Conceptualizing ‘good’ entrepreneurship education.
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Youth unemployment is considered a global crisis, with numbers estimated to be between 15% and 18% worldwide [1]. In South Africa, however, youth unemployment reached a shocking 74,7% in the first quarter of 2021, based on the expanded definition for unemployment, which includes the unemployed who have given up finding a job, as well as unemployed persons actively looking for employment [1]. The prospects for young people to find gainful employment after school, even if they are actively looking for employment, therefore seem dismal, especially in South Africa.
Adding to this conundrum, are the constant changes that learners face in everyday life, as well as in preparation for the world of work [2]. These changes are often associated with the requirements of the 21st century, including a focus on knowledge-based economies, digitization on many levels, changes in the workplace and labor market, an increasing variety of communication modes, multilingualism, environmental and sustainability issues, as well as changes in societal values [2, 3, 4, 5], to name but a few. These changes all require that learners develop skills and competencies, as well as different ways of thinking, that will allow them to be more adaptable to change, or to even excel or prosper in changing circumstances. At present, schooling does not prepare learners sufficiently to enable them to flexibly deal with or thrive in changing circumstances [4, 6, 7].
These are two of the main reasons why critics are persistently outspoken about the inadequacies of school education to prepare learners not only for employment, but also for a meaningful life after formal schooling. For example, in an International Monetary Fund study which explored the “causes and consequences of the weak outcomes of South Africa’s education system”, ([8], p. 13) the researchers found that “South African learners … exhibit substantial deficits in critical learning skills at early levels of education.” In a broader view, a report by the World Bank Group ([9], p. iv) noted “insufficient skills as the key constraint to reduce poverty” in South Africa. Furthermore, when learners perceive and experience what they learn in school as useful, relevant and meaningful, their motivation to learn, and keep on learning, is fostered. Quality, meaningful and well-designed education can reduce skill deficits and can reduce the prevalence and extent of unemployment [8, 9].
Exploring ways to overcome these deficits in schooling might therefore be a good point of departure to better prepare learners for the word of work – whether they find employment of self-directedly create their own employment – as well as to make such learning more meaningful as part of their journey to become self-motivated, life-long learners. To support such an investigation, competencies and skills which learners will require for a meaningful life and gainful employment in the 21st century needed to be considered, as well as suitable learning environments and conducive elements which will foster such skills and competencies in preparation for life-long learning. In addition, against the background of limited employment opportunities available in many countries across the world, as is evident in South Africa, serious consideration needs to be given to prepare learners for self-directedly creating their own employment opportunities, or to develop a positive entrepreneurial mindset as part of their schooling. These concepts, and how they were viewed and woven together in the current study, are discussed next.
The elements that must be included, or the type of learning envisioned for an improved school education is discussed first, followed by descriptions of how such learning ought to be constructed to be most effectively implemented in practice.
Against the background of the problem stated in the introductory section, the literature study revealed that several key elements can make schooling more meaningful to 21st century learners, especially considering the reported skills gaps and high levels of youth unemployment. These elements include the development of 21st century competencies and skills, developing an entrepreneurial mindset, preparation for self-directed employment, and fostering life-long learning.
Entrepreneurship education have been evolving since its introduction into educational systems over the world. Most recently, a trend deviating from the teaching of “objective facts, theory and business plans” for entrepreneurship education was noted, progressing toward “more innovative learning” using pedagogies aimed at developing entrepreneurial thinking, behavior and competencies [10]. Furthermore, the Entrepreneurial Learning Initiative ([4], p. 4) describes entrepreneurship as “the self-directed pursuit of opportunities to create value for others.” The focus for entrepreneurship education has therefore expanded to include particular ways of thinking and the application of certain skills and competencies, in order to develop the learner as an individual functioning in a complex and changing world, as opposed to only teaching them about enterprise development [10, 11]. To attain this, Higgins and Refai [12] propose that learning experiences should be designed to enhance or foster entrepreneurial aspirations, competencies and several skills. Competencies are perceived capabilities, personal attributes or a set of skills and knowledge, developed by an individual through education and experiences [13].
The skills referred to here are labeled by various terms in the literature, such as ‘soft skills’, ‘character strengths’, ‘employable skills’, ‘entrepreneurship skills’, ‘deeper learning outcomes’, ‘21st century skills’ or ‘non-cognitive skills’ [2, 3, 6, 10, 13, 14, 15]. For the current investigation, these skills were considered as being vital for meaningful living and working in the 21st century, and therefore the collective term ‘21st century skills’ is used. Some of the frequently cited 21st century skills include critical thinking; creative or innovative thinking; enhanced communication; collaboration; self-regulation or self-responsibility; problem-recognition and problem-solving [2, 6, 9, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. All these skills should be fostered to better prepare learners for life after school, however, the skills needed for identifying and solving problems are crucial to make learning meaningful and connect it to learners’ lived experiences [10], as well as to foster learning from mistakes [12, 17], which develops resiliency that learners will need to efficiently adapt to change. Learning should be scaffolded according to processes which will develop learners’ way of thinking, as well as their mindsets and which will encourage self-responsibility for or self-directed learning [17], which supports the overall goal of developing life-long learning.
The skills and competencies mentioned here are vital for education, employment and for entrepreneurship, including entrepreneurial thinking or developing a positive entrepreneurial mindset.
The term ‘entrepreneurial mindset’ is defined and disseminated in various (and sometimes opposing) ways [18]. In the simplest of terms, the Cambridge Dictionary [19] defines a mindset as “a person’s way of thinking and their opinions”. According to Zappe ([18], p. 5) most definitions for ‘entrepreneurial mindset’ however include or refer to “a set of characteristics and skills” useful to both entrepreneurs and aspiring entrepreneurs. It therefore makes sense to define an entrepreneurial mindset as utilizing various characteristics (or competencies) and skills to support and develop a particular way of thinking [20]. As an example of such a combined definition, the Kern Entrepreneurial Engineering Network [21] refers to an entrepreneurial mindset as “a collection of mental habits” or ways of thinking that are purposefully applied to create value and positive change. Being able to develop learners’ entrepreneurial mindset would thus increase the value of their schooling and should be aspired to [22]. The value it contributes to learning is so great that an entrepreneurial mindset is even referred to as “an essential life skill” [20]. The Entrepreneurial Learning Initiative ([4], p. 3) further notes that the rapidly changing world requires “everyone to think like an entrepreneur”, implying that its value benefits learners other than entrepreneurs or aspiring entrepreneurs. In addition, Jha [20] reiterates that an “entrepreneurial mindset can indeed be taught and cultivated, and that it is imperative to do so”. The ultimate aim of entrepreneurship education should be to make learners more engaged in their learning, and to enhance their understanding and involvement in entrepreneurship, which results in changes in perception and intrinsic learning [10]. It should also be noted that an entrepreneurial mindset can be related to entrepreneurial activity but that it is also valuable in many other contexts [21]. One such a context, is the world of work and employment – including self-employment or employment by an employer.
