1. Introduction
Down syndrome (DS) is the most common congenital disorder in children, affecting one in 800 live births. While the large number of contiguous genes from a trisomy of chromosome 21 (HSA21) is expected to broadly affect various organ systems during development, significant advances in medicine have been made in this disorder such that those with DS live fairly long life spans. Individuals with DS, however, uniformly demonstrate some degree of mental retardation. Arguably, cognitive disabilities are the more devastating aspect of DS disorder. Part of the cognitive dysfunction lies not only in the progressive neuronal degeneration/cell death and impaired neurogenesis seen in this developmental and degenerative disorder, but also in the reduction in dendrite formation and spine density, resulting in a disruption of synaptic function. These neurological endophenotypes seen in DS may not be merely due to genomic imbalance from triplication of HSA21 genes, but also to additive influences on associated genes within a given network or pathway and modification of gene expressions caused by epigenetic factors including DNA methylation.
Epigenetic factors regulate gene expression largely through DNA modification. Histones are alkaline proteins that package and order DNA into structural nucleosomes. Acetylation and deacetylation, as well as methylation, of histones can modify the density of chromatin and thereby regulate gene transcription through chromatin remodeling. In a parallel manner, biochemical modification of DNA can occur through DNA methylation. This process involves the addition of a methyl group to the 5 position of the cytosine pyrimidine ring or the number 6 nitrogen of the adenine purine ring. DNA methylation at the 5 position of cytosine has the specific effect of reducing gene expression by physically impeding the binding of transcriptional proteins to the gene itself, or by recruiting protein complexes including methyl-CpG-binding domain proteins (MBDs), histone deacetylases (HDACs) and other chromatin remodeling proteins. Furthermore, environmental factors such as chemical toxins or oxidative stress can accumulate over time and effect gene transcription. Collectively, these processes modify DNA transcription and may affect many neurodevelopmental processes.
Recent advances in high throughput screening of both mRNA expression and DNA methylation have provided a means to examine changes in gene activation and expression, and to understand the integral relationship between gene clusters in effecting particular pathways. The following review begins by exploring the potential contribution of both genetic and epigenetic factors in regulation of various DS endophenotypes. More specifically, our prior work has examined changes in DS neural progenitor mRNA expression and has led us to identify several important pathways affected in this disorder, such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and gliogenesis. Ongoing studies suggest that changes in DNA methylation in DS may have an effect on oxidative phosphorylation, ubiquitin proteolysis and insulin signaling. The confirmation of mRNA and DNA methylation changes and the clarification of these possible causal pathways may have implications for impaired synaptic function and neurogenesis, which contribute to the cognitive impairment seen in DS. These ongoing studies may further provide informative targets for early pharmaceutical interference to ameliorate the symptoms of mental retardation (MR) in DS.
2. Genetic mechanisms underlying the DS phenotype
The triplication of genes on HSA21 causes a wide spectrum of neurological phenotypes in DS, including mental retardation. DS individual displays not only delayed linguistic skills and a relatively low IQ (Intelligent Quotient) but also behavioral issues such as attention-deficit disorder (sometimes with hyperactivity) and autism [1-5]. The cognitive impairments extend further after development, as individuals with DS are more prone to develop Alzheimer’s type dementia [6]. In addition, individuals with DS are susceptible to epilepsy in the form of infantile spasms and tonic clonic seizures with myoclonus at early ages [7-9]. These pathological abnormalities in humans are, in part, replicated in DS animal models which show defects in learning, social interactions, memory, and seizures [10-14].
Several genes on HSA21 are implicated in the abnormal neurodevelopment in DS [15]. They can affect cellular function at every stage of neural development, such as proliferation and differentiation of neuroprogenitor cells, neuronal survival and death, synapse formation, maturation and plasticity, as well as myelination. Disruption of each of these pathways can conceptually contribute to the MR seen in DS. Moreover, HSA21 genes have global effects on other genes; a meta-analysis of heterogeneous DS data identified 324 genes with consistent dosage effects, 77 on HSA21 and 247 on non-HSA21 [16]. Therefore, the over-expression of a not so small group of genes on HSA21 may initiate cascades of other signaling pathways on other chromosomes thorough an interactive network. The combinatorial effects from activation of these processes may further contribute to the impairments seen during neurodevelopment in DS.
