cost. Here, ultrasonication promotes the exfoliation of the graphene layers [31]. Therefore, these exfoliating mechanisms induce a reduction of the percolation threshold due to an increase of the aspect ratio of the nanofillers. The combination of an ultrasonication stage with three roll milling can promote the creation of GNP nanocomposites with very low percolation threshold due to the combination of exfoliation stretching effects.
The concept of SHM with nanoparticles, therefore, is based in the monitoring of the changes of the electrical network when subjected to strain or damage. However, for a better understanding of these SHM techniques, it is important to know which are the main conducting mechanisms in the electrical network. Here, three different mechanisms can be identified: the intrinsic conductivity of the nanofiller, the contact between adjacent nanoparticles, and the tunneling transport that takes places between two neighboring particles that are not in intimate contact. Among them, the tunneling transport plays a dominant role in the electrical network of the nanocomposite [32]. It is explained because the associated tunneling resistance is several orders of magnitude higher than the intrinsic and contact resistance. Therefore, the variations of the electrical network when subjected to strain or damage will be ruled by the variation of the tunneling distance between nanoparticles.
In this regard, Simmons [33] established a linear-exponential correlation between the tunneling resistance and the interparticle distance, also known as tunneling distance. It means that the higher the separation between neighboring nanoparticles, the higher the electrical resistance is. More specifically, when subjected to strain, there is a variation of the electrical resistance that is correlated to an increase of the tunneling distance between adjacent nanoparticles:
Rtunnel=h2tAe22mφexp4πth2mΦE1
where Rtunnel is the tunneling resistance; t is the tunneling distance; h is the Planck’s constant; m and e are the electron mass and charge; A is the area in which electrical transport takes places or tunneling area; and φ is the height barrier of the matrix.
3.2 Sensitivity of polymer-based nanocomposites
In this context, the concept of percolation threshold that has been discussed before plays a key role. In fact, the linear-exponential dependence means that the higher the tunneling distance at the initial situation, that is, when no strain is applied, the higher will be the electrical resistance variation associated to the variation in the tunneling distance when applying strain, as can be observed in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Variation of the tunneling resistance as a function of the tunneling distance between nanofillers.
Here, it is necessary to define the concept of gauge factor (GF), as the variation of the normalized resistance ∆R/R0 divided by the applied strain, ε:
GF=∆R/R0εE2
Therefore, in order to achieve the highest GFs, it would be necessary to work with volume fractions of nanofiller near the percolation threshold, as the distance between adjacent nanoparticles will be the highest possible to form an efficient electrical network and, thus, the variation of the tunneling distance will be the highest. This has been observed in both GNP and CNT nanocomposites, where the contents near the percolation threshold achieved the highest GFs [34, 35].
However, in this sense, there are significant differences among the different nanoparticles. For example, GNP-based nanocomposites have shown a more accused exponential behavior of the electrical resistance with applied strain [35] than CNT-based ones [36]. It means that the values of GF at low strain levels are much lower than at high strain levels.
This accused exponential behavior of GNP nanocomposites can be explained accordingly to the different interactions that take place inside the electrical network. In fact, the tunneling area of these 2D particles is, generally, much higher than in the case of CNTs, and it leads to the fact that the value of the interparticle distance can be much higher for an efficient tunneling transport. Therefore, as explained before, the higher the tunneling distance, the more accused the exponential correlation between the electrical resistance and the applied strain will be.
Moreover, there is also a correlation between the exponential behavior and the sensitivity of the nanocomposite, and, thus, GNP-based ones show higher GF values than CNT nanocomposites (from 12–15 to 2–4 at low strain levels, respectively, for nanocomposites manufactured following similar techniques) [35, 36].
3.3 SHM in nanocomposite coatings
The enormous potential of the nanoparticles for SHM applications has been widely exploited in the development of surface sensors and smart coatings. More specifically, their use as substitutes of strain gages is gaining attention nowadays.
Basically, a strain gauge is a device for indicating the strain level of a structure at the point of attachment. To date, the most used are based in conventional metallic foils in which the strain is obtained from the electrical resistance variation due to the deformation of the metallic foil when subjected to this strain level. GF values of conventional strain gauges are around 2 and usually show a very linear dependence of electrical resistance change with applied strain.
The research in strain-sensing devices with carbon-based nanocomposites is mainly focused in the development of highly stretchable sensors. In this regard, graphene, carbon nanotubes, and other carbon nanoparticles, such as carbon black, have been widely explored, among others. The addition of these nanoparticles to polymers with high strain capabilities such as fluoroelastomers [37], thermoplastic polyurethane [38], or vulcanized silicone [39] has demonstrated excellent sensing capabilities. More specifically, they present enormous potential for human motion sensing or wearable electronics [37] as the GF at high strain levels (>20%) can be in the range of 400–4000 depending on the content and morphology of the carbon nanofiller. Here, a highly accused exponential behavior is observed at higher strain levels due to the prevalence of tunneling mechanisms in the carbon nanoparticle network. In addition, they can be also used as pressure sensors, with excellent sensing capabilities in comparison to others [40] as they are able to detect very small pressure changes due to the strain induced fail that they promote.
