Localization of ET system in different cells
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",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"82003854a8287c6ffcd39c15946adca3",bookSignature:"Dr. Magdalena Maciejewska",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7621.jpg",keywords:"Ionic Liquids Synthesis, Task Specific ILs, Polymerized Ionic Liquids, Ionic Liquids Characterization, Physical Properties, Thermal Behavior, Biological Activity, Polymerization Reactions, Extraction Process, Biomass Processing,Electrochemical Applications ,Supercapacitors, Elastomeric Composites, Vulcanization Accelerators",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 19th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 12th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 11th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 30th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 28th 2019",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"139343",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Maciejewska",slug:"magdalena-maciejewska",fullName:"Magdalena Maciejewska",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/139343/images/system/139343.jpeg",biography:"Magdalena Maciejewska received her M.Sc. (Polymer Technology) from Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland, in 2004. She obtained her Ph.D. in the field of technical sciences (Chemical Technology) and Ph.D. D.Sc. from the same university, in 2008 and 2018, respectively. She is currently working as Assistant Professor at Lodz University of Technology, in the Institute of Polymer and Dye Technology, Lodz, Poland. Her research work has been credited with 8 national patents, 40 research and review articles in peer-reviewed national and international journals, 10 book chapters in international and national books and 31 proceedings. She has attended more than 30 international and domestic conferences. She has supervised 50 diploma thesis and was an assistant supervisor of 3 Ph.D. theses. Her major areas of research are polymer and elastomer composites, ionic liquids in the elastomer technology, vulcanization of elastomers, thermal analysis.",institutionString:"Lodz University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Lodz University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3569",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:"Life of Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb737eb528a53e5106c7e218d5f12ec6",slug:"biodegradation-life-of-science",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"41675",title:"New Therapeutic Targets for the Control of Inflammatory Arthritis: A Pivotal Role for Endothelins",doi:"10.5772/53738",slug:"new-therapeutic-targets-for-the-control-of-inflammatory-arthritis-a-pivotal-role-for-endothelins",body:'Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a complex, debilitating, chronic, systemic autoimmune disease characterised by immunological, inflammatory and mesenchymal tissue reactions in the synovium that are accompanied by polyarticular synovitis and ultimately lead to the progressive destruction of articular and periarticular structures [1,2]. A critical factor that contributes to joint damage is the excessive production of inflammatory mediators by resident and/or infiltrating inflammatory cells. Among the main mediators involved in the join damage process are free radicals, extracellular matrix–degrading enzymes, pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin(IL)-6, IL-1 and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, as well as chemokines, such as CXCL1, and lipid mediators, such as leukotriene (LT)B4 [3,4,5].
Endothelins (ETs) are a family of naturally occurring peptides [6] with well-established growth-promoting, vasoactive, and nociceptive properties that affect the function of a number of tissues and systems [7]. ETs have pathophysiological roles in pulmonary hypertension, arterial hypertension, atherosclerosis, cerebral vasospasm and inflammatory processes [8,9,10,11].
Recently, new evidence has demonstrated that endogenous endothelins (ETs) also play a role in articular inflammation by regulating inflammatory pain, edema formation, leukocyte influx and the production of inflammatory mediators. The present chapter attempts to provide an overview of the evidence accumulated to date, which suggests that ETs play a pivotal role in articular inflammation, and the blockade of these endogenous peptides can represent a promising therapeutic tool for the treatment of RA and other articular inflammatory diseases. To address this issue in a comprehensive manner, however, it is important to briefly provide some fundamental aspects of endothelin biosynthesis and release as well as information about the receptors that they interact with and the modes of action of these peptides.
The endothelin system comprises a family of three highly conserved vasoactive peptides, which bind to two endothelin receptors (endothelin receptor types A [ETA] and B [ETB]), with differing affinities that are determined by the N-terminal domain of the peptide. ET-1 has a higher affinity than ET-2, which, in turn, has a higher affinity than ET-3. In humans, the affinity of ET-1 for the ETA receptor is 1,000-fold higher than that of ET-3 [12] (Fig 1).
ET -1, the most prominent representative of the ET family, was first identified as a potent vasoconstrictor secreted by vascular endothelial cells [13]. Since the initial description of ET-1 [14], it has become evident that in addition to modulating vascular tone, ET peptides are also involved in numerous other pathophysiological processes and are produced not only by endothelial cells but by a wide variety of cells in virtually all organs [7] (Table 1).