2.1. Genetic mechanisms underlying oxidative stress in DS
Increased levels of oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species (ROS) have commonly been associated with the DS brain. Free radicals are thought to disrupt the mitochondrial respiratory system, induce apoptosis of neurons and stimulate gliosis, which can further promote neuronal damage. This cyclical pathway may contribute to neuronal losses during neurogenesis as well as neuronal degeneration in adulthood. Several HSA21 genes have been implicated in generation of ROS including
Although oxidative stress in DS patients is considered to be a primary contributor of neurodegeneration such as Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) in adult patients, evidences from both human and animal models suggest that these same processes could also affect neurodevelopment and cognitive function at a much earlier age [19, 21-23]. Oxidative stress could therefore not only alter neuronal numbers through degeneration and changes in synaptic plasticity through impaired mitochondrial function, but also affect the generation of neurons during development. In this respect, ongoing effects from over-expression of HSA21 genes likely promote the cognitive dysfunction in DS throughout the lifetime of an individual with this disorder.
2.2. Genetics mechanisms underlying neurogenesis in DS
The observation of reduced cortical volume and decreased neuronal numbers in DS patients and animal models could in part be attributed to a reduction in the generation of neurons [24-27]. Over-expression of several HSA21 genes has been implicated in neurogenesis by either altering the rate or proliferation or by changing cell fate specification. By over-expressing HSA21-associated OLIG2, we observed a phenotypic shift in the neural progenitor pool toward glial progenitor phenotypes, accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the number of neuronal progenitors. This change can partly be explained by OLIG2-dependent inhibition of the expression and activity of KCNA3 outward rectifying potassium channels whose activation stimulates proliferation of neural progenitors [28]. With respect to proliferation, APP over-expression can antagonistically compete with APPBP1, a protein required for the cell cycle progression from G1 to S phase [29]. Similarly, increased S100B levels stimulate p53 nuclear accumulation and inhibit proliferation [30]. DYRK1A has alternatively been shown to phosphorylate p53, impair G1/S phase transition and inhibit proliferation [31]. Finally, many HSA21 genes regulate neurogenesis through their effects on NGF, hedgehog, WNT, Notch and insulin signaling pathways [20]. Changes in expression of various HSA21 genes can also regulate subpopulations of progenitors. For example, microarray profiling of DS human neuroprogenitors implicated a defect in interneuron neurogenesis through increased expression of glial progenitor genes such as
2.3. Genetics mechanisms underlying synaptic formation, maturation and plasticity in DS
A reduction in brain volume in DS has been attributed to impaired dendritic and synaptic maturation. Dendritic branching and spine number are dramatically reduced in pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus, visual cortex and motor cortex after 4 months postnatal age in individuals with DS [33-35]. The decreased number of spines is usually accompanied by aberrant spine morphology including enlarged or irregular spine heads, and sparse, small, short stalks intermingled with unusually long spines [34, 36]. In addition, DS brains also show changes in expression levels of various synaptic proteins such as decreased SEPT6, SYN1, SNAP-25, SYP and increased SYNJ1 levels [37-41]. Similar morphological changes have been observed in DS animal models and correlate on a molecular level with synaptic protein level changes and functionally with synaptic plasticity defects, observed through LTP, LTD and imbalance of excitatory-inhibitory neurotransmission [42-50]. Many genes on HSA21 (
3. Epigenetic mechanisms underlying the DS phenotype
DNA methylation refers to a process of DNA modification that involves the enzymatic transfer of a methyl group from a methyl donor S-adenosylmethionine to carbon 5 of cytosine at 5’-CpG-3’ sites. The enzymes carrying out this reaction are called DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs). There are five members in this family: DNMT1, DNMT2, DNMT3A, DNMT3B and DNMT3L. DNMT1 is responsible for DNA methylation maintenance while DNMT3A and DNMT3B are involved in
Epigenetic modification is thought to be an important contributor to development and numerous diseases. Several disorders associated with cognitive impairment such as X-linked alpha-thalassemia mental retardation (ATRX) syndrome, Rett syndrome, and Rubinstein–Taybi Syndrome involve some level of disruption in gene regulation through epigenetic effects [61]. The pathology is medicated by different mechanisms including histone modification, chromosome remodeling, small RNAs (siRNA, miRNA and other non-coding RNA) regulation and DNA methylation. More directly,
Several observations suggest that DNA methylation may play an important role in the DS endophenotype. Oxidative stress from over-expression of various HSA21 genes [15] could modulate DNA methylation directly through DNA damage or modification at the CpG sites, thereby preventing normal binding of DNMTs to DNA [71, 72]. DNMT3L is localized on HSA21, and its triplication in DS suggests aberrant levels of expression. DNMT3L can form a heterotetramer with DNMT3A, and increased DNMT3L levels could potentially promote release of DNMT3A as well as increase its methylation activity [56]. DNMT3L can also stimulate DNMT3B activity directly [57, 73]. In addition, Dnmt3a modulates neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity in developing mouse neuroprogenitors and mature neurons by regulating related genes expression, such as
Next, we will discuss how DNA methylation could be involved in some important neurodevelopmental phenotypes in DS.