Here, it can be stated that the 2D nature of the electrical network in a nanocomposite coating promotes an increase of the percolation threshold when compared to a bulk nanocomposites, where a 3D uniform disposition of the nanofillers is supposed to be [41]. Moreover, the cross-sectional area of the coatings is obviously much lower than 3D nanocomposites, so the electrical resistance is much higher. Therefore, the amount of nanofiller necessary for SHM purposes is much higher in polymer coatings.
Furthermore, apart from flexible devices such as strain gauges, wearable electronics, or human motion sensors, their SHM capabilities in other polymer coating based on thermosetting polymers have been widely demonstrated. More specifically, GNP-based coatings have proved to be very sensitive at low strain levels to both tensile and compressive loading, as well as a good repeatability under cyclic loads [42]. In addition, CNT-based ones have also demonstrated good sensing properties with a high linearity [43].
Although the interest as strain sensing devices is very significant, their crack sensing capabilities can be even of more interest. Here, the crack detection is based in a sudden breakage of the electrical pathways due to the presence of the crack itself. It will be reflected in a sharp increase of the electrical resistivity of the coating, and, thus, the electrical resistance during the measurement will increase as well, as shown in the schematics of Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Schematics of the effect of a crack in the electrical network.
In this regard, electrical impedance tomography is gaining a great deal of attention as an SHM technique. It is based in a mapping of the electrical conductivity of a structure based in the electrical resistance measurements on its surface. Therefore, by using this technique, it will be possible to detect, locate, and even quantify superficial defects by analyzing the changes of its surface resistivity. In this context, their effectiveness has been widely demonstrated in polymer coatings for the detection of superficial cracks [43], where the electrical resistance measurement between adjacent channels can easily detect an artificial damage (Figure 5), as well as in sensing skins for spatial pressure mapping, where the strain induced by the applied pressure is monitored [44]. Here, the main issue is correlated to the positioning of the electrodes and the data processing, which usually involves the use of complex mathematical tools. However, the results for SHM applications are very promising and give a new functionality to nanoreinforced polymer coatings.
Figure 5.
(a) Schematics of electrode disposition and (b) mapping of variation of the electrical resistance correlated to an induced damage [43].
4. Smart nanocomposite coatings: Self-heating
Surface heating is a challenge for several applications, and it is usually carried out by different approaches such as external heating source (portable equipment) or heating elements positioned on the surface (i.e., electrical resistances) which, in fact, modifies the surface quality of the parts where they are positioned. Heat is required in organic coatings for different purposes:
Deicing systems: ice accretion to surfaces when subjected to cold and humid environments is something very common that requires the use of deicing alternatives, and, among them, heat of the surface to create a liquid film can be of great interest.
Self-curing coatings: the use of coatings with curing temperatures above 23°C is often limited because of the need of external heating sources that makes the production more difficult. Nevertheless, the glass transition temperatures or hardness are usually higher for higher cross-linked coating, thus making more interesting the use of higher curing/post-curing temperatures.
Heat activated self-healing mechanisms: as previously mentioned, the main source for self-healing activation is UV radiation and temperature. Nevertheless, the requirement of a heating source limits the application of these promising coatings to structures with easy access to be heated.
These applications will be further explored after an explanation of basic aspects of self-heating coatings based on the introduction of conductive nanoparticles inside polymer matrices, such as CNTs and GNPs. Nevertheless, these types of coatings are not limited to these applications, and they can find a potential field to be implemented in any product that need to be heated such as heating seats for commercial vehicles [45], floor heating, heating textiles, etc. where temperatures required are usually below 100°C [46].
4.1 Fundamentals of self-heating by Joule effect
The addition of carbon nanoparticles inside a polymer matrix above the percolation threshold, which has been previously explained, allows getting an electrically conductive material. The electrical current that flows through the material will generate heat according to Joule’s law (Eq. (1)), which is commonly known as Joule effect in materials:
Q=i2RtE3
where Q is the heat generated, i is the current flow, R is the electrical resistance, and t is the time the current is applied.
The first thing that can be analyzed from Eq. (1) is that higher current intensity would lead to higher heat generated and, consequently, higher contents of carbon nanoparticles will be desired for this purpose in order to increase the temperature reached or to reduce the voltage required. Although all common carbon nanostructures can be used for this purpose (carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphene nanoplatelets, or even graphite flakes), the importance of reaching high intensity values usually gives the best results for CNT-filled materials [47]. In fact, very high CNT amounts can be found in the literature in order to increase the electrical conductivity and, consequently, the current flowing at lower voltages applied. This is the case of the study based on ABS as matrix where CNT was added up to 15 wt.% in order to allow reaching temperatures over 200°C when voltages of only 12 V were applied [48] or the research carried out by Chu et al. where similar results in terms of temperature and voltage at contents of 7.5 wt.% of CNT in PDMS were found [49]. The interest in the use of low voltages is based on the use of batteries commonly installed in cars and trucks, among others.
Apart from the heat generated, there is an important fact regarding these percolated electrically conductive networks, which is the homogeneous distribution of heat through the coating. Two important effects must be taken into account for this aspect: (1) thermal conductivity of polymers which is particularly low, thus making heat transfer through the coating more difficult, and (2) homogeneous presence of the carbon nanoparticles through the polymer matrix, which is not always easily reached.