Lung | \n\t\t\tAlveolar epithelium | \n\t\t\t[15-17] | \n\t\t
Liver | \n\t\t\tHepatocytes | \n\t\t\t[18] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Kupffer cells | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Skin | \n\t\t\tfibroblast | \n\t\t\t[19, 20] | \n\t\t
Synovia | \n\t\t\tsynoviocytes \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t[21, 22] | \n\t\t
Heart | \n\t\t\tmyocytes | \n\t\t\t[23] | \n\t\t
Localization of ET system in different cells
Numerous lines of evidence indicate that ET-1 acts locally via both autocrine and paracrine mechanisms in physiological and pathological situations. Contribution of the ET system to disease progression can occur due to either an increase in tissue ET-1 production or an increase in the tissue expression of its receptors. ET-1 is upregulated by angiotensin II, vasopressin, thrombin, lipopolysaccharide, insulin, TGF-β, epithelial growth factor, and EGF-2 and is downregulated by nitric oxide, prostaglandin, and natriuretic hormone [24, 25].
The release of endothelins is regulated both at the gene expression level and at the peptide synthesis level. Preproendothelins are synthesized via the transcriptional activation of the preproendothelin gene, which is regulated by c-fos and c-jun, nuclear factor-1, AP-1 and GATA-2 [26, 27]. The translational product is a 203-amino acid peptide known as preproendothelin, which is cleaved at dibasic sites by furin-like endopeptidases to form big endothelins. These biologically inactive 37- to 41-amino acid intermediates [25] are cleaved at Trp21–Val 22 by a family of endothelin-converting enzymes (ECE) to produce mature ET-1 [28, 29] (Fig 1). Three isoforms of ECE have been reported [30]: ECE-1, ECE-2 and ECE-3. Four variants of ECE-1 have been reported in humans [31], ECE-1a ECE-1b, ECE-1c and ECE-1d, which are the result of alternative splicing of ECE-1 mRNA. Interestingly, chymase, the mast cell-derived serine protease, also hydrolyses big ET-1 [1–38] into the intermediate peptide ET-1 [1–31] which is then readily transformed to ET-1 by neutral endopeptidase 24-11 (NEP) in tissue homogenates [32]. Recently, the chymase-dependent production of ET-1 was proposed to play an important role in cardiovascular and pulmonary pathologies [7, 33].
The ETA and ETB receptors belong to the superfamily of G-protein–coupled receptors with seven transmembrane domains and are differentially expressed according to cell type [34, 35]. The ETA receptor is found predominantly in smooth muscle cells and cardiac muscles [36]. Both receptors, however, have a fairly widespread distribution across many cell types (Table 2)
Endothelin structure, receptors and production
The detailed mechanism by which ET induces intracellular responses remains unclear. ET receptor activation leads to diverse cellular responses through interaction with a chain of pathways that includes the G-protein-activated cell surface receptor, the coupling of G-proteins and the phospholipase (PLC) pathway as well as other G protein-activated effectors. In one of the canonical signalling pathways, ETA induced activation of phospholipase C leads to the formation of inositol triphosphate and diacylglycerol from phosphatidylinositol. Inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3] then diffuses to specific receptors on the endoplasmic reticulum and releases stored Ca2+ into the cytosol. This causes a rapid elevation in intracellular Ca2+, which, in turn, causes cellular contraction, followed by vasoconstriction [37-39].
Additionally, ET-1 is known to stimulate arachidonic acid production and prostaglandin release in rabbit iris [40], porcine coronary artery [41] and mouse paw [42]. This occurs as a result of the activation of phospholipase A2 and increased intracellular Ca2+ [43].
In addition to phospholipase activation and prostaglandin production, endothelin-1 also stimulates protein tyrosine kinases (PTK), such as FAK and RAS, in neoplastic cells [44]. The activation of PTKs results in the induction of the RAF/MEK/MAPK pathway, which subsequently stimulates the transcription of proto-oncogenes, such as c-FOS, c-MYC, c-JUN, and, in turn, activates cell growth and metastasis.
Nitric oxide (NO) is a versatile molecule with a multitude of functions, including the regulation of vascular tone, neuronal signalling and host defence [45]. In a classic ET-1 signalling pathway, ET-1 stimulates NO production in endothelial cells by activating endothelial cell NO synthase (eNOS) [46, 47] via PI3-K/Akt activation, which in turn, stimulates the phosphorylation of eNOS and subsequent NO production [47]. Interestingly, NO appears to antagonize ET-1 synthesis by inhibiting preproET-1 transcription [48].