Education is intended to prepare learners for the world of work, whether it be for employment by others, or self-employment. Entrepreneurship education has been expanding significantly globally specifically with the purpose to encourage and develop more self-employment opportunities [17]. When suitable educational approaches or processes are utilized and applied in entrepreneurship education, its value can, however, be expanded. For example, creating suitable opportunities for learning or using interactive methods will enable learners “to become ‘empowered to do’, and [contribute to an understanding of] how such behaviors of thinking can be supported and facilitated” ([12], p. 177). An entrepreneurial mindset, which includes ways of thinking and utilizing competencies and skills, is thus essential for preparing learners for a meaningful life but are also vital to prepare learners for the world of work. Since formal employment opportunities are scarce, learners would have to be taught how to utilize the above-mentioned skills and competencies to identify, select and plan opportunities for creating their own employment, as an expression of self-directed learning. Self-directed learning is an essential skill that contributes to and supports the development of life-long learning [23].
Education and learning should be viewed as a life-long process, rather than a single or intermittent event [4]. Competencies and skills continue to develop throughout a learners’ life, through new and prior life experiences in a variety of contexts [15]. Including continuous and purposeful life-long learning as part of the intended learning in a curriculum will therefore contribute to continued development and construction of knowledge, skills and competencies, which adds value and significance to the lives of learners [15]. Hence, knowing how to learn, and how to continue to learn (life-long learning) is a critical future competence [2]. Entrepreneurship education, and the associated learning and mindset, is stated as key competencies for life-long learning [22], further highlighting the interconnectedness of these learning modes.
In addition to the intended learning and focused skills development discussed above, several other elements – which contribute to the planning of quality education and the implementation of the intended learning – should also be considered. These elements all contribute to the learning environment which can foster or hinder learning effectiveness and include the learner; the teacher; teaching-learning designs; as well as the teaching-learning or pedagogical approach utilized. Suitable consideration and alignment of these aspects will contribute to the development of a learning environment that will be conducive to fostering the type of learning and entrepreneurial mindset envisioned for South African learners.
Learning is a contextual process in which learners and teachers play the main roles. The strategies, approaches and choices these role players make or implement in the teaching-learning process are further influenced by their beliefs, “pre-assumptions and understandings, shared realities”, as well as the context in which the learning takes place ([12], p. 178). These elements should be carefully considered and scaffolded to foster deep and meaningful learning [22]. In the current study, the type of learner, the changing roles of teachers, real-life learning designed for value creation, and suitable pedagogical approaches to sustain meaningful learning, were the key elements focused on.
In traditional instructional modes of teaching, knowledge was ‘transmitted’ to learners [17, 23, 24], and they played a passive ‘receiving’ role. However, direct instruction does not involve the learner in the teaching-learning process and does not support as much learning and skills development as active, practical learning strategies [25]. More recent studies emphasize the role of learners as co-constructors of the teaching-learning process and highlight the utilization of learners’ personal or ‘real-life’ experiences to make learning more meaningful and practically applicable [6, 9, 12, 16, 23, 26]. Learners must be taught how to learn and to enjoy the process, as a foundation for their development as self-directed and life-long learners [27]. Including learners in the learning process using real-world connections increases learners’ engagement with their learning process and increases their motivation to learn [3].
The real world is, however, not static and continuously changes, impacting learners’ learning in various ways; therefore, changes need to be considered part of the learning environment. Changes are complex and happening rapidly; therefore, learners must be prepared to thrive in a world that demands a different approach to learning [2]. One example of change in the learning environment that has significantly impacted learners is the growth in digital and online resources and connectivity, which resulted in a “dependency culture on a range of electronic media… online communication, social media interaction and information searching” ([17], p. 198). Learners are now much more ‘digitally demanding’ and expect this to be addressed as part of their involvement in their teaching-learning processes [15, 26]. Technology supports skills development and enhances the transferability of skills such as problem-solving, critical thinking and communication to different contexts [27], making the learning more useful and meaningful.
Changes in the learning environment affecting learners are also affecting teachers, especially in how they approach the teach-learning process. If the development of a particular way of thinking (mindset) or specific 21st century skills is a priority, teachers cannot be mere instructors but must become active role players – not only as part of the teaching process but also in the learning process [22]. Teachers become guides or facilitators, and mentors in the learning process, moving away from the lecturer/teacher role [17] and become catalysts of learning [11]. Learner-centered teaching-learning approaches require learners to become more self-directed and collaborative in the learning process, but this does not diminish the teacher’s critical role in the process. Teachers must carefully plan and scaffold teaching-learning, including feedback as a multi-directional teaching-learning tool, rather than the traditional one-directional teacher-to-learner feedback [3, 10]. Teachers’ own prior learning, beliefs and experiences contribute to the teaching-learning process, resulting in a richer learning experience for both learners and teachers [10, 17]. These adaptations contribute to teachers’ continuous life-long learning, as they become deeply involved in the learning process and development of skills. Life-long learning is vital for teachers to enable them to adapt to constant changes in the learning environment, such as curriculum adaptations, technological advances, novel pedagogies or changes in societal values [2]. Continued interest and participation in professional development is therefore vital to contribute to teachers’ flexibility in adapting to changes [26], which will contribute to improving schooling.
Despite moving toward more skills-based, active and practical learner-centered teaching-learning, teachers still might face challenges regarding which content to teach, especially concerning entrepreneurship education [11]. It is reiterated that a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach for implementing the curriculum is seldomly effective, and therefore the various aspects – such as learners’ prior knowledge, teachers’ experiences, and the context in which learning takes place – must be carefully considered and intertwined to ensure optimal learning for particular group of learners [10, 24]. Learning should therefore not be removed from lived (‘real-life’) experiences, nor should it be only focused on the individual.
Learning experiences that are purposely designed to utilize real-life experiences and to create value for others result in “powerful [learning] that develops entrepreneurial self-efficacy, passion, identity and a personal career vision” ([16], p. 943). This type of learning strongly affects learners’ passion for learning, motivates them to continue to learn and increases their enjoyment of the learning process [16]. Exploring and understanding how various issues and factors impact learning will provide insights into how learning contexts could be designed to develop teaching and learning processes to meet the needs of learners to a greater extent [3].