Both CNTs and GNPs show extremely good thermal conductivity individually. Nevertheless, in spite of their similar intrinsic thermal conductivity, the morphology of GNPs makes them more interesting for this purpose, even when compared to SWCNT [50]. Even at the same content of both types of nanoparticles, Zakaria et al. found that the thermal conductivity was higher for GNP nanocomposites than the MWCNT ones. In fact, although for electrical properties, higher contents of GNPs are usually required to meet similar properties to the ones found for MWCNT, in that case, at only 3 wt.% of nanoreinforcement, GNP nanocomposites showed an increase of 126.4% in thermal conductivity while 3 wt.% of MWCNT only increased this property by 60.2% [51]. In fact, experimental values of thermal conductivity are usually lower than those predicted theoretically, and it has been attributed mainly to waviness, dispersion, alignment, interfacial resistance, and contact resistance [52].
Proper exfoliation of GNPs causes an important increment on thermal conductivity related to an increase of the aspect ratio. Chu et al. [53] proposed a model to calculate the thermal conductivity of nanocomposites based on randomly oriented nanoparticles which takes into account geometrical aspects of the nanoparticles (aspect ratio) as well as differences in the intrinsic thermal conductivity of the nanofiller in each direction. In the case of GNPs, these aspects will be strongly related to their exfoliation and dispersion in the polymer matrix. On the other hand, the waviness of the nanoreinforcement may reduce the effective aspect ratio of the nanofillers which lead to propose few layers GNPs as an optimal solution instead of individual monolayers that tend to roll up easier during dispersion stage.
These self-heating coatings do not require extremely high thermal conductivities, but they should be high enough to ensure good heat transfer through the whole surface for the purposes mentioned above.
The formation of aggregates is very common in this type of materials, and this may cause that at very low carbon nanoparticle loadings, some resin areas are free of nanoreinforcement, which leads to nonuniform heating of the samples. In that cases, the thermal conductivity of the sample is even more important, as heat will not be homogeneously generated, thus making more important its thermal conduction. Prolongo et al. showed this effect when comparing MWCNT loaded with GNP ones, and they found that differences between maximum and minimum temperatures were much higher in those specimens based on MWCNT [47]. When adding GNPs, also this effect was found as lower contents of GNPs lead to areas with lower nanoreinforcement concentration, thus leading to higher temperature differences between different areas in the same sample, while the samples containing higher GNP contents (12 wt.%) showed more uniform heating (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Joule effect heating of epoxy nanocomposites containing (a) 8 wt.%, (b) 10 wt.%, and (c) 12 wt.% of GNPs [54].
4.2 Self-heating as deicing system
Icing on structure surface can seriously affect the function of the system, and, even, it may cause its damage and consequently the need for replacement which leads to economic, environmental, and security issues. Wind turbines or aircraft surfaces are examples in which ice accretion has a detrimental effect on operation conditions by modifying the aerodynamic profile, structural weight, etc. [55, 56]. Most strategies currently used are based on two different approaches that affect the coatings used:
Passive methods which do not require external energy source. The main advantage of these methods is their lack of energy consumption to operate; nevertheless, their effectiveness is usually lower, so they are commonly used in combination with active methods to reduce the power needed [57]. Hydrophobic coatings are one of the passive methods most widely accepted which can be achieved by different approaches such as the addition of nanoparticles or tuning of surface textures in multiple length scales based, among others, in biomimetic techniques [58, 59]. This aspect has been discussed in Section 2.2.
Active methods which require external energy source. These methods are usually more effective to avoid icing problem and can be used in combination with passive methods. Among these active methods, heating systems are the most reliable ones in spite of the power consumption although mechanical ice breakage by means of inflatable rubber boots can be found in small airplanes. When heating the surface, several approaches can be used (infrared heating and warm air conduction, among others), but electrical resistance heating seems to be one of the most promising ones. To avoid the use of additional membranes or layers, multifunctional coatings with heating capability by thermoresistive methods at the same time they protect the underlying structural material are very interesting.
The use of carbon nanostructures has been studied for this purpose trying to create an active method based on Joule effect heating at the same time that hydrophobicity is increased by the addition of these nanoreinforcements. With this purpose, several research efforts have been already done reaching very promising results in terms of temperature, homogeneity, heat rate, and power consumption. By the use of GNPs, Redondo et al. achieved 35°C of temperature increments at 800 V with a heat rate of 13.6°C/min and a power consumption of less than 3 W. This temperature increment should be enough to produce ice melting on the coating and, consequently, separation of the ice accreted to the surface, even at severe ambient temperatures below −20°C [54]. When using CNTs, the electrical conductivity of the materials is usually higher than GNPs, thus increasing the value of the intensity at a constant voltage which is useful for heat generation according to Eq. (1). CNT/PVA films with very high CNT concentration have been produced in order to get very low electrical resistance and, consequently, higher electroresistive heating. The same procedure, using high MWCNT loadings (10 wt.% in poly-1,3,4-oxadiazole), allowed to reach temperatures above 100°C by the application of only 40 V in these nanoreinforced films. Prolongo et al. compared the temperature reached by the use of CNTs and GNPs as nanoreinforcements, and with contents of 0.5 wt.% of CNTs, the temperature reached almost 100°C with only 90 V applied, while 300 V were required to go over 65°C when 8% GNP were added [47]. Nevertheless, the authors claimed that temperature was more homogeneous when GNPs were used as nanoreinforcement.