3.1. Epigenetic mechanisms underlying oxidative stress in DS
While excessive oxidative stress leading to mitochondrial dysfunction is a main feature of DS neurodevelopment, its effects on DNA methylation are not known. Currently no direct evidence demonstrates a role for oxidative stress in regulating DNA methylation changes in DS brain. However, DNA methylation studies from cancer seem to provide some clues. For instance, hydroxyl radicals generated from hydrogen peroxide can cause DNA damage including base modifications, deletions, and breakages, which could consequently interfere with normal function of DNMTs, leading to global hypomethylation in cancer cells [78]. 8-OHdG in CpG dinucleotides or the presence of O6-methylguanine could inhibit adjacent cytosine methylation [79-82] by inhibiting DNMTs or MBDs binding [83]. By extension, some of these same pathological mechanisms in cancer cells will likely be relevant in DS.
Methylation changes in the subset of DS genes involved in oxidative stress can contribute to similar phenotypes seen in DS development and disease. For instance, Dnmt1 conditional knockout in neural progenitor cells induced precocious astrogliogenesis through demethylation of
3.2. Epigenetic mechanisms underlying neurogenesis in DS
DNA methylation regulates neurogenesis. Dnmts are broadly expressed in the brain and are dynamically regulated [90, 91]. For example, Dnmt1 is expressed in both dividing neuroprogenitors and postmitotic neurons [91, 92]. Dnmt3b is mainly expressed in neuroprogenitor cells during neurogenesis, whereas Dnmt3a is predominantly expressed in maturing brain (including neural precursors, neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes). Dnmt3a expression peaks at three weeks after birth and then declines in adulthood [93, 94]. Dnmt3l directly regulates Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b but is weakly expressed in the brain and does not appear to disrupt normal cortical development. As for function, Hutnick et al used Emx1-cre to conditionally knockdown Dnmt1 exclusively in telencephalic precursors of mice, which induced hypomethylation in excitatory neurons and astrocytes of cortex and hippocampus. The methylation change increased neuronal apoptosis coupled with upregulation of apoptosis-related genes such as
DNA methylation may directly effect neural progenitor development in DS. In normal development, Dnmt3l does not appear to have a significant phenotype in the developing mouse cerebral cortex, likely due to its relatively low expression levels in the brain [97, 98], (personal communications, Dr. Yi E. Sun, UCLA). DNMT3L, however, is located on chromosome 21 and its triplication results in aberrantly high levels of expression in DS neuroprogenitors (personal observations). Given that DNMT3L directly regulates both DNMT3A/B and both these proteins have been implicated in neural progenitor development, a pathological role for methylation genes such as DNMT3L in contributing to neurogenesis is likely.
3.3. Epigenetic mechanisms underlying synaptic formation, maturation and plasticity in DS
Several HSA21 genes can indirectly regulate epigenetic factors involved in synaptic function. For example, SWI/SNF (SWItch/Sucrose NonFermentable) is a nucleosome-remodeling complex that can destabilize histone-DNA interactions in an ATP-dependent manner. HSA21-localized
4. Global effects of DNA methylation in causing DS phenotypes
Several reports have shown global DNA methylation changes in DS [104, 105]. For example, individual proteins on HSA21 such as beta amyloid (the protein encoded by HSA21 localized APP) can induce global hypomethylation [106, 107]. Comparison of normal and DS methylation in DS leukocytes and T lymphocytes using microarray-based profiling (MSNP (single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) chip-based method for profiling DNA methylation) identified a small subset of genes with altered methylation, specific to the DS cell population [104]. Among the genes identified, five candidates (
4.1. Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation involves cellular metabolism through oxidation to produce ATP. The broad methylation and gene expression changes in this pathway suggest its role as a primary consequence of DS genes’ overdose effects. Plasma membrane NADPH oxidase is considered a major producer of ROS in neurons or astrocytes in brain and is activated by S100B through a RAGE-dependent pathway [108-111]. Over-expression of HSA21 genes such as
4.2. Insulin signaling
The insulin/insulin growth factor (IGF)-I pathway is a conserved pathway required for neurogenesis and neuroprotection. It acts through IR/IGF-IR, IRS, and RAS/MAPK or PI3K/AKT in regulating neurogenic cell fate [125]. Decreased levels of IGF-I have been found to associate with growth retardation in DS patients, which could be rescued by GH therapy [126, 127]. In addition, the insulin receptor knockout mouse suggests that neurons without insulin receptor exhibit significant reduction of Akt and Gsk3beta and increased tau hyperphosphorylation, characteristics of neurotoxicity in DS and AD [128]. Inhibition of the brain insulin signaling pathways have been report in AD brain, with decreased expression of IR, IRS1, IRS2, PI3K and AKT [129, 130]. This deficiency may, in part, involve DNA methylation changes, given reports of co-localization of Hdac2 with insulin signaling components (Ir, Irs) in postsynaptic glutamatergic neurons of the mouse hippocampus [131]. DNA methylation changes in human DS progenitors (personal observations Lu and Sheen) also suggest that the insulin-associated pathways may contribute to the DS endophenotype during development.
