Summary of some photoconductive materials with the advantages, disadvantages, active layer, and the operating wavelength.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"175",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nanocrystal",title:"Nanocrystal",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'We focused on cutting-edge science and technology of Nanocrystals in this book. "Nanocrystal" is expected to lead to the creation of new materials with revolutionary properties and functions. It will open up fresh possibilities for the solution to the environmental problems and energy problems. We wish that this book contributes to bequeath a beautiful environment and valuable resources to subsequent generations.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-199-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5538-6",doi:"10.5772/703",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"nanocrystal",numberOfPages:506,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"be72531b15b9a96a9eebf85b56a9e0d4",bookSignature:"Yoshitake Masuda",publishedDate:"June 28th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/175.jpg",numberOfDownloads:74023,numberOfWosCitations:65,numberOfCrossrefCitations:22,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:71,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:158,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 11th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 8th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 13th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 14th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 28th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"12385",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshitake",middleName:null,surname:"Masuda",slug:"yoshitake-masuda",fullName:"Yoshitake Masuda",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12385/images/1862_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Yoshitake Masuda is a senior research scientist at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Japan. He graduated from Tsukuba University in 1994, and received his Master of Engineering degree from Tsukuba University in 1996. He was an engineer at NGK Spark Plug Co. Ltd., from 1996 to 1998, and an assistant professor at Nagoya University from 2000 to 2006. Dr. Masuda received his Doctor of Engineering degree from Nagoya University in 2004, and his PhD thesis was on the Patterning of TiO2 Thin Films and Particles using Self-assembled Monolayers.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Nagoya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1169",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"15874",title:"Morphology Control of Metal Oxide Nanocrystals",doi:"10.5772/23352",slug:"morphology-control-of-metal-oxide-nanocrystals",totalDownloads:4570,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Yoshitake Masuda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15874",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15874",authors:[{id:"12385",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshitake",surname:"Masuda",slug:"yoshitake-masuda",fullName:"Yoshitake Masuda"}],corrections:null},{id:"15875",title:"Size- and Shape-Controlled Synthesis of Monodisperse Metal Oxide and Mixed Oxide Nanocrystals",doi:"10.5772/17054",slug:"size-and-shape-controlled-synthesis-of-monodisperse-metal-oxide-and-mixed-oxide-nanocrystals",totalDownloads:13932,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Thanh-Dinh Nguyen and Trong-On Do",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15875",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15875",authors:[{id:"27116",title:"Prof.",name:"Trong-On",surname:"Do",slug:"trong-on-do",fullName:"Trong-On Do"},{id:"44088",title:"Dr.",name:"Thanh-Dinh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"thanh-dinh-nguyen",fullName:"Thanh-Dinh Nguyen"}],corrections:null},{id:"15876",title:"Colloidal Hybrid Nanocrystals: Synthesis, Properties, and Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/16418",slug:"colloidal-hybrid-nanocrystals-synthesis-properties-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:5117,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jie Zeng, Xiaoping Wang and J. 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Intracellularreactive oxygen species similarly induced by the multiple atherosclerosis risk factors lead to enhanced oxidative stress in vascular cells and further activate intracellular signaling molecules involved in gene expression[3].
Up regulation of celladhesion molecules facilitates adherence of leukocytes to the dysfunctional endothelium and their subsequent transmigration into the vessel wall.The evolving inflammatory reaction is instrumental in the initiation of atherosclerotic plaques and their destabilization. There are evidence[4] supporting a pathophysiological role of T cells, B cells and macrophages in the development of atherosclerosis in general[5].
Decades ago, the endothelium was considered just a barrier non thrombogenic, vascular control which was attributed primarily to the sympathetic nervous system and circulating vasoactive hormones. The discovery that the endothelium synthesizes important vasodilators such as nitric oxide and prostacyclin, and vasoconstrictors such as endothelin, aroused great interestin endothelial function and role of vascular control, both in physiological processes and in pathological conditions. The model ‘response to injury’ of the endothelium explains more precisely this complex pathophysiological mechanism. In this model the endothelium is injured by hemodynamic stimulus, such as hypertension, or bychemical attack, such as in smoking, begins to operate in a manner dysfunctional. This endothelial dysfunction leads to compensatory responses that alter the normal homeostatic properties of the endothelium to a reduction in nitric oxide synthesis and an increase inpermeability of the endothelium which binds to LDL cholesterol in the vessel wall[6]. Adhesion molecules begin to be expressed on the surface of the endothelium will lead to attraction of monocytes and lymphocytes to the arterial wall[7].
LDL modified by oxidation is a major cause of injury to the endothelium. Many authors believe that LDL oxidation does not take place in the circulation, and therefore it must occur in the subendothelial space of the arterial wall. After being trapped in the artery wall, it is internalized by macrophages via the scavenger receptor surfaces of these cells which leads to the formation of foam cells. Inflammation mediators such as tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin-1 and macrophage colony-stimulating factor further increase the binding of LDL to the endothelium and smooth muscle and increase the transcription of the LDL receptor gene. Experimental studies in mice show that oxidized LDL (oxLDL) promotes atherosclerosis, however, clinical trials of antioxidants were not effective in reducing cardiovascular events[8],[9].Increased levels of oxLDL are presentin human gingival crevicular fluid compared to plasma of healthy individuals, indicating that oxLDL could be generated in inflamed extra-arterial tissues, transferred to the circulation, rapidly taken up into the arterial wall, and contribute to the perpetuation ofatherosclerosis[10].