Learning should be designed to reflect learners’ real-life contexts and experiences, to enable them to apply the knowledge and skills they have learned in their own lives, as well as to the benefit of those in their communities, which in turn intensifies their interest and motivation in the learning [27]. Creating value for others increases learners’ engagement in the learning process, as well as the “perceived meaningfulness of schoolwork” ([16], p. 953). To enable holistic education, learners’ family and community contexts, together with teachers and other educational role players, should be utilized to form partnerships to support schools as the core teaching-learning environment in any particular community [3]. In addition, opportunities should be created that will allow learners to apply their skills in different contexts and across different subject domains [17, 26] – in other words, learning should be designed to be transferable across contexts, or to novel situations [3]. Such transferability establishes a bridge between learners’ learning and their real-life experiences [28] to make it more functional. This would be especially valuable against the background of the high unemployment in many countries, to support learners when they have to develop entrepreneurial opportunities for self-employment and to foster a “personal career vision” ([16], p. 943) for themselves.
To enable the fostering of the preferred skills and competencies, together with the effective design and integration of all these elements of the teaching-learning process, the definitive consideration should be how teaching-learning should be approached to implement such learning with optimal benefit for the learners. For this, the selected teaching-learning approach or pedagogy would be decisive.
Different teaching-learning approaches are needed to enable the mindset and ways of thinking that learners will need in a fast-changing world. What is required is a pedagogical approach that is “dynamic, innovative, collaborative and learner-led” with “creativity at its core” ([17], p. 203). In the same vein, Saavedra and Opfer ([27], p. 8) frankly state that “Learning 21st century skills requires 21st century teaching”. It is further recommended that approaches are selected that will support active, learner-centered learning-by-doing, based on experiential problem-based learning experiences [3, 4, 10, 11, 12, 17, 21, 26].
Experiential learning pedagogies have a notable positive impact on learning [11, 23] through linking learning to the real-world or lived experiences of learners by solving ill-structured problems [12]. Including reflective practice on their experiences contributes to bridging the gap that often exists between theory and practice [16, 24]. Together with self-directed and peer-to-peer learning, this approach engenders learning even in “resource-constrained circumstances where the path is not clear and the rules are not well defined” ([4], p. 23), making learning more “malleable” ([17], p. 202), which contributes to the transferability of learned knowledge and skills [27]. Experiential learning is often used to foster lifelong learning and entrepreneurship education [9, 11, 21].
Problem-based learning is a well-planned and carefully scaffolded process in which skills development is prominent whilst contributing to the personal development of learners [17] as they identify and solve everyday problems [10]. The whole learning process is scaffolded around a central problem that guides and connects the learning and skills development in the process [25]. Project-based learning is also problem-based, utilizing the same scaffolding and processes, and both these approaches are closely aligned to the intended learning associated with entrepreneurship education [14]. Project-based learning shares several principles of problem-based learning. The main difference is that the solution to the problem in project-based learning is in the form of a system, product, or artifact [14]. Using real-world problems from learners’ everyday lives to plan and structure their knowledge and skills development will make such learning more meaningful. The physical product or artifact that is produced at the end of the learning process drives and motivates learners to excel in the learning process, since their solution might make an actual positive difference in their own lives, or create value for members of their community, when they solve or ameliorate the stated problem [16]. Projects can span over longer time intervals and be scaffolded to include developing knowledge, skills and competencies in combination with subject content in various disciplines [3]. Project-based learning can therefore contribute to make learning more meaningful and valuable on various levels.
The many benefits associated with project-based learning necessitates that this pedagogical approach must be implemented from an early age to enable the development of the preferred mindset and skills from the onset of formal schooling. Research increasingly indicates play-based learning as a suitable vehicle to make this happen as part of early education. Adding ‘play’ to ‘learning’ will also increase learners’ enjoyment of the learning process. Especially in early childhood education, play-based learning is described as a context for learning, which helps learners make sense of themselves in relation to their environment, objects around them, and social interactions [25]. Playful project-based learning utilizes active, learner-centered teaching-learning pedagogies using learning-trough-play and project-based learning as scaffolds to link learning to learners’ lived experiences and to “better prepare learners to thrive beyond school by deliberately fostering 21st century competencies” ([29], p. 4). Play-based learning requires learners’ deep involvement in active learning, during which they pretend, plan, collaborate, implement and adjust knowledge and skills for particular purposes [7]. Social, emotional, and cognitive skills can be scaffolded into the playful learning process, all of which contribute to motivation, active engagement, enjoyment and self-efficacy in learning [26, 28]. Skills development is pertinently embedded in such an approach to learning. Including some self-directed learning together with peer collaboration, in a safe environment that allows learning from mistakes, will additionally bolster development of these skills [7, 17].
Combining play-based learning with project-based learning supports the merging of meaningful learning with enjoyment of learning and optimal skills development, alluding to its potential to serve as a suitable pedagogy for entrepreneurship education. The question that remains, however, is: how can playful project-based learning contribute to ‘good’ entrepreneurship education? The next section endeavored to address this question.
From the introductory section of this chapter, it is clear that in many instances schools are not preparing learners to thrive in life and work after formal schooling. Schools are historically viewed as “a place in between the home and the street, a transition-place, where we are no longer at home but also not yet in the ‘real’ world” ([30], p. 1). In other words, schools are viewed as providers of learning with the intention to bridge the gap between learners’ home life and the real world ‘out there’, such as the world of economic production or employment. Schools provide a safe place where learners can practice applying their knowledge and skills, without it having to be perfect [30] and where they can learn from their mistakes [7, 22].
To attain these expansive objectives, the learning provided as part of schooling needs to be purposefully planned to contribute to meaningful or ‘good education’ (or, in the case of the current discussion, ‘good
Professor Gert Biesta has developed and widely published a systematic manner or framework for addressing ‘good education’ by distinguishing between three functions of education [31], which he refers to as ‘domains of purpose’ for good education [30, 32] in more recent publications. Biesta’s three domains of purpose, namely qualification, socialization and subjectification, each contributes to an understanding of what is valued in education, in other words, how ‘good’ the education is perceived to be as described in the subsequent paragraphs.