Finally, the authors are currently exploring the possibility of using the electrical network of CNTs to sense the temperature and, consequently, activate the voltage application when required because of the weather conditions measured by the coating itself. Coatings based on CNT/PDMS were manufactured and showed an effect-denominated negative temperature coefficient (NTC). This effect on electrical response was nonlinear with temperature changes, being the sensitivity more than six times higher in the range −5 to 5°C than at room temperature, which makes them potential candidates for temperature measurement for smart coatings being able to detect temperature and activate the voltage required accordingly [60].
4.3 Self-curing coatings
Based on the same basics of previous applications, self-heating nanoreinforced polymers have been developed in order to allow curing by electrical voltage application. This issue has been already explored to take advantage of the uniform heat as far as the heat is generated from the material itself and, also, of the absence of power loses associated to heat transmission from the heating element to the material itself, as it happens when ovens are used [61]. Mas et al. proved the efficiency of this curing method by the addition of MWCNT to an epoxy matrix, and they found uniform thermal properties in the resin cured by Joule heating. In fact, they were able to control the real curing temperature by the coupling of thermocouples to the voltage source with a PID controller. The input of the thermocouples was used by the PID to adjust the power supply in order to keep the curing temperature constant during the process. One of the main advantages they found was the high heating rate as the heat emerges from the material itself.
This fact was also proved by Jang et al. in the research conducted to prove that curing by Joule heating of thin films of PDMS reinforced with high loadings of CNT (7 wt.%) could lead to even better performance than the equivalent oven-cured samples. They measured the mechanical properties of both materials, and they found that stiffness of samples cured by Joule effect heating was slightly higher, which was associated to faster and more uniform heating of the whole material volume. So they conclude that this curing technique could allow obtaining materials at shorter curing times, more homogenous, and with higher cross-linked structures [62].
Other carbon nanostructures different from CNTs have been also studied to cure thermoset materials out of the oven, such as the previously study from Mas et al. established [61]. Xia et al. proposed the use of GNP to cure epoxy matrices by adding contents over 8.5 wt.% as they found this value to be the percolation threshold for the GNP morphology and dispersion technique used. They found curing degrees similar to those found for oven-cured samples but with much faster heating rates and more homogenous curing, similar to the studies previously mentioned. Nevertheless, they found preferential orientation of the GNPs which was associated to the presence of an electric field during curing stage as it was not observed in oven-cured samples. This fact is very important as they found improved electrical and mechanical performance in this direction, but this anisotropic behavior must be taken into account when designing elements with these materials [63].
So, the application of curing by Joule effect heating has been proved as possible in electrically conductive networks based on carbon nanoparticles inside polymer matrices with particular interest due to faster curing cycles, more uniform curing degree, and easy application in large structures/surfaces.
4.4 Self-healing coatings
Any thermally activated mechanism could be beneficiated from the previously explained self-heating by thermoresistive heating. Thermo-reversible Diels-Alder reactions are one of these examples, in which the Diels-Alders and retro-Diels-Alder reactions are favored at different temperatures allowing the restoration of the covalent bonds, thus repairing the cracks generated. This method was used by Willocq et al. to produce MWCNT nanoreinforced polymer matrices with self-healing capabilities by Joule effect heating at low voltages of 25 V which were enough to reach the retro-Diels-Alder reaction temperature in the vicinity of the macroscopic damage (crack) due to local higher heating around the crack. This local temperature increment around the crack was strongly dependent on the position of the electrodes with respect to the direction of the crack [64].
Huang et al. used GNPs dispersed in a thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) matrix in order to create a percolated network and reach 98% self-healing efficiency by the application of 220 V to the material. The use of GNPs in this case allowed improving alternative self-healing approaches such as heating by IR radiation absorption which is also enhanced by the presence of GNPs in the matrix, thus allowing different alternatives to improve the thermal self-healing process of the TPU [65].
Also, this Joule effect-based heating can be used to activate self-healing in thermosetting/thermoplastic blends which self-healing capabilities. This mechanism is activated by a temperature increase above the melting temperature of the thermoplastic material used and high enough to allow its proper flow through the cracks created. Several materials have been studied for this purpose, and, among them, polycaprolactone (PCL) has been widely studied due to its low melting temperature which can allow self-healing mechanism to take place at temperatures around 100°C to allow its proper flow [66]. Zhang et al. proved the efficiency of the addition of CNT to EVA/PCL composites with shape memory purposes, which allowed heating the blends up to 100°C which would be enough to activate self-healing mechanisms in blends containing PCL as healing phase [67]. All these recent studies reveal that the use of self-heating can help to develop self-healing polymer-based materials with the main advantages to avoid the use of external heat sources, use electrical voltage that could be remotely activated, allow heat to emerge from the material itself avoiding heating other materials parts, and reduce losses due to heat transfer.
5. Smart nanocomposite coatings: Self-cleaning
Self-cleaning is a surface property consisting in keeping the surface clean under severe environmental conditions [68]. It is inspired from lotus effect with a specific micro- and nano-hierarchical surface morphology and low surface energy, providing superhydrophobicity. A surface can be considered as superhydrophobic when the water contact angle is higher than 150° (WCA > 150°) and the low sliding angle is lower than 10° (SA < 10°). Another opposite approach for getting self-cleaning surfaces is the incorporation of photocatalytic fillers affording hydrophilic surfaces (WCA < 5–10°) able to keep free of organic contaminants and moisture. The self-cleaning surfaces can be developed with nanodoped polymer coatings and with neat graphitic coating, such as it is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
Scheme of the main approaches of self-cleaning coatings with carbon nanoparticles.