Early ‘fatty-streak’ lesions consist of T cells and monocyte-derived macrophage-like foam cells loaded with lipids and after successive accumulation of apoptotic cells, debris and cholesterol crystals forms a necrotic core. Initial lesions most commonly developin places where laminar blood flow is altered, as in the bifurcations of the vessels, which interferes with the shear stress and adequate production of nitric oxide[11]. In these places, substances are produced by the endothelium that promote adhesion, migration and accumulation of monocytes and T cells. The flow changes, leading to a reduced shear stress, modifies the expression of genes such as intercellular adhesion molecule, platelet derived growth factor B chain[12],[13].
The mature atherosclerotic plaque shows in addition to cells, two distinct structural components: a lipid core, very dense, and fibrous cap that is its fibrotic component. The higher the fibrotic component less prone to disruption (less unstable) is the atherosclerotic plaque. The lipid core is highly thrombogenic. When it makes contact with the blood stream by rupture of the fibrous cap or endothelial erosion, occurring phenomena of platelet adhesion and aggregation, thrombin generation and fibrin, with underlying thrombus formation, which represents the common starting point of acute coronary syndromes[14].
Apart from traditional risk factors, numerous evidences have shown an association between atherosclerosis and genetic variants which should allow in the future, a new understanding of the molecular mechanisms of cardiovascular disease[15].
Infections of Schistosoma mansoni, the adult worms significantly reduced atherogenesis in apolipoprotein E gene knockout (apoE(-/-)) mice. These effects occurred in tandem with a lowering of serum total cholesterol levels in both apoE(-/-) and random-bred laboratory mice and a beneficial increase in the proportion of HDL to LDL cholesterol. The serum cholesterol-lowering effect is mediated by factors released from S. mansoni eggs, while the presence of adult worms seemed to have little or no effect. High levels of lipids, particularly triacylglycerols and cholesterol esters, present in the uninfected livers of both random-bred and apoE(-/-)mice fed a high-fat diet were not present in livers of the schistosome-infected mice[16].ApoE-deficient mice chronically exposed to the eggs of Schistosomamansoni over a period of 16 weeks showed thattotal serum cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) were reduced in egg-exposed ApoE-deficient mice fed a diet high in cholesterol compared to unexposed controls. However, exposure to eggs has no effect on atherosclerotic lesion size or progression in these animals. Macrophages isolated from egg-exposed mice had an enhanced ability to take up LDL but not acetylated LDL (acLDL). This suggests that schistosome eggs alone may alter serum lipid profiles through enhancing LDL uptake by macrophages, but these changes do not ultimately affect atherosclerotic lesion development[17].
Previous studies have shown that people infected with schistosomiasis have lower levels of serum cholesterol than uninfected controls. In human beings the first manifestations of cardiovascular disease from atherogenesis arise at an advanced stage of atherosclerosis. However, patients with hepatosplenic schistosomiasis mansoni have abnormal lipid peroxidation, with elevated erythrocyte-conjugated dienes implying dysfunctional cell membranes, and also imply that this may be attenuated by the redox capacity of antioxidant agents, which prevent accumulation of plasma malondialdehyde (MDA)[18]. These lipid metabolism changes affect the natural history of atherogenesis including the risk factors.
The alterations in the arterial wall occur during the subclinical period of atherogenesis, characterized by progressive thickening of the endothelium. This endocrine organ is responsible for physiological processes that are vital to vascular homeostasis[19].
When risk factors exist, endothelial thickening can be detected already in childhood, and can be predictive of cardiovascular events in adults[20]-[22]. Since the first anatomopathological description, several articles have been published associating ultrasound measurements (intima-media thickening – the identifiable portion of the endothelium) with cardiovascular diseases[23].
The accuracy, reproducibility and rapidity of Doppler ultrasound have made this method a powerful tool for early diagnosis, as well as in the monitoring of atheroscletrotic lesions and even when evaluating results in population studies[24].
There are already several well-established risk factors for atherosclerosis, such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, smoking and diabetes[25]. However, there are other factors which are still controversial as to the predictive value of findings. Among those factors, bacterial (
Schistosomiasis, an endemic disease in several regions in the world and with high prevalence in Pernambuco, Brazil, has been the target of research studies on disease prevention, clinical and surgical treatments to alleviate the effects of hypertension on the portal system, hypersplenism and child hypoevolutism[27],[28].
Important alterations have been demonstrated in the lipid profile of those who present with advanced disease[29]. Speculations are made as to whether those findings could influence the behavior of the intima-media complex. On the other hand, whether the lipid alterations in human hepatosplenic schistosomiasis mansoni (HSM) patients interfere with atherogenesis has been investigated[30].
The hepatic lesions in patients with hepatsplenic schistosomiasis mansoni produce changes in the lipid profile. There is a tendency toward normalization after surgical treatment of portal hypertension[31]. Since those changes are related to the extent of the lesion to endothelial cells, Doppler ultrasound is used to assess whether those HSM influence intima-media thickness in humans[32].