In simplest terms, the qualification function of education is making available (through ‘teaching’, transmission, or facilitation) knowledge, skills and understanding as part of learning [32]. The qualification domain of purpose is often (though not exclusively) linked to economic arguments, including the role that education plays in preparing learners for the world of work, which in turn contributes to a country’s economic development or growth [31]. What is prescribed to be taught can be viewed as being representative of what learning is being valued or “considered to be of value” ([32], p. 92). If, for example, the qualification purpose of education is misaligned with the needs of employers, it results in issues such as the skills gap that employers often report between learners’ school education and what they actually need to thrive in the world of work [8, 31].
The socialization function of education supports learners in becoming “members of and part of particular social, cultural and political ‘orders’” ([31], p. 40). The socialization domain of purpose therefore helps learners to find ‘their place in this world’ when particular norms and values – related to cultural or religious traditions – are learned. This type of learning can happen explicitly as part of the intended curriculum, or implicitly as part of the hidden curriculum [32], which may result in both desirable and undesirable learning [31].
Subjectification – sometimes referred to as ‘individuation’ [31, 32] – serves a purpose opposite to that of socialization [31]. Rather than socializing a learner into a particular group or ‘order’, the subjectification function of education is the process through which a learner becomes an individual subject. It refers to how an individual exists as the subject of his/her own life, and not (only) as the object of what other people want from them [32]. Education always impacts individual learners, and education as subjectification could be “described as encouraging an “appetite” for trying to live one’s life in the world” ([32], p. 97). Subjectification is not the same as ‘identity’ (which answers the question ‘who am I?’), but rather about “how I exist, how I try to lead my life, how I try respond to and engage with what I encounter in my life” ([32], p. 99). It relates to the educational purpose of what a learner will choose to “do” with his/her identity, as well as with the education they have received [32]. Subjectification allows learners to understand their “existence in and with the world, rather than [their] own personal or subjective opinions, thoughts, and beliefs” ([32], p. 99).
According to Biesta, “good education should therefore always specify its views about qualification, socialization and subjectification” ([31], p. 41). This is also true for ‘good’ entrepreneurship education that is theoretically sound.
The theoretical foundations provided by Biesta’s three functions of education were subsequently used as an analytical framework to develop a shared understanding of what ‘good’ entrepreneurship education ought to be, as a starting point. These conceptualizations or considerations are based on the themes that emerged from the literature study for elements to include when implementing entrepreneurship education, as well as bearing in mind that current schooling is often not preparing learners to thrive in the 21st century, resulting in skills gaps and high youth unemployment. It is intended to clarify what ‘good’ entrepreneurship education ought to be. To provide an at-a-glance overview the conceptualization of ‘good’ entrepreneurship education as framed within the descriptions of Biesta’s three domains of purpose [30, 31, 32] is presented in Table 1. In the table, the term ‘others’ refers to individuals or groups of individuals that contribute to learners’ socialization, which includes family, community members, religious groups, political groups, culture and more.
Qualification | Socialization | Subjectification | |
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Competencies and skills required for a meaningful life in the 21st century | develop knowledge, 21st-century skills and competencies for entrepreneurship | understand how others view entrepreneurship, to enable amelioration of undesirable learning/negative impact in hidden curriculum | develop the learner as an individual functioning in a complex and changing world, fostering entrepreneurial aspirations |
Developing an entrepreneurial mindset | understand the broader value of entrepreneurship education and develop new ways of thinking | understand how own mindset differs from or aligns with how others view entrepreneurship | learners actively choose to develop a positive entrepreneurial mindset |
Self-directed employment | learn how to apply entrepreneurship knowledge, skills and competencies to create employment opportunities | develop and foster connections with others, based on shared values, to recognize and utilize opportunities in communities | become self-active to seek and create own employment opportunities |
Life-long learning | develop a love for learning and recognition of the need to keep on learning | share learning experiences with others and learn from others’ experiences | actively choose to implement self-directed learning principles to keep on learning |
The type of learner | make learning more meaningful, enjoyable; adaptable to change; digitally supported | understand how learners’ context and socio-cultural background impact their perceptions of entrepreneurship education | become co-constructors of learning, active participants in the process, choose to be more self-directed |
Real-life learning for value creation | utilize learners’ ‘real-life’ contexts and experiences to enable application and transfer of learning: to benefit themselves, as well as others | develop partnerships with communities: identify problems to be solved, utilize local knowledge, values and resources | choose to develop self-efficacy, passion, entrepreneurial identity and a personal career vision |
Pedagogical approaches | creative, dynamic, innovative, collaborative and learner-centered; experiential problem−/project-based learning | structure learning around exploring and solving ill-structured problems relevant to or in learners’ communities | make connections to make learning more meaningful to the self, choose how this learning will be used in own future |
Conceptualizing ‘good’ entrepreneurship education.
In the broadest terms, the conceptualizations in Table 1 firstly provide insights into the qualification purpose of ‘good’ entrepreneurship education, that is: which content (knowledge, skills and competencies) needs to be included, as well as how it should be facilitated, to be valuable for learners and to address the reported skills gap, as well as to ameliorate unemployment. Secondly, Table 1 provides insights into the socialization purpose of ‘good’ entrepreneurship education, in other words, how learning should be constructed to contribute to learners’ development as members of a particular society or in a particular social context. These conceptualizations mainly point out that an understanding of the entrepreneurial mindset of the community (the ‘others’) contributes to how entrepreneurship education should be approached, they emphasize the need to involve others in the learning process, and that entrepreneurship education should create value for learners as well as for others. Thirdly, Table 1 provides insights into the individuation or subjectification purpose of ‘good’ entrepreneurship education, specifically how learners can actively make choices to become more entrepreneurial during the learning process, or regarding what they want to do with the entrepreneurship education they receive. ‘Good’ entrepreneurship education will contribute to positive changes in learners’ perceptions of entrepreneurship and foster intrinsic learning [10].
The conceptualizations for ‘good’ entrepreneurship education in Table 1 align well with Biesta’s description of ‘good education’ that requires that “they learn
The ‘someone’ in this description refers to learning from others as part of the socialization function of education (Table 1), but it also includes learning from teachers, which takes place across all three domains of purpose of education. It can therefore be said that the ‘good’ entrepreneurship education described in Table 1 will be complemented by an additional ‘element’ which emerged from the literature study, namely the changing roles of teachers.