4.3. Ubiquitin proteolysis
The ubiquitin proteasome/lysome system (UPLS) is responsible for the removal of excessive proteins from multiple cellular compartments (especially mitochondria and synapses) in order to maintain normal cellular function [132, 133]. Progression in DS cognitive impairment is associated with accumulation of NF plaques and tangles, which have been shown to contain ubiquitin [134]. Dystrophic neurites in DS also contain ubiquitin and the UPLS-associated molecules PSMA5 and USP5 are upregulated in DS fetal brain [135]. Beta amyloid could regulate synaptic protein degradation and function through ubiquitin pathway [136, 137]. Moreover, several E3 ubiquitin ligases have been shown to promote APP degradation [138, 139]. Additionally, HSA21 located genes
5. Possible functions of DNMT3L in DS
Given that DNMT3A and DNMT3B are involved in neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity, HSA21 localized
6. Possible targets for pharmaceutical interference
The epigenetic screens in DS predict involvement of several mutually interactive pathways in contributing to the neurological endophenotype in this disorder: oxidative phosphorylation, insulin signaling, and ubiquitination. Approaches for therapeutic intervention possibly involve either altering the methylation patterns or directly targeting specific pathways.
If global hypermethylation in DS neuroprogenitors is confirmed, then inhibition of DNMT or DNA deamination could be used to rescue or treat the pathological phenotypes. There are two clinical licensed DNMT inhibitors currently used in myelodysplastic syndrome, where they relieve the repression of tumor suppressor genes: 5-aza-cytidine (Vidaza®) and 5-aza-2’-deoxycytidine (Dacogen®) [59]. In addition, because of the occurrence of hypomethylation, especially on HSA21, it would be desirable to develop a more specific methylation inhibitor/activator or deamination activator/inhibitor in order to target specific promoters of genes in important pathways.
Dysfunction of the UPLS system causes protein accumulation or over-degradation in cellular organelles. Thus developing activator or inhibitor of proteasomes would have therapeutic meaning. Most currently available activators/inhibitors of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway directly target the subunits of proteasome, the core of the proteolysis machinery, instead of targeting upstream ubiquitination and recognition of ubiquitinated protein substrates by more specific E3 ubiquitin ligases. Proteasome inhibitors such as Bortezomib, (Velcade®) are in clinical treatment for multiple myeloma [146, 147]. Proteasome activators including 11s activator, Blm10/PA200, and 19s activator are still under research.
Preservation of oxidative phosphorylation pathway and mitochondrial function can be achieved through a new investigational drug EPI-743, currently in phase 2B/3 pivotal clinical trials in Inherited Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain Disease [148]. EPI-743 is an orally absorbable small molecule that readily crosses into the central nervous system. It works by targeting an enzyme NADPH quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1). Its mode of action is to synchronize energy generation in mitochondria with the need to counter cellular redox stress [149].
7. Conclusion
DS is a contiguous gene syndrome which gives rise to MR, dementia, and seizures. These clinical outcomes are mirrored by endophenotypes including increased oxidative stress, decreased neurogenesis and synaptic dysfunction. While these characteristics have largely been attributed to HSA21 gene dosage effects, recent progresses in epigenetic studies have raised the high likelihood that DNA methylation have significant effects on DS neurodevelopment. Methylome screening suggests disruption of pathways involving oxidative phosphorylation, ubiquitination and insulin signaling in DS. Candidate gene analyses suggest that DNMT3L is over-expressed in DS given its location on chromosome 21. Alternatively, other studies have implicated several HSA21 genes in altering methylation sites on genes involved in these same pathways. The pathways invoked through epigenetic regulation contribute directly to known pathological mechanisms identified on prior gene expression profiling such as oxidative stress, gliosis, and mitochondrial dysfunction. In this respect, the DS brain endophenotypes likely arise from the integration of various genetic and epigenetic factors on chromosome 21.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by grants to V.L.S from NINDS 1R01NS063997 and NICHD 1R21HD054347.References
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