One of the most studied self-cleaning materials is based on titanium oxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO) due to their superhydrophobicity and photocatalytic decomposition ability of organic pollutants. These coatings are usually manufactured by sol-gel process. Modifying these nanofillers with graphene or its derivatives can enhance their visible light response. Hybrid TiO2/graphene nanofillers can exhibit strong electronic overlap and high interfacial binding energy; thus, photoexcited carriers can transfer from TiO2 to graphene, and its band gap is reduced, improving the visible light photoresponse [69, 70]. Nevertheless, graphene enhances the photocatalytic efficiency of ZnO due to that graphene accepts the electron from ZnO nanoparticles, preventing the recombination of photo-generated electron hole in the semiconductor. These nanocoatings show superhydrophobicity when they are irradiated with visible light. An interesting alternative approach is the impregnation of cotton fibers to manufacture industrial self-cleaning textiles [71]. The treated fabrics exhibit an increase anti-bacteriological behavior and high biocompatibility.
Another possibility to develop superhydrophobic self-cleaning coatings is the use of hydrophobic polymer matrix, such as polysiloxanes or fluoro-polymers, doped with graphitic nanofillers, giving high electrical conductivity [72]. These coatings present high water contact angle and low sliding angle. In addition, they exhibit high wear resistance and excellent anticorrosion performance [73]. The presence of polymer matrix enhances the adherence with substrate and increases the chemical resistance. When the matrix is not hydrophobic polymer, the nanocomposite coating can be chemically etched (i.e., fatty acids such as stearic acid, palmitic acid, and oleic acid) in order to decrease the surface energy. This approach allows using very different matrices (i.e., acrylic resin, epoxy, etc.), looking for other advantages, such as superior adhesion, mechanical properties, low cost, etc., making it suitable for many industrial fields. Together with self-cleaning behavior, other related properties are commonly developed in smart coating based on carbon nanoparticles, such as antifouling, antimicrobial, anticorrosion, anti-soiling, etc. Graphetic nanostructures hold antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities, although the involved mechanisms are not completely understood and accepted [74]. For these applications, other nanoparticles of gold, silver, copper, TiO2, ZnO, Fe2O3, and CuS, are anchored to the graphene nanosheets to enhance the bactericidal efficiency. Now, current efforts consist on developing membranes and films with polymer matrix, such as chitosan, poly(vinyl alcohol), polyamides, polyethyleneimine, etc., for applications in disinfection, gas separation, and water desalination.
6. Conclusions
The development of polymer coatings with carbon nanoparticles is now gaining a lot of interest. They present enhanced electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties that can be used to confer new functionalities, turning into smart materials, able to interact with the environment, responding appropriately to external stimuli. These new functionalities are possible thanks to the creation of an effective electrical, thermal, or mechanical network inside the polymer matrix, making it possible for their use for structural health monitoring applications, resistive heating by Joule’s effect among others such us self-cleaning and self-healing.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Young Researchers R&D Project (SMART-MULTICOAT M2183) financed by the Comunidad de Madrid government and Rey Juan Carlos University.
\n',keywords:"polymer nanocomposite, structural health monitoring, self-heating, self-healing, anti- and deicing",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72759.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72759.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72759",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72759",totalDownloads:671,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"March 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"May 21st 2020",datePrePublished:"July 9th 2020",datePublished:"November 26th 2020",dateFinished:"July 9th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Smart coatings based on polymer matrix doped with carbon nanoparticles, such as carbon nanotubes or graphene, are being widely studied. The addition of carbon nanofillers into organic coatings usually enhances their performance, increasing their barrier properties, corrosion resistance, hardness, and wear strength. Moreover, the developed composites provide a new generation of protective organic coatings, being able to intelligently respond to damage or external stimuli. Carbon nanoparticles induce new functionalities to polymer coatings, most of them related to the higher electrical conductivity of nanocomposite due to the formation of percolation network. These coatings can be used as strain sensors and gauges, based on the variation of their electrical resistance (structural health monitoring, SHM). In addition, they act as self-heaters by the application of electrical voltage associated to resistive heating by Joule effect. This opens new potential applications, particularly deicing and defogging coatings. Superhydrophobic and self-cleaning coatings are inspired from lotus effect, designing micro- and nanoscaled hierarchical surfaces. Coatings with self-healable polymer matrix are able to repair surface damages. Other relevant smart capabilities of these new coatings are flame retardant, lubricating, stimuli-chromism, and antibacterial activity, among others.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72759",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72759",signatures:"Xoan Xosé Fernández Sánchez-Romate, Alberto Jiménez Suárez and Silvia González Prolongo",book:{id:"10061",type:"book",title:"21st Century Surface Science",subtitle:"a Handbook",fullTitle:"21st Century Surface Science - a Handbook",slug:"21st-century-surface-science-a-handbook",publishedDate:"November 26th 2020",bookSignature:"Phuong Pham, Pratibha Goel, Samir Kumar and Kavita Yadav",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10061.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-200-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-199-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-640-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"236073",title:"Dr.",name:"Phuong",middleName:"Viet",surname:"Pham",slug:"phuong-pham",fullName:"Phuong Pham"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"7239",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvia G",middleName:null,surname:"Prolongo",fullName:"Silvia G Prolongo",slug:"silvia-g-prolongo",email:"silvia.gonzalez@urjc.