The relation of lipoproteins to atherosclerosis is known[30]. However, several years passed before an insight was achieved into the association between the biochemical findings and the structural lesions found in the wall, especially in the vascular endothelium. The participation of cells such as lymphocytes, macrophages and monocytes is decisive in the inflammatory component of that disease.
Hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes and smoking constitute risk factors already largely associated with atherogenesis. The interfaces of atherosclerosis with infections are very complex. This is due to the mechanisms used by the infectious agents and the different forms of response from the host organism. Infection and inflammation induce an acute phase response, which, in turn, leads to alterations in lipids and proteins. These changes initially protect the host from the deleterious effects of bacteria, viruses and parasites; however, if extended, they could contribute to atherogenesis[33].
Changes take place in the metabolism of total and HDL cholesterol and in their reverse transport over the course of an infection. The responses are not fully understood, but lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and cytokines are known to reduce total cholesterol serum levels and produce various effects in rodents[34].
The incidence of coronary artery disease and stroke is higher in patients with chronic infections. Some lesions are supposedly produced by the infectious agent itself, as in the case of
Since atherosclerosis itself is an inflammatory disease, and given that infections induce a proatherogenic change in lipoproteins, a cycle is started that tends to aggravate the atherosclerotic lesions[36].In certain instances of bacterial infections, beneficial effects can be found from the alterations in lipoprotein metabolism. The conjugation of LPS to lipoproteins protects animals from hypotension, LPS-induced fever and death.
Regarding parasite infestations, complex mechanisms are triggered, since both the direct action of the parasite and immune reactions induced by its presence have been demonstrated[37].
Atherosclerosis-resistant rats developed early atherosclerotic plaques when infested with
The IMT has been study in infectious processes[39]. The attempt to identify early markers of atherosclerosis has been the object of several studies. The ankle-arm index, which has been used since the 1970\'s to assess blood flow to the lower limbs, has been introduced in the armamentarium of cardiologists and atherogenesis experts as a marker of diffuse atherosclerosis[40].
Brachial artery distensibility, coronary flow reserve, pulse wave analysis, pulse wave velocity and plethysmography have also been used to detect endothelial dysfunction and also considered to be risk markers for cardiovascular disease[16].
Some authors have proposed the validation criteria of surrogate markers for clinical analysis. They established three conditions for validity: the first is that the marker should be more sensitive and more readily available than clinical conclusions, in addition to being easy to assess, preferably through noninvasive methods. Second, the causative relationship between the marker and the clinical conclusions should be established on epidemiologic and pathophysiological bases, as well as clinical studies. It is a prerequisite that patients with and without vascular disease exhibit differences in the marker readings. Third, in intervention studies, expected clinical benefits (benefit assessment) should be anticipated from changes observed in the markers. This last argument implies that the development of markers is not only a matter of time/cost. Moreover, other diagnostic methods for measuring IMT such as the transesophageal echocardiogram, intravascular ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging, in addition to being more expensive and more invasive, are not appropriate for screening[21],[41].
The Doppler ultrasound scan with an automatic calibrator becomes minimally sonographer-dependent. Normal limits for IMT measurements have been established as between 0.4 mm and 1.0 mm, whereas those above 1.5 mm are interpreted as a plaque. The results are immediately ready for printout or to be saved on an HD or CD-ROM for occasional and future comparisons. Questions that might be raised concerning loss of sensitivity with this type of equipment have already been addressed in a comparison with conventional machines[42].
The carotid artery ensures easy access to the examiner; for its anatomy, as it is a superficial artery and follows a more or less straight path along the cervical segment, in addition to being a vessel with abundant elastic fibers that respond promptly to hemodynamic "stress"[23].
A study with populations at difference ages showed that IMT increases at a rate of [IMTmm = 0.009 x age+0.35], i.e., it is a biological phenomenon that can be quantified[30].
The means for IMT values of common and internal carotids are higher among patients with some risk factor (hypertension, age and smoking). This pattern occurs in normal subjects and patients with hepatosplenic schistosomiasis mansoni clinical and surgical treated, but this phenomenon is not observed in these patients without any treatment[43]. These findings lend support to the hypothesis that hepatosplenic schistosomiasis mansoni may be a protective factor against atherogenesis[30].
Individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) have a different condition of life of the population free of infection with regard to morbidity and mortality from premature atherosclerosis and cardiovascular, and its related complications[44]-[47].
Atherosclerosis is a systemic disorder characterized by the formation of cholesterol plaques, especially at the level of the intima of the arterial wall. All arteries can be affected, but the clinical consequences are more important at the level of coronary and carotid arteries of the lower limbs (LL).
Arterial disease is chronic, along with coronary artery disease and ischemic stroke, one of three clinical manifestations of the same pathophysiological process: atherothrombosis. The classic risk factors of atherosclerosis are: smoking, hypertension (HTN), diabetes mellitus (DM), hypercholesterolemia, and obesidade[48]. Atherosclerosisisamajor cause ofmortality worldwidemobility, andlow life expectancyis mainly due to heart attack and stroke(CVA)[49]-[51].