ET-1 has been demonstrated to participate in the pathogenesis of a number of diseases, such as sepsis, bronchial asthma and pulmonary hypertension [49]. In addition to their well-recognised vasoconstrictive properties, ETs play an important role in inflammatory reactions modulating hyperalgesia, edema formation [50-52] and cell migration [53, 54]. Considering their pro-inflammatory properties and the presence of ETs in the plasma and synovial fluid from RA patients, the participation of ETs in RA is strongly indicated. These findings will be described in the following sections.
High levels of ET-1 are detected in the synovial fluid of RA, osteoarthritis (OA), and gout patients. Plasma levels of ET-1 in patients with active RA exceed the values in patients with nonactive RA. Moreover, ET-1 is secreted from macrophage-like synoviocytes, and the levels of ET-1-like immunoreactivity in synovial fluid are several times higher than those in plasma [21, 22, 55, 56]. In addition, specific 125I-labeled-ET-1-binding sites that are characteristic of the ETA receptor were localised to the media of the synovial blood vessels in sections of rheumatoid, osteoarthritic, and normal synovium, suggesting that endothelin may act locally to modulate synovial perfusion and exacerbate hypoxia in chronic arthritis.[Table 2].
Gout \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tSerum | \n\t\t\t81 | \n\t\t\t[58] | \n\t\t
Rheumatoid Arthritis | \n\t\t\tSerum | \n\t\t\t20, 397, 23 | \n\t\t\t[55, 59] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Plasma | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t[60, 61] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Synovial Fluid | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t[55-57] \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy | \n\t\t\tPlasma | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t[62] | \n\t\t
Presence of ET-1 Serum, Pasma or Synovial Fluid from Patients
Exogenous ET-1 presents a remarkable variety of inflammatory properties, including the activation of resident and inflammatory cells and the stimulation of cytokine production [11, 63, 64], (table 3).
Accordingly, increased expression of the preproET-1 gene and significant amounts of endothelin-1 are produced by resident cells of the synovia, including endothelial cells of the synovial blood vessels [57], fibroblasts [65], articular chondrocytes [66-70], macrophage-like synoviocyte and fibroblast-like synoviocytes [21, 22].
ET-1 modulates the expression of adhesion molecules on endothelial cells and on fibroblast-like synovial cells [65], stimulates the production of fibronectin and collagen in synoviocytes [65, 71], ), stimulates cytokine production on monocytes and macrophages [53, 72, 73], and regulates neutrophil adhesion and migration [9, 53, 74].
Endothelial cells | \n\t\t\tProduction of reactive oxygen species, TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, NO, PGE2 Expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-Selectin | \n\t\t
Fibroblasts | \n\t\t\tProduction of reactive oxygen species, proliferation, resistance to apoptosis | \n\t\t
Macrophages | \n\t\t\tProduction of TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, GMCSF, reactive oxygen species, Chemotaxis | \n\t\t
Mast Cells | \n\t\t\tDegranulation, release of histamine, production of LTC4\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Neutrophils | \n\t\t\tAgregation, chemotaxis, release of PAF, elastase | \n\t\t
Effect of exogenous ET-1 on different cells types
In addition to its pro-inflammatory effects, ET-1 is mitogenic to articular chondrocytes [75] and activates these cells. ET-1 binds to the specific endothelin A or endothelin B receptors expressed on chondrocytes [76, 77] and triggers a cascade of intracellular events, including phospholipase C activation [75] and the phosphorylation of p38, Akt, p44/42, and SAP/JNK, in a sequential manner [78] thereby inducing an increase in intracellular calcium [75, 79] and prostaglandin production [66]. ET-1 causes the overproduction of nitric oxide (NO) and metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 and -13 in human osteoarthritic chondrocytes [80]. The production of these enzymes seems to occur through the activation of at least two kinases, p38 MAP kinase and PKA [78]. NO seems to be a key molecule that is produced in parallel with the ET-1-induced overproduction of MMPs
Additionally, ET-1 also increases collagenase activity and decreases protein levels of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1 (TIMP-1), leading to type II collagen breakdown [81]. The endothelin-1 receptors expressed in articular chondrocytes can be up-regulated by the growth factors PDGF, EGF, IGF-1 and TGFα, which are increased in the synovial fluid of RA patients [68, 77].