The descriptions in Table 1 focus on the construction of entrepreneurship education as a process for learners, therefore the roles of teachers – as facilitators of the learning process – are presented separately. Teacher education is viewed as preparation for teaching, and therefore not always perfectly aligned to what transpires in practice in their classrooms. It is, however, vital that teachers be suitably prepared to enable them to facilitate ‘good’ entrepreneurship education, and therefore their changing roles need to be considered [2, 3, 10, 26]. Analysis of the changing roles of teachers through the same framework Biesta [30, 32, 33], contributed to insights and conceptualization how their roles can contribute to ‘good’ entrepreneurship education. As part of the socialization purpose, teachers must invite and value input and contributions from others, for example successful entrepreneurs, community members, or elders, who have knowledge of and experience in entrepreneurship. This approach will broaden the learning experience to include more real-life learning, adding to the value and meaningfulness of such entrepreneurship education. As part of the subjectification purpose of ‘good’ entrepreneurship education, in which they serve as guides to support learners in to make informed choices, to adapt to change (including learning from mistakes), to choose to become more self-directed and to develop learners’ aspirations for continued (or life-long) learning [3, 7, 11, 26]. Finally, teachers contribute significantly to the qualification purpose, which indicates that they must become active facilitators, catalysts and scaffolders of learning, rather than merely transmitting knowledge [11, 17, 22]. These roles in turn highlight the important pedagogical choices teachers have to make to contribute to the effectiveness of their implementation of entrepreneurship education, to optimally benefit their learners.
The above conceptualizations provide insights and theoretical foundations for constructing ‘good’ entrepreneurship education, which brings us to the final part of the research question that guided this investigation, namely: “how can the pedagogy of playful project-based learning bolster ‘good’ entrepreneurship education?”
“Play exemplifies one of the highest forms of experiential learning” [34]. Despite the perceived dichotomy, which often situates play as the “antithesis of work” ([35], p. 53), research on the contributions of play to learning is mounting. Play therefore provides opportunities for a different type of learning than what was traditionally associated with ‘schoolwork’. In broadest terms, play can contribute to experiential learning in three ways: (1) by supporting learners to take charge of their own learning, in line with their own standards of learning; (2) both as part of the process of learning (and the experience thereof) and the outcome of the learning; and (3) through repetitious cycles of learning, which contributes to deepening the learning in each cycle [34]. Play has therefore developed from being viewed as a “reward for completing academic work [to] a context in which academic work unfolds” ([35], p. 69). Although play pedagogy is mostly associated with free play, different types of play are used for learning and involves different role-players. Play-based pedagogies expressly include teacher involvement at varying levels [35]. Depending on the extent of the teacher’s involvement in play-as-learning, it can become a well-planned, structured learning experience, which contributes to academic learning and skills development [35, 36].
The educational benefits of play are frequently categorized as being either developmental (such as self-regulation, social- and emotional skills development), or academic (such as numeracy and literacy) [35]. However, increasingly, the essential relationship between play as teaching-learning strategy and entrepreneurship education, is being reported [36, 37, 38, 39]. Play-based teaching-learning strategies develop entrepreneurial knowledge, as well as several of the skills and entrepreneurial characteristics required of learners to thrive in the 21st century. Some of these include problem-solving strategies, imagination, language- or communication skills, co-operation - or teamwork skills, money- or financial management, taking calculated risks, and being future-orientated [36, 37, 38, 39, 40]. To enable this education, problem- and project-based learning is often utilized to promote or facilitate playful learning [3, 16, 25, 29]. In addition to developing meaningful, active, engaging and socially interactive learning [25], play-based education contributes a ‘fun’ element, making learning more enjoyable [25, 37].
Furthermore, although play-based pedagogies are most frequently utilized in early education (that is, education for younger learners) [29, 36, 37, 38], it is increasingly being used in adult education – for example in teacher education [41], and even for retirees [38]. Still, it is reiterated that exposing learners to entrepreneurship education early can “lead to an enormous change of mind to building a healthy adolescent” ([36], p. 64), underscoring the constructivist and expansive positive potential of such learning.
A few examples of well-developed playful project-based learning as pedagogy for entrepreneurship education have already been reported from diverse countries such as Australia [25], Canada [35], Indonesia [37], Morocco [38] and Pakistan [36]. All five these studies were focused on play-based learning as part of early childhood (pre-school) education. Additionally, a brief overview of the types of play utilized, types of approaches used, and the reported effects of play-based learning on the development of learners in each country is set out in Table 2.
Types of play utilized | Types of approaches used | Reported effects of PPBL on development of learners | |
---|---|---|---|
Australia | learning through play; integrated pedagogies (child-directed activities with intentional educator facilitation) | active learning, cooperative and collaborative learning, experiential learning, guided discovery learning, inquiry-based learning, project - and problem-based learning, and Montessori education | development of learners’ cognitive skills; creative skills; emotional skills; physical skills; social skills; learning becomes more meaningful and joyful; learners iteratively and actively involved in socially interactive learning; adding learner choice and voice to the learning process [25] |
Canada | free play; teacher-guided play | play-based learning | offers a meaningful context for children’s academic learning; promotes children’s exploration and discovery; enabling the development of higher-level thinking skills through inquiry processes [35] |
Indonesia | traditional games | playful games to develop entrepreneurship education | the games and the instructions developed and improved learners’ entrepreneurial spirit; enriched personal characteristics relevant to the improvement of learners’ entrepreneurship characteristics; fosters commitment toward entrepreneurship [37] |
Morocco | serious games | Montessori approach | allows learner independence while acquiring manual and communication skills; develops imagination, a positive attitude and skills; increases enjoyment of learning; promotes entrepreneurial thoughts [38] |
Pakistan | free play activities; role play; playing games | ‘play strategies’ | improved social behaviors; collaboration, exploration, problem-solving, decision-making, and innovation, positive social habits; development of entrepreneurship skills and –spirit [36] |
Comparative analysis of studies reporting playful project-based learning.
Another descriptive example emerged from Mexico, where learners create “new minicompanies through playful activities” and use multiple perspectives (“economic and social factors and the needs and capabilities of their community”) to analyze business projects ([40], p. 295). In addition, the playful project-based learning from Mexico is reported to develop learners’ knowledge about creating and managing small businesses; creating value for others; as well as learning about financial administration [40]. This example reflects education
Other studies exploring playful project-based learning as pedagogy for entrepreneurship education are on-going, for example, in South Africa the Department of Basic Education intends to implement playful project-based learning across all subjects and into all different school phases of the current school curriculum [29, 42]. This plan (like many others across the globe) is still being developed and is in its early stages of implementation, underscoring the need to continue investigations into the suitability of playful project-based learning as pedagogy for entrepreneurship education, and how this can be bolstered.
To contribute to this growing body of knowledge, the conceptualizations developed for constructing ‘good’ entrepreneurship education earlier in this chapter, theoretically underpinned by Biesta’s three functions of education (qualification, socialization and subjectification), were used to contribute insights into how the pedagogy of playful project-based learning can bolster ‘good’ entrepreneurship education (Table 3).