The morbidity and mortality among HIV-infected individuals with advanced disease was very high until the advent of potent antiretroviral therapy (HAART), which produced an improvement in quality and increased expectation [52]-[55].
This therapy, however has been associated with a variety of adverse effects, which include metabolic changes such as changes lypodistrophy, insulin resistance, lactic acidosis and dislipidemia[46],[56]. All these changes are pro-atherogenic and its consequences are often fatal. The development of cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected individuals is related to endothelial dysfunction. This dysfunction and accelerated atherosclerosis is a consequence of HIV itself that activates the endothelial directly or indirectly through production of citocinas[57].
There is evidence that both pathophysiological HIV to antiretroviral therapy may affect the profile lipídico[58],[59], insulina resistance[60],[61] and the response of vasodilatação[62]. The increased mortality in individuals with HIV due to cardiovascular events in young patients, often without classic risk factors for atherosclerosis, is cause for concern and the subject of new studies[44],[46].
Antiretroviral therapy is associated with pro-atherogenic metabolic abnormalities such as metabolic syndrome, type II diabetes, abnormal distribution of body fat, these conditions also associated with arterial disease coronariana[63],[64]. Some studies suggest that class of drugs known as protease inhibitors (PI) can be associated with premature atherosclerosis and cardiovascular events, vasculares[47]. It is not clear, but what is the real contribution of ART in HIV and increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
The measurement of intima-media complex (IMT) by ultrasonography (USG) is a noninvasive marker of early atherosclerosis and may reflect the increased overall cardiovascular risk and is associated with increased risk of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and / or AVC[65]-[67].
The IMT can be used as a predictor of atherosclerotic disease in coronary arteries independently of classical risk factors: age, sex, smoking, hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes and family history of coronary artery disease (CAD). IMTcan be consideredas a markerfor the evaluation ofatherosclerosissubclínica[68]-[70].
The study using IMT has been performed in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in the investigation of risk factors for atherosclerosis as an early marker, but there are few studies prospectivos[71],[72].
In AIDS patients the automatic measurement of MIC performed in right and left common carotid, with software determining produces the following measures: average, maximum and minimum (Figure 1). In this same place three manual measurements can be performed. Thus, it is possible to calculate the arithmetic mean of the measure in manual right and left common carotid and the maximum and minimum extent (Figure 2). In the right and left internal carotid it can be performed as manual. The gold standard can be represented by the mean of automatic measurements from the right common carotid (RCA) and left common carotid (LCA)[73],[74]. We have measured population of 50 years AIDS patients, the MIC was considered thickened if > 0.8 mm[75] was considered the presence of a thickening demonstrated plate when WCC > 1.5mm[73],[76].
The ankle-brachial index (ABI) is a simple, noninvasive, high predictive value for peripheral artery disease and has significant association with risk of cardiovascular mortality. It is a good method to be safe, reproducible, low cost, outpatient use and validated in the general population. Early diagnosis of atherosclerosis identifies people at high risk for cardiovascular events and thus provides effective treatment and control of factors risco[55].
Medida automática do CMI em CCD
Medida manual do CMI em CCD
The reduction of the ABI values below 0.9 is associated with a significantly increased cardiovascular risk, particularly by acute myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke, independent of other factors[77],[78]. The increase in ABI (> 1.3) is due more to changes in arterial compliance than the stenosis, which would be responsible for a decrease in ABI. The high prevalence of high ABI in patients with HIV may be mediated by the involvement of vascular elasticity as well as the formation of atheromatous plaques. A meta-analysis of six retrospective studies the ABI has been studied in patients with HIV. The populations were selected with varying criteria and there was no consensus about the risk factors responsible for abnormal ABI. The increased prevalence of ABI was higher than in the general population. In the population with HIV/AIDS remains whether the high prevalence of altered ABI is associated with increased incidence of cardiovascular events.
We selected 70 cases with HIV in use antirratrovirais (ARV) for at least five years of service reference in the State of Pernambuco and 70 controls without HIV, matched by sex and age, which were assessed by automatic measurement of carotid IMT in and ABI. It was taken into account the classical risk factors of atherosclerosis, anthropometric measurements and treatment with protease inhibitors (PI). We performed the analysis of homogeneity of groups. The groups were homogeneous at the 95% confidence.
The ABI was raised in a single patient in the case group (0.7%) and no change in the control group ABI. The WCC was not thickened in any individual. There was no statistically significant difference between case and control groups with respect to the ABI and the WCC, even when considering the type of treatment. There was no significant difference between the groups regarding presence of atheromatous plaques in the common carotid.
Maggi et al. evaluating patients with HIV and advocate the hypothesis that CMI is thickened more in the HIV group, which use the IP protocol is the cause of the thickening and that the lesions found in these patients are similar to arteritis and substantially different from atherosclerotic plaques[66],[69],[71],[72]. The present study does not confirm this hypothesis of thickening CMI in patients with HIV. In 70 patients there was no thickening in the common carotid, while also presenting the same classic risk factors for atherosclerosis, including having more hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia than the control group. One possible explanation for the lack of thickening of the WCC in this population is the fact that the patients are young (mean 40.5 years), having long-term treatment (mean 8.16 years), have fewer risk factors than other atherosclerosis studies and found to be clinically stable (84% had an undetectable current CV with current median CD4 670.57) with less aggression endothelium.