It is interesting to note the age-related differences in the production of ET-1 and the expression of receptors from chondrocytes.
Thus, blocking the effects of ET-1 may become a useful therapeutic approach aimed at stopping cartilage destruction in rheumatic conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis and OA
Active rheumatoid arthritis is characterised by a strong inflammatory reaction and hyperplasia of synovial tissue that is an unremitting and profoundly debilitating consequence of the disease and can lead to substantial loss of function and mobility. [82, 83]. In this regard, ETs are well documented as participating in a wide variety of inflammatory and/or pain-related processes (for summary see table 4).
Paw oedema \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tEdema Nociception Hyperalgesia | \n\t\t\t[52, 84, 85] [86-90] [42, 91, 92] | \n\t\t
Mouse cheek model | \n\t\t\tNociception | \n\t\t\t[55, 59, 93] | \n\t\t
Pleurisy | \n\t\t\tCell migration/ Cytokine production | \n\t\t\t[53, 73, 85, 94] | \n\t\t
knee-joint inflammation | \n\t\t\tHyperalgesia/edema | \n\t\t\t[95-100] | \n\t\t
surgical osteoarthritis | \n\t\t\tnociception | \n\t\t\t[95] | \n\t\t
Endothelins in Vascular Permeability and Pain.
ET-related peptides induce profound effects on the microvasculature
Early reports demonstrated a marked inhibitory effect of ET-1 (when administered locally or intradermally) on vascular permeability. ET-1 inhibited plasma extravasation that was induced in rat or rabbit dorsal skin by several stimuli [105, 106]. ET-1 (0.5 pmol/site) also inhibited paw edema and pleural exudation induced by PAF in mice [107]. Notably, the studies that describe the anti-edematogenic effect of ETs have used the local or intradermic administration of low concentrations of ET-1 (between 0.01 pmol to 0.05 pmol). The mechanisms involved in this effect are not clear and may be a consequence of local vasoconstriction or may be explained by the differential effects of ETs on the smooth muscle of arterial and venous vasculature [108]. Nevertheless, the anti-edematogenic effect of exogenous ETs appears to be dependent both on concentration and on the vascular beds.
There are compelling data describing the edematogenic properties of exogenous ET-1. The vasoconstriction effect of ET-1 may actually be masking an edematogenic effect of the peptide because it was also found that ET-1 causes a flare reaction and oedema surrounding the ischaemic area in the human forearm [109, 110]. Accordingly, endothelin-1 (up to 10 pmol) is able to induce ETA receptor mediated oedema in the mouse hind paw [85, 87]. ET-1 markedly enhances extravasation of plasma proteins from the microvasculature in distal organs when administered intravenously [51, 111-113]. This effect is mediated indirectly via the release of PAF and TXA2 in response to ETA receptor activation [112, 114-116]. Endothelin-1 enhances neutrophil adhesion to human coronary artery endothelial cells via ETA receptors [54]. ET-1(1–30 pmol/cavity) or sarafotoxin S6c [0.1–30 pmol/cavity) also triggered edema formation and neutrophil accumulation within 6 h when injected in the synovial cavity [117].
The nociceptive properties of exogenous ET-1 are also well described. Human subjects report a deep burning pain and tenderness following ET-1 injection into the forearm [50, 109]. Recent results confirm that exogenous ET-1 is capable of evoking acute pain in humans. Spontaneous pain was found to develop rapidly after intradermal injection of ET-1 into the volar aspect of the forearm of healthy males at high concentrations (10−7 and 10−6 M). It decreasing gradually, ending 30 and 60 min after ET-1 administration, respectively [118].
Endothelin-1 triggers ETA receptor-mediated nociception, hyperalgesia and oedema in the mouse hind paw [87]. In mice, ET-1 also causes ETA receptor-mediated enhancement of capsaicin-induced nociception [86], potentiates formalin-induced nociception and paw edema [86, 119] and prostate cancer-induced pain [120].