Qualification | Socialization | Subjectification | |
---|---|---|---|
‘Good’ entrepreneurship education | develops entrepreneurship knowledge, 21st-century skills and - competencies, using active teaching-learning strategies, to create value and meaningful learning for life and work | teach learners to contribute value as members of a particular society, consider others’ entrepreneurial mindset, as well as their potential to contribute to entrepreneurial learning | guide learners to make informed choices regarding becoming more entrepreneurial, foster positive perceptions of entrepreneurship and life-long learning, including self-directed employment |
Playful project-based learning | develops knowledge, 21st-century skills and - competencies, using active, engaging, experiential teaching-learning strategies | social interaction is encouraged, especially with peers and teachers; values developed, especially as part of early childhood learning | amplifies motivation, enjoyment, self-efficacy and self-regulation in learning; |
Contrasting playful project-based education and ‘good’ entrepreneurship education.
The comparison in Table 3 indicates that the pedagogy of playful project-based learning holds considerable potential to positively contribute to ‘good’ entrepreneurship education. As part of the qualification function of education, playful project-based learning can (and does) contribute to the development of knowledge, skills and competencies for the 21st century, and these can be modified to explicitly relate to entrepreneurship education [36, 37, 38, 39, 40]. Both share the requirement for active, real-life teaching-learning approaches to enhance its implementation in practice [36, 37, 38, 39]. What is not yet apparent in the pedagogy of playful project-based learning, is the purpose of value creation (for learners themselves, as well as for others). ‘Good’ entrepreneurship education additionally includes a strong purpose of preparing learners for the world of work, which is not generally emphasized in playful project-based learning [36]. As playful project-based learning pedagogies are primarily used for the education of young(er) learners, the world of work might seem a long way off, reducing the need to make this a key purpose in play-based teaching-learning.
The socialization function for ‘good’ entrepreneurship education and playful project-based learning are divergent. In entrepreneurship education, the socialization function emphasizes consideration and the impact of others’ values and norms on the learners’ development [3], whereas in playful project-based learning the focus is on socialization with others to develop the learners’ own values [25, 35]. Again, this might be attributed to the fact that playful project-based learning is more frequently utilized for younger learners, who are still developing these qualities.
With reference to the subjectification (or individuation) purpose of ‘good’ entrepreneurship education, there are some consistencies and some inconsistencies. Both contribute to a positive learning experience and both contribute to developing the learner’s ‘self’ [6, 9, 25, 34, 36, 43]. Entrepreneurship education is, however, more focused on development of the learner for the (more distant) future, that is, life after school and the world of work, including self-directedness and making informed choices [7, 11]. Playful project-based learning pedagogy, on the other hand, has a more immediate purpose, for the (present) development of learners’ identity, enjoyment of learning, self-efficacy and self-regulation [25, 34, 35]. Yet again, this might be attributed to the fact that playful project-based learning is more frequently utilized for younger learners, who need to develop qualities such as self-efficacy and self-regulation, before they can advance to more complex cognitive and affective decision-making processes, such as making informed choices for their futures, or choosing to become more self-directed.
Notwithstanding these few minor differences, when playful project-based learning is selected as pedagogy for entrepreneurship education, with a few minor adaptations, it can align exceedingly well with the requirements that frame ‘good’ entrepreneurship education. This pedagogical approach will bolster the effectiveness of the implementation of entrepreneurship education, which in turn will contribute to more meaningful, enjoyable and valuable learning for learners. When more learners actively choose to self-directedly develop their own employment, the high unemployment levels will be ameliorated. Even if learners do not ‘become entrepreneurs’, the skills and competencies which they develop as a result of ‘good’ entrepreneurship education will contribute to reducing the reported skills gap which currently exist between schooling and employers, making these learners more employable and bringing them closer to a better life in the 21st century.
The three ‘domains of purpose of education’ developed by Biesta provided a relevant framework for exploring the theoretical underpinnings of ‘good’ entrepreneurship education. More detailed insights with regard to the qualification, socialization and subjectification purposes of what ‘good’ entrepreneurship education ought to entail, could be conceptualized. Playful project-based learning pedagogy can align exceedingly well with the requirements that frame ‘good’ entrepreneurship education and can be adapted through small adjustments to increase this alignment and its suitability to bolster this valuable education.
This study’s comparative overview highlights that there is a need to continue to explore and investigate playful project-based pedagogy for ‘good’ entrepreneurship education. Playful project-based learning holds much potential to contribute positively to the development and expansion of ‘good’ entrepreneurship education, especially for young(er) learners. However, particularly when play-based learning is intended for older (more developed or ‘mature’ learners), careful consideration should be given to better align the socialization and subjectification functions of this pedagogy to the requirements of ‘good’ entrepreneurship education.