It can be concluded that HIV-infected individuals do not run a higher risk of atherosclerosis than the control population, taking into consideration the classical risk factors of atherosclerosis and the specific characteristics of HIV-infected patients.
The result of this study is essential because as the population was very young, phase detection of atherosclerotic disease earlier period can be after cutting realized. The follow-up of a cohort for a new sectional assessment later is very important for early detection of atherosclerosis in HIV patients on antiretroviral therapy.
Since the ultrafast (femtosecond) laser was demonstrated in the 1980s, the field of terahertz (THz) technologies has emerged with an array of applications appearing in different areas, from spectroscopy and sensing to imaging and high-speed communications [1, 2]. Terahertz radiation is nonionizing radiation and has low photon energies, thus having less chance of tissues, cells, and DNA damage during the spectroscopic, sensing, and imaging applications. In addition, the terahertz radiation can be transmitted through some opaque objects in visible light, which opens an array of detection and security applications. The late development of the THz applications is due to the challenges in the generation and detection within the THz band. Its frequencies of 0.1 to 10 THz (30 μm to 3 mm), sandwiched between the electronic and optical frequencies, cannot be generated by conventional electronics or optical methods [3]. This is because the conventional electronics technologies are insufficient to produce broadband waves at these relatively high frequencies. On the other hand, conventional optical technologies cannot emit THz frequencies due to a fundamental issue; there is no material with a bandgap energy corresponding to the THz frequencies [4]. Fortunately, various ultrafast laser and semiconductors approaches have been examined and established. That leads to demonstration of the first emission of pulsed THz radiation using a dipole photoconductive antenna in 1988 by Smith
The photoconductive THz emitter is an optoelectronic device with three main components, being the photoconductive materials, the photoconductive electrodes, and the lens [8] (Figure 1). The photoconductive material is a semiconductor having bandgap energy compatible with the photon energy of the ultrashort laser pulses. In addition, the photoconductive material should have optimum characteristics, including carrier lifetime, carrier mobility, breakdown voltage, and dark resistivity [9]. The carrier lifetime is preferable to be short. However, in the case of the photoconductive detector, it must be in the subpicosecond range. A higher breakdown voltage, carrier mobility, and dark resistivity are fundamental characteristics to assure a better photoconductive THz emitter performance in the form of higher radiated power, higher SNR, and broader bandwidth. The second component is the photoconductive electrodes. The photoconductive electrodes are two metal electrodes patterned on top of the device, having a gap in between, namely, a photoconductive gap. The design and dimensions of such a gap will influence the device’s performance. The last component is the lens. The lens is typically integrated with the emitter to accumulate the radiated field; the radiated field will then be focused on the targeted radiation path.
Illustration of the photoconductive device, as in (a) it shows a schematic diagram of the photoconductive THz emitter, and in (b) it shows the semiconductor band structure under the applied electric field. © IOP publishing. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved [
The photoconductive THz emitter can generate the THz radiation following photoexcitation of its photoconductive gap by an ultrashort laser pulse. When the laser pulse is focused into a photoconductive gap, the laser pulse generates free electrons and holes within the semiconductor, having a rate proportional to the laser pulse [10]. The free carriers will then accelerate under a bias field, controlled by the bias voltage,
This chapter presents the photoconductive devices for THz generation, with insights into their components, limitations, and considerations, and recent progress in this field. In Section 2, a number of photoconductive materials are discussed, the influence of the material and material’s characteristics are addressed. In Section 3, the photoconductive electrodes (structure) are considered. This includes different structures characteristics based on their size, being a large aperture antenna, a small aperture antenna, and the plasmonic antenna, discussing the influences on the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance. In Section 4, the limitations of the THz emission by photoconductive devices are discussed. The presented limitations are mainly related to the bias field and optical (pump) fluence, which appear in the form of radiated power saturation. In addition, the underlying physics of the space charge and near-field saturation is provided. Ultimately, in Section 5, the recent advances in photoconductive devices technology are given, including the integrated devices and the system-on-chip technologies.
In general, the photoconductive THz emitter performance differs based on the photoconductive material and structure. Therefore, the photoconductive material will be the focus of this section. The optimum photoconductive materials would be crystal lattices with a direct bandgap between the valence and conduction bands. This bandgap determined the absorption wavelength of the exciting laser pulse. Other factors that play a significant role in choosing suitable materials are low carrier lifetime and high carrier mobilities. The most studied materials for photoconductive devices are gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), quantum well of InGaAs, indium aluminum arsenide (InAlAs), and a combination of group III-VI materials. This section will explore the photoconductive materials GaAs, ion-implantation in GaAs, InGaAs, and multi-quantum wells InGaAs/InAlAs.