Endothelin-1 also causes articular nociception as well as hyperalgesia to prostaglandin E2 in dogs [50] and carrageenan in rats [98] when injected into a naive knee-joint. Nociception induced by endothelin-1 in the naive articulation of the rat is mediated largely via ETA receptors [42, 99], whereas both ETA and ETB receptors underlie its action in the joint primed (pre-inflamed) with carrageenan. Interestingly, ET-1 peptide-induced hypernociception was not altered by the inhibition of neutrophil migration or ET(B) receptor antagonism but rather by ET(A) receptor antagonism. Furthermore, LPS-induced nociception in the carrageenan-primed joint of the rat is largely mediated by endothelin release and the activation of ETB receptors within the joint itself [98]. The pro-nociceptive role of ETB receptors was confirmed by the fact that when its highly selective agonist, sarafotoxin S6c [34], was injected 72 h after priming with carrageenan, pain was increased, indicating incapacitation. Surprisingly, sarafotoxin produced an anti-nociceptive effect when it was given 24 h before either the initial injection of carrageenan into the naive joint or restimulation of the primed joint with carrageenan, ET-1, or S6c [96]. ETB activation exerts an apparent prophylactic action, inhibiting the development of inflammatory (carrageenan-induced) pain. In addition, ETB receptor-operated mechanisms limit the priming effect of carrageenan to nociception evoked by subsequent inflammatory insult. These findings dramatically illustrate the dual pro- and anti-nociceptive roles of the ETB receptors under the same inflammatory conditions. These roles are dependent upon the order in which these stimulus occur.
Consistent with the observed pro-inflammatory effects of endothelins, the studies with ETA and ETB receptor antagonists have confirmed the role of endothelins in a wide range of inflammatory reactions.
ETA receptor antagonists inhibit allergic paw oedema in mice and plasma extravasation during endotoxin shock in rats [121]. The ETA receptor antagonist BQ-123 inhibits eosinophil migration and lymphocyte accumulation in allergic pleurisy. BQ-123 also inhibited interleukin-5 levels in the exudate and plasma, as well as intracellular staining of interleukin-4, interleukin-5, and interferon-gamma in CD4+ lymphocytes [73]. Endogenous endothelins also participate in delayed eosinophil and neutrophil recruitment in murine pleurisy. Mononuclear and eosinophil accumulation triggered by OVA were reduced by BQ-123 (150 pmol/cavity) or bosentan (by 68 and 43% inhibition of eosinophilia) but were unaffected BQ-788, the ETB receptor antagonist. BQ-123 and bosentan also inhibited LPS-induced increases in neutrophils (by 67 and 40%) and eosinophils (by 63 and 74%) at 24 h [53, 94] and abrogated the increase in tumour necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6 and keratinocyte-derived chemokine/CXC chemokine ligand 1 4 h after LPS stimulation [74].
Endogenous endothelins contribute to ovalbumin elicited nociceptive responses in the hind paw of sensitised mice, which are mediated locally by IL-15-triggered ETA and ETB receptor mechanisms [42, 88, 122]. Interestingly, ET-1 peptide-induced hypernociception was not altered by the inhibition of neutrophil migration or ET(B) receptor antagonism but rather by ET(A) receptor antagonism. Furthermore, ET(A), but not ET(B), receptor antagonism inhibited antigen-induced PGE[2] production, whereas either the selective or combined blockade of ET(A) and/or ET(B) receptors reduced antigen challenge-induced hypernociception and neutrophil recruitment [122].
As indicated above, exogenous ET-1 exhibits well established inflammatory properties and elicits acute nociception. There is also compelling evidence that endogenous endothelins play a role in different aspects of the inflammatory reaction and hyperalgesia. However, the implication of endothelins in the inflammatory process during experimental rheumatoid arthritis was only recently addressed. Most of these studies used the selective ETA receptor antagonist BQ123, the selective ETB receptor antagonist BQ788, or the dual ET receptor antagonist bosentan, which is the prototype sentan-class drug and was first approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for human use in pulmonary arterial hypertension [123, 124].
In the murine model of zymosan-induced arthritis, the intra-articular administration of selective ETA or ETB receptor antagonists (BQ-123 and BQ-788, respectively) markedly reduced knee joint edema formation and neutrophil influx into the synovial cavity 6 and 24 h after stimulation. Moreover, increased expression of pre-pro-ET-1 mRNA and the ETA and ETB receptors in knee joint synovial tissue was observed in parallel with the inflammatory process [117]. Likewise, the dual blockade of ETA/ETB with bosentan (10 mg/kg, i.v.) also reduced edema formation and neutrophil counts 6 h after zymosan stimulation. Pretreatment with BQ-123 or BQ-788 (i.a.; 15 pmol/cavity) also decreased zymosan-induced TNF production within 6 h, keratinocyte-derived chemokine/CXCL1 production within 24 h, and leukotriene B4 at both time points. These findings suggest that endogenous ETs contribute to knee joint inflammation, acting through ETA and ETB receptors to modulate edema formation, neutrophil recruitment, and the production of inflammatory mediators [117].