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario Rey Juan Carlos",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"320053",title:"Dr.",name:"Xoan Xosé",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández Sánchez-Romate",fullName:"Xoan Xosé Fernández Sánchez-Romate",slug:"xoan-xose-fernandez-sanchez-romate",email:"xoan.fernandez.sanchezromate@urjc.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"320054",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Jiménez-Suárez",fullName:"Alberto Jiménez-Suárez",slug:"alberto-jimenez-suarez",email:"alberto.jimenez.suarez@urjc.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Synthesis, processing, and main properties of polymer coatings",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Synthesis and processing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Properties of nanocomposite polymer coatings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Smart nanocomposite coatings: Self-sensing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Fundamentals of SHM with carbon nanoparticles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Sensitivity of polymer-based nanocomposites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3 SHM in nanocomposite coatings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Smart nanocomposite coatings: Self-heating",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Fundamentals of self-heating by Joule effect",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Self-heating as deicing system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 Self-curing coatings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.4 Self-healing coatings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Smart nanocomposite coatings: Self-cleaning",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Pham VP, Jang H, Whang D, Choi J. Direct growth of graphene on rigid and flexible substrates: Progress, applications, and challenges. Chemical Society Reviews. 2017;46(20):6276-6300'},{id:"B2",body:'Pham VP, Nguyen MT, Park JW, Kwak SS, Nguyen DHT, Mun MK, et al. Chlorine-trapped CVD bilayer graphene for resistive pressure sensor with high detection limit and high sensitivity. 2D Materials. 2017;4(2):025049'},{id:"B3",body:'Pham VP, Kim KN, Jeon MH, Kim KS, Yeom GY. Cyclic chlorine trap-doping for transparent, conductive, thermally stable and damage-free graphene. Nanoscale. 2014;6(24):15301-15308'},{id:"B4",body:'Pham PV. A library of doped-graphene images via transmission electron microscopy. C—Journal of Carbon Research. 2018;4(2):34'},{id:"B5",body:'Pham PV. 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Its main modulation concept lies in single photon generation on sidebands of optical carrier and determination of photons ground state through its registration and the amplitude value of its carrier frequency as reference channel. So, it is necessary to solve problems of signal-to-carrier ratio of single photon detector (SPD) and aspects of photon number splitting (PNS) attack, nonlinear phase modulation (NPM) between carrier and sidebands in fiber, and finally, spectral selection of carrier in receiver. The technologies, based on the modulation conversion of an optical carrier, are widely used in microwave photonics. Due to the natural symmetry of modulated signals and the highest achievable ratio of the modulation conversions, amplitude-phase modulation with complete or partial suppression of the optical carrier has found a particularly wide application in MPS. The characteristics of advanced MPS for QKD with frequency coding and carrier suppression based on tandem amplitude modulation and phase commutation are presented. New systems can have classical symmetric or non-classical asymmetric structure for QKD based only on spectral selection of carrier and subcarriers without re-modulation.",book:{id:"5779",slug:"advanced-technologies-of-quantum-key-distribution",title:"Advanced Technologies of Quantum Key Distribution",fullTitle:"Advanced Technologies of Quantum Key Distribution"},signatures:"Oleg G. Morozov, Airat J. Sakhabutdinov, Gennady A. Morozov and\nIl’daris M. 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The ambiguities surrounding of the digital currency still leave enough space for the analysis of its unreserved acceptance, trust and anticipation, which are the main driver for the spread of the network. Banks should carefully consider the technology underlying these cryptocurrencies as a potential generic new way of transferring ownership of the value over the long term. The chapter provides an analysis of the use of cryptocurrencies in general, especially Bitcoin as the technology adoption in the presence of network externalities. The objective attitude is the future of the digital currency in the moment is still unsolved issue due to the existence of “critical mass”. Further, the chapter explores financial privacy which is very sensitive issue in using digital currency (or cryptocurrency) and discuss about private choices versus political rules. The research has shown that the future of cryptocurrencies can be bright if some institutional-formal conditions are met due to the fact that success evolution of e-money requires building safety payments through three criteria–standardization, compatibility and innovation.",book:{id:"7228",slug:"blockchain-and-cryptocurrencies",title:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",fullTitle:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies"},signatures:"Tatjana Boshkov",authors:[{id:"246137",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Boshkov",slug:"tatjana-boshkov",fullName:"Tatjana Boshkov"}]},{id:"63116",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80450",title:"Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) over Software-Defined Optical Networks",slug:"quantum-key-distribution-qkd-over-software-defined-optical-networks",totalDownloads:1338,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Optical network security is attracting increasing research interest. Currently, software-defined optical network (SDON) has been proposed to increase network intelligence (e.g., flexibility and programmability) which is gradually moving toward industrialization. However, a variety of new threats are emerging in SDONs. Data encryption is an effective way to secure communications in SDONs. However, classical key distribution methods based on the