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) is a III–V semiconductor that has a bandgap of (Eg ∼ 1.42 eV at 300 K) corresponding to the emission wavelength of 880 nm [12]. GaAs is compatible with the titanium-doped sapphire (Ti: sapphire) femtosecond pulsed laser sources typically used to illuminate the photoconductive THz emitters. The GaAs has been the most common material and is typically employed in semi-insulating (SI)-GaAs, low temperature-grown (LT)-GaAs, or ion-implanted GaAs. The SI-GaAs grown by liquid-encapsulated Czochralski at 450–600°C [13] is typically a single crystal that has a high resistivity (>107 Ω cm) and a high electron mobility (μ > 7000 cm2/Vs) [14]. The SI-GaAs is considered a cost-effective substrate and has become widely used material for photoconductive devices. However, the research was ongoing to shorten the carrier lifetime. The LT-GaAs grown on SI-GaAs is proved to reduce carrier lifetime two orders of magnitude to below 1 ps compared to SI-GaAs (t > 100 ps) and efficiently generate broadband THz radiations of over 1 THz with high resistivity (107 Ω cm) and reasonable mobility μ (100–300 cm2/Vs) [15]. The growth is typically done by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) on the surface of SI-GaAs substrate and growth temperature to between 200°C and 300°C in an arsenic-rich environment [16]. In such a case, it yields a high level of crystallinity, which means higher carrier mobilities and point defects due to excess As precipitants. Higher mobility leads to fast response, and point defects significantly reduce the lifetime (below 400 fs). These point defects act as recombination centers [15]. Increasing the temperature above 250°C will increase the lifetime to be greater than 50 ps. Tani
An alternative approach is using the ion-implantation technique to create point defects and reduce the lifetime in SI-GaAs by implementing arsenic, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen (proton). Implanting H+ ions are shown to decrease the carrier lifetime of GaAs to sub-picosecond. Then several groups studied the effect of As+3 ion implantation of SI-GaAs and introduced excess As+3 impurities within the crystal structure similar to LT-GaAs [11]. However, the ion-implantation technique of As+3 (GaAs∶ As+3) improved the controllability of the excess As+3 concentration and uniformity as compared to LT-GaAs, making it more reproducible than LT growth [11]. Salem
The InGaAs are also employed as photoconductive material. It is a great advantage of the III-V compound to engineer the bandgap by changing the composition ratio. For example, the bandgap of the ternary compound indium gallium arsenide (InxGax-1As) can be potentially varied from 1.42 eV (x = 0) to 0.36 eV (x = 1). From a practical point of view, the protentional to achieve 0.8 eV (1550 nm optical excitation) was the motivation for investigating this material for THz applications. Doping InGaAs by iron has been demonstrated to provide required recombination sites for a subpicosecond carrier lifetime, higher optical pump saturation power, and higher breakdown voltage. Wood
Heterostructure devices consisting of alternate InGaAs/InAlAs multilayer stacks (multiquantum wells) have been proposed [21] as potential materials for photoconductive devices and achieve high performance at 1550 nm comparable to LT-GaAs excited at 800 nm. Sartorius
In addition to the GaAs, and InGa(Al)As, many other materials of group III-V such as InAs [23], InSb [23], GaSb [24], GaAsSb [25], and doped InGaAs [26], GaInSb [25] are studied as photoconductive material. Choosing the materials highly depends on the application and operating wavelength. Although LT-GaAs is still the most used material for photoconductive devices and is the most efficient material for 800 nm. However, it exhibits poor absorption at 1.55 μm, where other materials such as InGaAs or InGaAs/InAlAs heterostructure become more attractive. Table 1 summarized some of the photoconductive materials with the advantages, disadvantages, active layer, and the operating wavelength.
Photoconductive material | Advantages | Disadvantages | Active layer | Operating wavelength (nm) |
---|---|---|---|---|
GaAS | The most used materials for THz PCAs and is well studied. It is the most efficient material for 800 nm. | It is not suitable for 1550 nm excitation wavelength. | LT-GaAs | 780 |
LT-GaAs | 770 | |||
LT-GaAs | 776 | |||
LT-GaAs | 800 | |||
SI-GaAs | 800 | |||
GaAs:Er | 1550 | |||
InGaAs | Suitable for 1550 nm excitation wavelength. | Low dark resistivity. | InGaAs | 1550 |
InGaAs | 1550 | |||
Multi-QW | Higher dark resistivity. High performance at 1550 nm comparable to LT-GaAs excited at 800 nm. | More complication. | InGaAs/InAlAs | 1550 |
other materials of group III-V | The ability to engineer the target excitation wavelength. | More complication. It is not well studied. | InAs | 780/ 1550 |
InSb | 780/ 1550 | |||
GaSb | 800 | |||
GaAsSb | 800 (up to 1440) | |||
InGaAs | 800 and 1500 | |||
GaInSb | 800 |
Summary of some photoconductive materials with the advantages, disadvantages, active layer, and the operating wavelength.