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In that a vaccine is a pharmaceutical product, vaccine development and production are costly and it takes years for this to be accomplished. Several approaches have been applied to reduce the times and costs of vaccine development, mainly focusing on the selection of appropriate antigens or antigenic structures, carriers, and adjuvants. One of these approaches is the incorporation of bioinformatics methods and analyses into vaccine development. This chapter provides an overview of the application of bioinformatics strategies in vaccine design and development, supplying some successful examples of vaccines in which bioinformatics has furnished a cutting edge in their development. Reverse vaccinology, immunoinformatics, and structural vaccinology are described and addressed in the design and development of specific vaccines against infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites. These include some emerging or re‐emerging infectious diseases, as well as therapeutic vaccines to fight cancer, allergies, and substance abuse, which have been facilitated and improved by using bioinformatics tools or which are under development based on bioinformatics strategies.",book:{id:"5892",slug:"vaccines",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines"},signatures:"Ribas‐Aparicio Rosa María, Castelán‐Vega Juan Arturo, Jiménez‐\nAlberto Alicia, Monterrubio‐López Gloria Paulina and Aparicio‐\nOzores Gerardo",authors:[{id:"193147",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Ribas-Aparicio",slug:"rosa-maria-ribas-aparicio",fullName:"Rosa María Ribas-Aparicio"},{id:"201116",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Castelán-Vega",slug:"juan-arturo-castelan-vega",fullName:"Juan Arturo Castelán-Vega"},{id:"201117",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"Jiménez-Alberto",slug:"alicia-jimenez-alberto",fullName:"Alicia Jiménez-Alberto"},{id:"201118",title:"Dr.",name:"Gloria Paulina",middleName:null,surname:"Monterrubio-López",slug:"gloria-paulina-monterrubio-lopez",fullName:"Gloria Paulina Monterrubio-López"},{id:"201119",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Aparicio-Ozores",slug:"gerardo-aparicio-ozores",fullName:"Gerardo Aparicio-Ozores"}]},{id:"65813",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84626",title:"Vaccine Types",slug:"vaccine-types",totalDownloads:1603,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"There are several different types of vaccines. Each type is designed to teach your immune system how to fight off certain kinds of germs and the serious diseases they cause. There are four main types of vaccines: live attenuated vaccines; inactivated vaccines; subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines; and toxoid vaccines.",book:{id:"8079",slug:"vaccines-the-history-and-future",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines - the History and Future"},signatures:"Xiaoxia Dai, Yongmin Xiong, Na Li and Can Jian",authors:[{id:"276337",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaoxia",middleName:null,surname:"Dai",slug:"xiaoxia-dai",fullName:"Xiaoxia Dai"},{id:"290421",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongmin",middleName:null,surname:"Xiong",slug:"yongmin-xiong",fullName:"Yongmin Xiong"},{id:"290422",title:"Dr.",name:"Na",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"na-li",fullName:"Na Li"},{id:"290424",title:"Dr.",name:"Can",middleName:null,surname:"Jian",slug:"can-jian",fullName:"Can Jian"}]},{id:"55860",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69547",title:"Biotechnologies Applied in Biomedical Vaccines",slug:"biotechnologies-applied-in-biomedical-vaccines",totalDownloads:3147,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Vaccination, the administration of an antigenic material (vaccine), is considered to be the most effective method for disease prevention and control. A vaccine usually contains an agent that resembles a diseases‐causing pathogen and is often made from inactivated microbes, live attenuated microbes, its toxins, or part of surface antigens (subunit). However, the modern biotechnological tools and genomics have opened a new era to develop novel vaccines and many products are successfully marketing around the world. It is important to formulate and deliver these vaccines appropriately to maximize the potential advances in prevention, therapy, and vaccinology. New vaccines employing biotechnological innovations are helping us to change the way for illness prevention. The clinical application of vaccines will be diversified along with the development of biotechnologies. In modern society, the outbreak of many infectious diseases has decreased through vaccination, but the burden of noninfectious diseases is growing. The new biotechnologies may result in not only the appreciation of vaccines which are critical in inducing protection against an infectious disease but also the production of therapeutic vaccines which are effective for alldiseases including infectious and noninfectious diseases.",book:{id:"5892",slug:"vaccines",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines"},signatures:"Yuan‐Chuan Chen, Hwei‐Fang Cheng, Yi‐Chen Yang and Ming‐\nKung Yeh",authors:[{id:"180299",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming-Kung",middleName:null,surname:"Yeh",slug:"ming-kung-yeh",fullName:"Ming-Kung Yeh"},{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"},{id:"185560",title:"Dr.",name:"Hwei-Fang",middleName:null,surname:"Cheng",slug:"hwei-fang-cheng",fullName:"Hwei-Fang Cheng"},{id:"185561",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"yi-chen-yang",fullName:"Yi-Chen Yang"}]},{id:"55384",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68890",title:"Cocoon Strategy of Vaccinations: Benefits and Limitations",slug:"cocoon-strategy-of-vaccinations-benefits-and-limitations",totalDownloads:1638,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"A cocoon vaccination strategy refers to vaccinations in persons from the immediate environment of those patients who might develop an illness (they are susceptible to illnesses) but cannot be vaccinated due to permanent or temporary medical contraindications to a vaccination (e.g. immunosuppressed patients) or are too young to have a vaccination. Most frequently, a cocoon vaccination strategy is associated with vaccinations in adults aimed at preventing the spread of an illness in children (e.g. pertussis vaccination or influenza vaccination), but it is worth considering whether this strategy should not be understood also as vaccinations in children with the view of protecting adults and the elderly against illnesses (e.g. influenza or pneumococcal diseases). The aim of the cocoon strategy is to minimize the risk of the transmission of pathogens in the environment of a patient who is susceptible to an infection. A vaccinated patient is not a source of infection any more for a non-vaccinated patient. The chapter presents a history, current implementation of the strategy in different countries, its benefits and limitations.",book:{id:"5892",slug:"vaccines",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines"},signatures:"Aneta Nitsch-Osuch",authors:[{id:"199131",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Nitsch-Osuch",slug:"aneta-nitsch-osuch",fullName:"Aneta Nitsch-Osuch"}]},{id:"77035",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98378",title:"Introduction on Monoclonal Antibodies",slug:"introduction-on-monoclonal-antibodies",totalDownloads:755,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are a group of antibodies produced by identical clones of B lymphocytes against a particular antigen. mAbs are identical in several properties such as protein sequence, antigen-binding site region, binding affinity for their targets, and identical downstream functional effects. These characteristics of mAbs highlight their differences with the polyclonal antibodies which have heterogenous activities and recognize different epitopes on an antigen. Murine mAbs was the first generation of mAbs developed by hybridoma technology however, because of their murine origin, they can trigger the anti-mouse antibody response in the host which could accelerate mAb clearance and undesirable allergic reactions upon repeated administration. This issue was resolved by developing engineering methods toward producing less immunologic chimeric or humanized antibodies. mAbs applications have become a novel way of targeting antigens in a wide variety of diseases such as autoimmunity, malignancies, and asthma. In addition, high specificity and high affinity binding properties of mAbs make them effective biological reagents in immunodiagnostic assays. They can be used in diagnosis of infectious diseases and detection of certain antigens or in serological assessments for detection of antibodies against a certain antigen. This chapter summarizes the general properties of mAbs, their production processes, and their important diagnostic and therapeutic applications.",book:{id:"8043",slug:"monoclonal-antibodies",title:"Monoclonal