Daily oral administration of bosentan significantly attenuated knee joint swelling and inflammation to an extent that was comparable to dexamethasone in antigen-induced arthritis (AIA). In addition, bosentan reduced inflammatory mechanical hyperalgesia. Chronic bosentan administration also inhibited joint swelling and protected against inflammation and joint destruction during AIA flare-up reactions. Unlike in the zymosan-induced arthritis model, the use of the ETA-selective antagonist ambrisentan failed to promote any detectable anti-inflammatory or antinociceptive activity in the AIA study [125].
Moreover, the lipid anti-inflammatory mediator lipoxin A4 was described as exerting anti-inflammatory effects on articular inflammation, inhibiting oedema and neutrophil influx and the levels of preproET-1 mRNA, KC/CXCL1, LTB4 and TNF-α through a mechanism that involved the inhibition of ET-1 expression and its effects. Likewise, lipoxin A4 treatment also inhibited ET-1-induced oedema formation and neutrophil influx into mouse knee joints [126].
The efficacy of the dual ET receptor antagonist bosentan was described in the collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model, which is the animal model that best resembles human RA [127]. Oral treatment with bosentan (100 mg/kg) markedly ameliorated the clinical aspects of CIA (visual clinical score, paw swelling and hyperalgesia). Bosentan treatment also reduced joint damage, leukocyte infiltration and proinflammatory cytokine levels (IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-17) in the joint tissues. Bosentan treatment also inhibited the preproET mRNA expression that is elevated in the lymph nodes of arthritic mice. In this same article, Donate and co-workers [127] demonstrated that pre-pro-ET mRNA expression increased in PBMCs from rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients but returned to basal levels in PBMCs from patients undergoing anti-TNF therapy. Further supporting the involvement of TNF-α in the upregulation of ET system genes, the authors showed that TNF-α increased the expression of pre-pro-ET-1, ETA and ETB in PBMCs from healthy donors and RA patients. TNF-α also increased the expression of IL-1β mRNA in PBMCs. Interestingly, the effect of TNF-α on the ET system genes was more prominent in cells from RA patients than in cells from healthy donors. However, this effect was not observed for IL-1β expression, suggesting a specific effect of TNF-α on the ET system.
Taken together, these data highlight the importance of ETs in the context of articular inflammation suggesting a central role for these peptides and represent innovative and promising therapeutic tools for the treatment of RA (Fig 2).
Role of endogenous endothelins in development of RA
As of March 2020, the Covid-19 pandemic has had an enormous impact on trade volume, disrupting international and sometimes even national trade exchange for several months [1]. As experienced worldwide, the first common reaction to the widespread of the SARS-CoV-2 has been the implementation of travel restrictions and closures of borders, with the obvious consequence of directly affecting goods and services trade. From the first case identified in Wuhan (China) on December, 31st 2019 until March, 11th 2020 when the World Health Organization declared the pandemic, as shown in Figure 1, most countries have progressively introduced severe travel restrictions and border closures with the highest expression of this hard situation reached between April and May 2020, leading to a constant increase of shipping costs and transport duration [2].