The photoconductive devices for THz emission have been developed extensively to fulfill the demand for high-performance THz emitters—and thus be essential for spectroscopic and imaging applications. The development of the emitters’ structure is related to its design and dimensions and how that is attributed to the high performance of the THz emission. The performance of the photoconductive THz emitters is determined in the form of radiated power (or the THz spectral amplitude), SNR, and bandwidth. It is worth noting that the bandwidth here manifests itself as is the maximum frequency in the THz spectral amplitude, as a function of frequency,
In the large-aperture and interdigitated electrodes photoconductive THz emitters, the gap between the two electrodes can be large as 4 mm to 130 μm [11]. Such a gap will allow a high level of optical excitation before reaching the saturation issues. Thus, the importance of such emitters stems from the need to scale up the radiated power, which is influenced by the incident optical power. A molded has been developed by Darrow
In the small-aperture photoconductive THz emitter (dipole antenna), the gap between the two electrodes is smaller than in the large-aperture THz emitters, typically below 200 μm. In this case, it will be more difficult to align the laser spot within the PC gap. Although these emitters experience the saturation issues at lower pump fluence, in comparison with the large-aperture THz emitters, these emitters provide broader bandwidth over the large-aperture THz emitters. Our recent work on the design and structure of photoconductive THz emitters based on SI-GaAs examined the influence of bowtie structure characteristics on the THz spectral amplitude and bandwidth [28]. It is found that the bandwidth can be improved from 3.4 THz to 3.7 THz by changing the design of electrode structure from a sharp bowtie to an asymmetric bowtie structure at the same photoconductive gap. That could be attributed to the smaller capacitance of the sharp bowtie structure over the asymmetric bowtie structure, which results in a shorter resistance-capacitance (RC) time constant. The RC time constant,
Figure 2 illustrates the biased photoconductive gap with its equivalent circuit, here the redistribution of charge on the electrodes, can be seen as incident voltage waveform,
A biased photoconductive gap at bias voltage,
The plasmonic THz emitter is introduced by Berry
A schematic diagram of the photoconductive device shows in (a), the conventional photoconductive THz emitter, and in (b), the plasmonic photoconductive THz emitter. © IOP publishing. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved [
Overall, the photoconductive structure plays a significant role in the performance of the photoconductive THz emitters. The large-aperture and interdigitated electrodes THz emitters mitigate the influence of saturation for scaling up the THz emission with the optical influence. The small aperture THz emitter (dipole antenna) shows a broader bandwidth, which allows discovering a more comprehensive range of THz frequencies. In addition, the recent studies on plasmonic devices present their significance to the photoconductive THz emitter performance. It also steers the future research and development of high-performance photoconductive devices for spectroscopy, sensing, and imaging applications.
The underlying physics of the THz emission by photoconductive devices is the core of this section, which helps understand these devices’ behavior. The photoconductive THz emission scales linearly with the applied bias field and pump fluence. However, that can be precise only in the ideal case, at low levels of bias field and/or optical excitation. Higher levels of bias field influence the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance. Such influence can be seen as thermal effects, space-charge-limited current effects, etc. In addition, the photoconductive device has a limitation at a higher bias field correlated to the breakdown voltage of the photoconductive material. The pump fluence also has an impact, but that can be observed as the saturation of the THz radiation. The saturation (screening) of the THz radiation is mainly associated with two different mechanisms, being space-charge and near-field screening. This section will explore the limitation of the photoconductive THz emission with insights into the material and structure implications on photoconductive THz emitter’s performance.
The THz radiated power (or the THz field amplitude,
The scaling of THz radiated power as the THz field amplitude,
The pump fluence impacts the radiated THz power in the form of saturation (screening). At a higher level of optical excitation, the radiated THz power will be saturated. This saturation can be classified into two mechanisms, being space-charge and near-field screening. However, each screening status differs based on the photoconductive characteristics (material and structure) and optical characteristics (pump fluence). It is worth noting that transient mobility (mobility as a function of pump fluence) plays an important role in the emitted THz power and thus in the screening of the THz field [30]. The mechanisms of these two screening effects are explained in the next paragraph.
In the space-charge THz screening, the limitation of the photocurrent within the photoconductive gap is due to the high carrier densities within the photoconductive gap, affected by the high pump fluence. The charges drift in the opposite direction. Thus, the bias field screens and ultimately limits the radiated THz field [36]. In the near-field THz screening, the direction of the radiated THz field is in the opposite direction of the bias field, which limits the linear scale of the THz radiated field with the pump fluence, as increasing the pump fluence will raise the carrier densities within the semiconductor [37]. At the same pump fluence, the carrier densities in the emitter with a large photoconductive gap will be smaller than in the emitters with a small photoconductive gap. Thus, a large photoconductive gap emitter leads to scaling up the radiated THz power for higher levels, which increases the total emitter performance, before reaching the screening issues [30].
Overall, the main limitations of the THz emission by photoconductive devices can be related to the applied bias field and the exciting pump fluence. The two limitations are correlated with the photoconductive material and structure characteristics. These two limitations prevent the THz field amplitude from scaling linearly with the bias field and pump fluence. Thus, it is essential to design the photoconductive THz emitter carefully. Furthermore, the photoconductive material must be chosen judiciously to meet the demand of the high-radiated THz field for the aforementioned advanced applications.
A number of the recent advances and research in the field of photoconductive devices are discussed in this section, with insight on the development of the material and structure to enhance the photoconductive THz emission for spectroscopic, sensing, and imaging applications. The section will explore different approaches including:
Quantum dots.
Nanostructured electrodes (non-plasmonic) of the photoconductive device.
Dielectric metasurfaces in photoconductive terahertz devices.