mathematical complexity will suffer from increasing computational power and attack algorithms in the near future. Noticeably, quantum key distribution (QKD) is now being considered as a secure mechanism to provision information-theoretically secure secret keys for data encryption, which is a potential technique to protect communications from security attacks in SDONs. This chapter introduces the basic principles and enabling technologies of QKD. Based on the QKD enabling technologies, an architecture of QKD over SDONs is presented. Resource allocation problem is elaborated in detail and is classified into wavelength allocation, time-slot allocation, and secret key allocation problems in QKD over SDONs. Some open issues and challenges such as survivability, cost optimization, and key on demand (KoD) for QKD over SDONs are discussed.",book:{id:"7376",slug:"quantum-cryptography-in-advanced-networks",title:"Quantum Cryptography in Advanced Networks",fullTitle:"Quantum Cryptography in Advanced Networks"},signatures:"Yongli Zhao, Yuan Cao, Xiaosong Yu and Jie Zhang",authors:[{id:"199527",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yongli",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"yongli-zhao",fullName:"Yongli Zhao"}]},{id:"59491",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74234",title:"Security of Quantum Key Distribution Protocols",slug:"security-of-quantum-key-distribution-protocols",totalDownloads:1149,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Quantum key distribution (QKD), another name for quantum cryptography, is the most advanced subfield of quantum information and communication technology (QICT). The first QKD protocol was proposed in 1984, and since then, more protocols have been proposed. It uses quantum mechanics to enable secure exchange of cryptographic keys. In order to have high confidence in the security of the QKD protocols, such protocols must be proven to be secure against any arbitrary attacks. In this chapter, we discuss and demonstrate security proofs for QKD protocols. Security analysis of QKD protocols can be categorised into two techniques, namely infinite-key and finite-key analyses. Finite-key analysis offers more realistic results than the infinite-key one, while infinite-key analysis provides more simplicity. We briefly provide the background of QKD and also define the basic notion of security in QKD protocols. The cryptographic key is shared between Alice and Bob. Since the key is random and unknown to an eavesdropper, Eve, she is unable to learn anything about the message simply by intercepting the ciphertext. This phenomenon is beyond the ability of classical information processing. We then study some tools that are used in the derivation of security proofs for the infinite- and finite-length key limits.",book:{id:"5779",slug:"advanced-technologies-of-quantum-key-distribution",title:"Advanced Technologies of Quantum Key Distribution",fullTitle:"Advanced Technologies of Quantum Key Distribution"},signatures:"Mhlambululi Mafu and Makhamisa Senekane",authors:[{id:"196378",title:"Dr.",name:"Mhlambululi",middleName:null,surname:"Mafu",slug:"mhlambululi-mafu",fullName:"Mhlambululi Mafu"},{id:"210180",title:"Dr.",name:"Makhamisa",middleName:null,surname:"Senekane",slug:"makhamisa-senekane",fullName:"Makhamisa Senekane"}]},{id:"62627",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79386",title:"Modeling Bitcoin Price and Bubbles",slug:"modeling-bitcoin-price-and-bubbles",totalDownloads:1692,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The goal of this chapter is to present recent developments about Bitcoin1 price modeling and related applications. Precisely, we consider a bivariate model in continuous time to describe the behavior of Bitcoin price and of the investors’ attention on the overall network. The attention index affects Bitcoin price through a suitable dependence on the drift and diffusion coefficients and a possible correlation between the sources of randomness represented by the driving Brownian motions. The model is fitted on historical data of Bitcoin prices, by considering the total trading volume and the Google Search Volume Index as proxies for the attention measure. Moreover, a closed formula is computed for European-style derivatives on Bitcoin. Finally, we discuss two possible extensions of the model. Precisely, we investigate the relation between the correlation parameter and possible bubble effects in the asset price; further, we consider a multivariate framework to represent the special feature of Bitcoin being traded on several exchanges and we discuss conditions to rule out arbitrage opportunities in this setting.",book:{id:"7228",slug:"blockchain-and-cryptocurrencies",title:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",fullTitle:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies"},signatures:"Alessandra Cretarola and Gianna Figà-Talamanca",authors:[{id:"246178",title:"Prof.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Cretarola",slug:"alessandra-cretarola",fullName:"Alessandra Cretarola"},{id:"246179",title:"Prof.",name:"Gianna",middleName:null,surname:"Figà-Talamanca",slug:"gianna-figa-talamanca",fullName:"Gianna Figà-Talamanca"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62481",title:"Blockchain and Digital Currency in the World of Finance",slug:"blockchain-and-digital-currency-in-the-world-of-finance",totalDownloads:2009,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"High-tech enables payment evolution and global competition. The ambiguities surrounding of the digital currency still leave enough space for the analysis of its unreserved acceptance, trust and anticipation, which are the main driver for the spread of the network. Banks should carefully consider the technology underlying these cryptocurrencies as a potential generic new way of transferring ownership of the value over the long term. The chapter provides an analysis of the use of cryptocurrencies in general, especially Bitcoin as the technology adoption in the presence of network externalities. The objective attitude is the future of the digital currency in the moment is still unsolved issue due to the existence of “critical mass”. Further, the chapter explores financial privacy which is very sensitive issue in using digital currency (or cryptocurrency) and discuss about private choices versus political rules. The research has shown that the future of cryptocurrencies can be bright if some institutional-formal conditions are met due to the fact that success evolution of e-money requires building safety payments through three criteria–standardization, compatibility and