International travel controls by stringency and date (1st January–1st August 2020). Source: World Trade Organization [
Given that, it is estimated that regulatory and legislative differences, as well as trade policy barriers, still count for no less than 10 per cent of trade cost [2] it is of the utmost importance to ensure a safer and faster international trade: this concern is even truer in hard times as the one we are facing. As known, safety is often defined, in international trade, as the condition in which the various risk, which is linked to the exercised activity, has been acknowledged, in which the likelihood of some specific adverse events have been identified and in which all the feasible special measures have been taken to limit, as far as possible, the associated risks [3]. To achieve safety and velocity, several instruments could be taken into consideration, including trade facilitation. In this regard, the World Trade Organization (WTO) specifically highlights that, as done in the current pandemic time on medical products and personal protective equipment, countries should put in place electronic systems and certificates [2] to achieve the above-mentioned goals. Before specifically focusing on this issue, it is useful to recall some of the most efficient tools proposed and adopted by the World Customs Organization (WCO) Council in the last 20 years to reach velocity and safety in international trade: (i) SAFE Framework of Standards to Secure and Facilitate Global Trade (SAFE Framework) in 2005 and (ii) the Authorized Economic Operators (AEO) Program in 2007. The SAFE Framework is a non-binding unique international instrument that ushered in the supply chain which comprised technical security customs standards without obstructing international trade and creating a closer partnership between customs and business operators [4, 5], while the AEO is a voluntary certification that allows traders who meet certain criteria to assure the supply chain security and then to enjoy customs benefits throughout the European Union [6, 7]. Although, the SAFE Framework has proved to work well, in 2021 the WCO undertook a revision of it aiming at “
Similarly, after the period 2016-2020 where the goal was to support European Union’s (EU) competitiveness on the world markets, the—at the time—EU Commission’s candidate U. Von Der Leyen highlighted those further steps should be taken to lead Customs Union up to the next level, as it is necessary to equip it with new and stronger legislation and framework which would eventually allow the Union to better protect the single market and the citizens [9]. As a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, the 2020–2024 Strategic Plan developed by the European Commission’s Directorate-General for Taxation and Customs Union (DG TAXUD) highlights that the European Union needs today more than ever tax and customs policies which can support economic recovery and to guarantee that all the financial resources are correctly and sustainably allocated to create a level playing field capable of higher protection to both the citizens and the Single Market [10]. To achieve this ambitious plan, DG TAXUD started developing trader portals and single EU access points accelerating electronic exchanges between customs authorities and traders enabling 24/7 operativity to Union customs.
As known, to effectively guarantee safety and security in goods and services’ trade, it is essential to develop a close partnership between national customs and businesses. To do so, one of the aspects to be taken into consideration consists in ensuring to have implemented an in-depth risk analysis enabling each custom to correctly assess its own procedures. A tool that is commonly accepted and that is gaining more and more importance is the Authorized Economic Operator (AEO) together with the information management and information technology (IT) tools.
As above-mentioned, AEO is recognized as a certification scheme using shared information to assess and lower risks associated with trade. The companies which can gain such certification are allowed to have softer or removed border controls that other companies normally undergo [11].
Given the above, this chapter presents an analysis of some of the Covid response papers issued by international organizations and bodies in the period 2020–2021 with a focus on the new technologies, to understand whether there could be some efficient trade facilitator in this global pandemic era to implement the performance of the whole supply chain.
With the purpose to achieve the aim of this research, the following hypothesis has been developed:
H. In international trade there is an increasing need to monitor the supply chain also about the movement of goods, furthermore, it is necessary to increase and facilitate the safety and velocity of these exchanges particularly in this pandemic period. Since the Internet of Things is considered a strategic tool in many sectors, it would be significant to identify nowadays strategies to help international trade to recover during the Covid-19 pandemic.
To the Author’s knowledge, this is the first manuscript that analyses the international bodies’ responses to the impact of Covid-19 and the different suggestions issued by the International Organizations.
The study is therefore organized in 3 further sections: Section 2, review on international bodies recommendation; Section 3, discussions and implications and, in Section 4, conclusions are presented.
The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) [12] after reminding that every exceptional time increase the risk for illicit behavior affecting business such as corruption, money-laundering and fraud, called for the drivers that businesses and policy makers should follow not to be overcome by the pandemic: transparency and integrity in all procurement stages which are helped by the digitalization of permits and licensing; keeping the due diligence process ongoing to mitigate supply chain’s risks; fighting corruption in the context of borders and customs; and, protecting the rule of law.
In such a contest, where states closed upon themselves and made trade extremely difficult, in the last 2 years several international organizations presented different suggestions to mitigate the Covid-19 trade-related effects.
The United Nations Industrial Development Organization estimated in July 2020 that, among the 49 countries which represent almost 87% of world manufacturing value-added, about 81% of countries faced a decrease of an average of 6% in industrial production comparing the dataset in December 2019 and March 2020, and an average of 20% in 93% of nations comparing December 2019 and April 2020 [13]. The situation has not changed afterward, with several and severe economic consequences hitting countries until June 2020 [14] where the index of industrial production kept on decreasing, although with a small improvement: from −5.6% in March 2020 to −2.5% in June 2020.