Grating photoconductive devices.
The development of the photoconductive THz emission using such new approaches is notable. The quantum dots are mainly related to photoconductive materials. In contrast, the nanostructured electrodes, dielectric metasurfaces, and Grating photoconductive devices are associated with the photoconductive structure. Here, the main interest is to focus on improving the THz emission using these different approaches and the potential enhancement of these devices.
The quantum dots have been employed to boost the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance. Gorodetsky
Nanostructure electrodes of the photoconductive device show an improvement of the photoconductive THz generation, even without a plasmonic effect. Although the plasmonic photoconductive THz emitter is one of the breakings through in the THz generation and detection field, the nanostructure has its encasement on the performance of such devices [41]. Singh et al. examined an antenna nanostructure fabricated by utilizing an electron-beam lithography system (EBL), having a 5-nm titanium layer and a 25-nm gold layer. Hilbert-fractal design is used with different line widths up to 140 nm. An improvement of the emitted THz power by an approximate factor of two is observed using this nanostructure.
Dielectric metasurfaces in photoconductive terahertz devices can be used as an alternative method to enhance the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance instead of the plasmonic structure [42]. Although the plasmonic structure delivers better THz field improvement over the dielectric structure, the dielectric structure has a substantial characteristic which is the lack of dissipation [43]. In addition, the optical absorption of the incident light (laser) onto the photoconductive device can be improved by reducing the Fresnel losses, which can be done by using thin films of dielectric materials on top of the photoconductive gap. These dielectric materials (thin films) include SiO2, Si3N4, Al2O3, and TiO2 [44, 45]. Figure 5 shows a bowtie antenna having a layer of TiO2 being coated on the photoconductive gap, in (a) the schematic view of the photoconductive THz emitter, (b) the SEM image of the photoconductive THz emitter, and (c) the THz spectral amplitude obtained with using TiO2 layer (red) and without using TiO2 layer (black), “from [45]”.
The bowtie photoconductive antenna with TiO2 layer, coated on the photoconductive gap, in (a) the schematic view of the photoconductive THz emitter, (b) the SEM image of the photoconductive THz emitter, and (c) the THz spectral amplitude obtained with using TiO2 layer (red) and without using TiO2 layer (black). This figure is reprinted from [
The grating structure manifests itself as a periodic array of grooves, lines, slits, etc. The grating structure of the photoconductive devices for THz generation has been studied according to the effective medium approximations (or effective medium theory). The theory can be applied to describe the interaction of light with the grating structure (subwavelength) [46]. Chia et al. have modeled and simulated the influence of grating structure on the THz emission performance by COMSOL Multiphysics software with an insight into the effects of grating geometrical parameters. The author funds an improvement of about 1.63 of the photocurrents obtained by an optimized grating structure of photoconductive THz emitter over the planer emitter structure. This is due to the higher photon absorption, which leads to and leads to more carrier generation within photoconductive material, thus higher photocurrent is observed [46]. Figure 6 shows the simulated grating structure of LT-GaAs and its effects, as in a) the upper diagram shows the surface of planner photoconductive THz emitter, the lower diagram shows grating structure of the photoconductive THz emitter used in the simulation, and b) the normalized electronic concertation obtained by the two different simulated photoconductive THz emitters, “from [46]”.
The simulated grating structure of LT-GaAs, as in (a) the upper diagram shows the surface of planner photoconductive THz emitter, the lower diagram shows grating structure of the photoconductive THz emitter, and (b) the normalized electronic concertation obtained by the two different simulated photoconductive THz emitters. This figure is reprinted from [
Nowadays, the development of photoconductive devices regarding materials and structure is a hot research topic. Several publications have discussed many schemes to achieve higher performance of THz generation by photoconductive devices to facilitate the applications in cutting-edge technologies such as THz spectroscopy, THz sensing, and THz imaging. For photoconductive materials, the research focuses on the quantum dots as well as promotes material properties such as the carrier lifetime and carrier mobility. For the photoconductive structure, the implementation of plasmonic and nanostructures shows its advantage for the aforementioned applications. However, utilizing some novel ideas such as grating structure and a precise selection of the dielectric material is demonstrated to boost the performance of photoconductive devices further.
This chapter presented the photoconductive devices for THz emission. Several materials have been employed as photoconductive materials. However, GaAs is a typical material for these applications, particularly for the sapphire femtosecond pulsed laser sources, which emit at the same range of the bandgap energy of GaAs. Furthermore, several photoconductive structures have been employed. The plasmonic structure shows the highest impact of the photoconductive THz emitters’ performance over the microstructure photoconductive THz emitters. On top of that, the screening effects of the THz field amplitude is an issue limiting the linear scaling of the THz field with the pump fluence. Such limitations can be diminished using a large-aperture photoconductive antenna. At the end of this chapter, the improvement of these devices’ performance has been considered by viewing some recent work in this area. The work has also presented the influence of the quantum dots, the nanostructured electrodes (nonplasmonic) of the photoconductive device, the dielectric materials in photoconductive terahertz devices, and the grating structure on the photoconductive surface. It is hoped that the presented work can lay a role in continuing advancements of photoconductive devices.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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