innovation.",book:{id:"7228",slug:"blockchain-and-cryptocurrencies",title:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",fullTitle:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies"},signatures:"Tatjana Boshkov",authors:[{id:"246137",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Boshkov",slug:"tatjana-boshkov",fullName:"Tatjana Boshkov"}]},{id:"63090",title:"Cryptocurrency Returns",slug:"cryptocurrency-returns",totalDownloads:1450,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"One of the most significant innovations in the world of finance has been the creation and evolvement of cryptocurrencies. These digital means of exchange have been the focus of extensive news coverage, especially the Bitcoin, with a primary focus on the tremendous potential return and the high level of accompanying risk. In this chapter, we examine the risk-return pattern for an array of cryptocurrencies, contrasting the pattern with those of conventional currency and equity investments. We find the measures of cryptocurrency returns and risk to be a very high multiple of those of conventional investments, and the pattern is determined to be robust relative to the time frame. Consequently, cryptocurrencies are determined to provide an alternative to investors that involves tremendously high risk and return.",book:{id:"7228",slug:"blockchain-and-cryptocurrencies",title:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",fullTitle:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies"},signatures:"Mike Cudd, Kristen Ritterbush, Marcelo Eduardo and Chris Smith",authors:[{id:"254939",title:"Dr.",name:"Mike",middleName:null,surname:"Cudd",slug:"mike-cudd",fullName:"Mike Cudd"}]},{id:"62430",title:"On the Origin of the Value of Cryptocurrencies",slug:"on-the-origin-of-the-value-of-cryptocurrencies",totalDownloads:1297,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies received a lot of criticism during the last 9 years. It is not surprising that this criticism came from organizations that are threatened by the crypto revolution (banks, government, central banks, finance companies, etc.). Nevertheless, it is very surprising to hear criticism from economics schools, which oppose central banking and advocate free choice in currencies (such as the Austrian school of economics). Unlike the ordinary criticism (that Bitcoin is a scam, a bubble, etc.), which can easily be refuted, the criticism of part of the Austrian school economists is based on interesting arguments, which requires a different level of explanation. For example, it was claimed that Bitcoin should be worthless; otherwise, it contradicts Mises’ regression theorem. The object of the chapter is twofold: first to explain why the criticism is unfounded and second to analyze the origin of the value of Bitcoin and other cryptocoins from the perspective of the Austrian school of economics. In particular, it is explained that Bitcoin does not contradict the regression theorem for two reasons. First, the initial value estimation can be a random event, and second, the Bitcoin network (even now) has a nonmonetary value.",book:{id:"7228",slug:"blockchain-and-cryptocurrencies",title:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",fullTitle:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies"},signatures:"Er'el Granot",authors:[{id:"181601",title:"Prof.",name:"Er'El",middleName:null,surname:"Granot",slug:"er'el-granot",fullName:"Er'El Granot"}]},{id:"62627",title:"Modeling Bitcoin Price and Bubbles",slug:"modeling-bitcoin-price-and-bubbles",totalDownloads:1692,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The goal of this chapter is to present recent developments about Bitcoin1 price modeling and related applications. Precisely, we consider a bivariate model in continuous time to describe the behavior of Bitcoin price and of the investors’ attention on the overall network. The attention index affects Bitcoin price through a suitable dependence on the drift and diffusion coefficients and a possible correlation between the sources of randomness represented by the driving Brownian motions. The model is fitted on historical data of Bitcoin prices, by considering the total trading volume and the Google Search Volume Index as proxies for the attention measure. Moreover, a closed formula is computed for European-style derivatives on Bitcoin. Finally, we discuss two possible extensions of the model. Precisely, we investigate the relation between the correlation parameter and possible bubble effects in the asset price; further, we consider a multivariate framework to represent the special feature of Bitcoin being traded on several exchanges and we discuss conditions to rule out arbitrage opportunities in this setting.",book:{id:"7228",slug:"blockchain-and-cryptocurrencies",title:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",fullTitle:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies"},signatures:"Alessandra Cretarola and Gianna Figà-Talamanca",authors:[{id:"246178",title:"Prof.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Cretarola",slug:"alessandra-cretarola",fullName:"Alessandra Cretarola"},{id:"246179",title:"Prof.",name:"Gianna",middleName:null,surname:"Figà-Talamanca",slug:"gianna-figa-talamanca",fullName:"Gianna Figà-Talamanca"}]},{id:"62478",title:"The Condition of the Cryptocurrency Market and Exchanges in Poland",slug:"the-condition-of-the-cryptocurrency-market-and-exchanges-in-poland",totalDownloads:1042,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The development of the cryptocurrency market and the implications for the whole economy and finance for all traders cause a keen interest in this subject. The chapter discusses the functioning of a financial system based on cryptocurrencies and its significance for economies. In this chapter, the development of the global cryptocurrency market was presented and the history of the most popular cryptocurrency, bitcoin, was analyzed. The analysis and the assessment of the state and structure of the Polish cryptocurrencies market were presented on the background of the global cryptocurrency market. Also, we presented the possible development paths for the cryptocurrencies market in Poland and in the world.",book:{id:"7228",slug:"blockchain-and-cryptocurrencies",title:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",fullTitle:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies"},signatures:"Ireneusz Miciuła",authors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",middleName:null,surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"531",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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