Antibodies",fullTitle:"Monoclonal Antibodies"},signatures:"Mona Sadeghalvad and Nima Rezaei",authors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei"},{id:"353771",title:null,name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"Sadeghalvad",slug:"mona-sadeghalvad",fullName:"Mona Sadeghalvad"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66363",title:"GMO Regulatory Aspects of Novel Investigational Vaccine Candidates",slug:"gmo-regulatory-aspects-of-novel-investigational-vaccine-candidates",totalDownloads:1861,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Recent scientific and technical developments create novel opportunities for vaccine development. Regulatory compliance has to be ensured from preclinical research to market authorization, whereby different legal frameworks that go beyond quality, efficacy or patient safety aspects need to be taken into account. As academia and start-ups are often focused on gathering scientific evidence, the regulatory maze is often regarded by applicants as challenging in the overall pathway to clinical translation. This is particularly true for applications concerning vaccine candidates containing or consisting of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Active communication between applicants and competent authorities or advisory bodies early in the development stages facilitates a correct implementation of the regulatory frameworks and is of utmost importance to identify challenges or hurdles in order to avoid unnecessary delay in scientific review. Based on the state-of-play in Belgium, this chapter discusses examples of regulatory journeys of applications with genetically modified viral vectors and novel vaccine candidates that have been reviewed by GMO national competent authorities in Belgium and in Europe. They highlight the need of having a comprehensive view of global perspectives early in the development to facilitate the translation of research to clinical development or even market authorization.",book:{id:"8079",slug:"vaccines-the-history-and-future",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines - the History and Future"},signatures:"Amaya Leunda and Katia Pauwels",authors:[{id:"281429",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Amaya",middleName:null,surname:"Leunda",slug:"amaya-leunda",fullName:"Amaya Leunda"},{id:"281703",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:null,surname:"Pauwels",slug:"katia-pauwels",fullName:"Katia Pauwels"}]},{id:"55860",title:"Biotechnologies Applied in Biomedical Vaccines",slug:"biotechnologies-applied-in-biomedical-vaccines",totalDownloads:3142,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Vaccination, the administration of an antigenic material (vaccine), is considered to be the most effective method for disease prevention and control. A vaccine usually contains an agent that resembles a diseases‐causing pathogen and is often made from inactivated microbes, live attenuated microbes, its toxins, or part of surface antigens (subunit). However, the modern biotechnological tools and genomics have opened a new era to develop novel vaccines and many products are successfully marketing around the world. It is important to formulate and deliver these vaccines appropriately to maximize the potential advances in prevention, therapy, and vaccinology. New vaccines employing biotechnological innovations are helping us to change the way for illness prevention. The clinical application of vaccines will be diversified along with the development of biotechnologies. In modern society, the outbreak of many infectious diseases has decreased through vaccination, but the burden of noninfectious diseases is growing. The new biotechnologies may result in not only the appreciation of vaccines which are critical in inducing protection against an infectious disease but also the production of therapeutic vaccines which are effective for alldiseases including infectious and noninfectious diseases.",book:{id:"5892",slug:"vaccines",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines"},signatures:"Yuan‐Chuan Chen, Hwei‐Fang Cheng, Yi‐Chen Yang and Ming‐\nKung Yeh",authors:[{id:"180299",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming-Kung",middleName:null,surname:"Yeh",slug:"ming-kung-yeh",fullName:"Ming-Kung Yeh"},{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"},{id:"185560",title:"Dr.",name:"Hwei-Fang",middleName:null,surname:"Cheng",slug:"hwei-fang-cheng",fullName:"Hwei-Fang Cheng"},{id:"185561",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"yi-chen-yang",fullName:"Yi-Chen Yang"}]},{id:"77035",title:"Introduction on Monoclonal Antibodies",slug:"introduction-on-monoclonal-antibodies",totalDownloads:753,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are a group of antibodies produced by identical clones of B lymphocytes against a particular antigen. mAbs are identical in several properties such as protein sequence, antigen-binding site region, binding affinity for their targets, and identical downstream functional effects. These characteristics of mAbs highlight their differences with the polyclonal antibodies which have heterogenous activities and recognize different epitopes on an antigen. Murine mAbs was the first generation of mAbs developed by hybridoma technology however, because of their murine origin, they can trigger the anti-mouse antibody response in the host which could accelerate mAb clearance and undesirable allergic reactions upon repeated administration. This issue was resolved by developing engineering methods toward producing less immunologic chimeric or humanized antibodies. mAbs applications have become a novel way of targeting antigens in a wide variety of diseases such as autoimmunity, malignancies, and asthma. In addition, high specificity and high affinity binding properties of mAbs make them effective biological reagents in immunodiagnostic assays. They can be used in diagnosis of infectious diseases and detection of certain antigens or in serological assessments for detection of antibodies against a certain antigen. This chapter summarizes the general properties of mAbs, their production processes, and their important diagnostic and therapeutic applications.",book:{id:"8043",slug:"monoclonal-antibodies",title:"Monoclonal Antibodies",fullTitle:"Monoclonal Antibodies"},signatures:"Mona Sadeghalvad and Nima Rezaei",authors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei"},{id:"353771",title:null,name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"Sadeghalvad",slug:"mona-sadeghalvad",fullName:"Mona Sadeghalvad"}]},{id:"65813",title:"Vaccine Types",slug:"vaccine-types",totalDownloads:1600,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"There are several different types of vaccines. Each type is designed to teach your immune system how to fight off certain kinds of germs and the serious diseases they cause. There are four main types of vaccines: live attenuated vaccines; inactivated vaccines; subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines; and toxoid vaccines.",book:{id:"8079",slug:"vaccines-the-history-and-future",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines - the History and Future"},signatures:"Xiaoxia Dai, Yongmin Xiong, Na Li and Can Jian",authors:[{id:"276337",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaoxia",middleName:null,surname:"Dai",slug:"xiaoxia-dai",fullName:"Xiaoxia Dai"},{id:"290421",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongmin",middleName:null,surname:"Xiong",slug:"yongmin-xiong",fullName:"Yongmin Xiong"},{id:"290422",title:"Dr.",name:"Na",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"na-li",fullName:"Na Li"},{id:"290424",title:"Dr.",name:"Can",middleName:null,surname:"Jian",slug:"can-jian",fullName:"Can Jian"}]},{id:"67063",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Journey of Vaccines - The Past and the Present",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-journey-of-vaccines-the-past-and-the-present",totalDownloads:1094,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"8079",slug:"vaccines-the-history-and-future",title:"Vaccines",fullTitle:"Vaccines - the History and Future"},signatures:"Kumar Vijay",authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"147",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:319,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:37,paginationItems:[{id:"82291",title:"The Role of Oxidative Stress in the Onset and Development of Age-Related Macular Degeneration",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105599",signatures:"Emina Čolak, Lepša Žorić, Miloš Mirković, Jana Mirković, Ilija Dragojević, Dijana Mirić, Bojana Kisić and Ljubinka Nikolić",slug:"the-role-of-oxidative-stress-in-the-onset-and-development-of-age-related-macular-degeneration",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:319,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/43642",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"43642"},fullPath:"/chapters/43642",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()