The export of goods has had a particular trend which is indicated in Table 1 from the 4th quarterly 2019 to the 3rd quarterly 2021 (Q4-2019–Q3-2021), the tendency is expressed in billions of US dollars, for each member of the Group 20 (G20). Figure 2, furthermore, highlights that the export of goods of these countries has marginally been impacted in 2020 Q1-2020, and then has had a strong downshift in Q2-2020. Starting from Q3-2020, G20 countries have seen a positive trend of it and in Q4-2020 they exported more goods than in Q4-2019, the quarterly previous the start of the pandemic. In the following quarterlies (Q1-2021 and Q2-2021), this trend has continuously increased reaching, in Q3-2021, the amount of 4262.96 billion US dollars.
Time | ||||||||
Q4-2019 | Q1-2020 | Q2-2020 | Q3-2020 | Q4-2020 | Q1-2021 | Q2-2021 | Q3-2021 | |
Argentina | 15.25 | 17.41 | 13.26 | 13.53 | 12.85 | 17.82 | 18.83 | 21.37 |
Australia | 64.92 | 61.21 | 59.57 | 60.79 | 68.06 | 80.01 | 88.26 | 90.79 |
Brazil | 51.98 | 55.37 | 51.32 | 52.19 | 52.81 | 60.60 | 78.44 | 73.21 |
Canada | 110.75 | 105.19 | 76.86 | 101.81 | 107.09 | 118.85 | 123.53 | 126.08 |
China (People’s Republic of) | 537.83 | 610.89 | 627.36 | 676.10 | 711.99 | 844.08 | 822.95 | 835.76 |
France | 140.42 | 131.44 | 93.17 | 126.17 | 137.49 | 141.89 | 144.02 | 145.57 |
Germany | 370.83 | 358.48 | 277.83 | 355.92 | 383.74 | 400.96 | 406.73 | 399.44 |
India | 72.07 | 80.05 | 52.14 | 75.16 | 76.20 | 86.24 | 97.29 | 104.10 |
Indonesia | 42.77 | 42.22 | 35.23 | 39.88 | 45.00 | 50.59 | 54.94 | 58.50 |
Italy | 135.65 | 128.02 | 94.04 | 132.73 | 143.59 | 147.67 | 153.66 | 151.45 |
Japan | 174.47 | 167.25 | 133.35 | 158.21 | 180.19 | 184.39 | 189.74 | 190.23 |
Korea (Republic of) | 133.38 | 135.04 | 108.97 | 129.50 | 138.89 | 151.79 | 155.04 | 163.84 |
Mexico | 112.09 | 113.74 | 73.30 | 110.31 | 118.38 | 119.14 | 122.37 | 121.98 |
Russia | 90.57 | 100.85 | 75.12 | 81.44 | 83.77 | 95.32 | 124.04 | 138.14 |
Saudi Arabia | 52.97 | 61.05 | 33.81 | 43.03 | 43.93 | 58.54 | 65.76 | 73.72 |
South Africa | 22.98 | 21.97 | 15.56 | 21.93 | 25.01 | 29.33 | 35.48 | 30.03 |
Turkey | 45.53 | 43.38 | 32.62 | 43.63 | 48.48 | 51.35 | 55.39 | 57.66 |
United Kingdom | 109.09 | 101.25 | 76.27 | 92.92 | 105.12 | 98.72 | 111.23 | 106.27 |
United States | 407.15 | 396.38 | 289.37 | 356.01 | 383.17 | 407.25 | 434.93 | 439.34 |
European Union—27 countries (from February 01, 2020) | 1448.62 | 1406.18 | 1107.99 | 1415.85 | 1525.91 | 1596.34 | 1650.68 | 1646.72 |
G20 | 3595.82 | 3416.03 | 2862.11 | 3472.27 | 3726.85 | 4050.35 | 4228.90 | 4262.96 |
Quarterly (Q4-2019–Q3-2021) of G20 export of goods (value—US dollar, billions).
Source: authors’ own elaboration on Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development [15].
Export of goods of G20 members (Q4-2019–Q3-2021)—US dollars, billions. Source: authors’ own elaboration on Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development [
Given the above, in 2020, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) drafted a report suggesting some measures to efficiently manage the pandemic consequences [16]. While the world would have needed higher agility and efficiency, trade experienced extensive disruptions, with medical devices and personal protective equipment firstly affected by the export restriction. Therefore, four main interventions categories were identified:
Process optimization;
Cost reduction;
Transparency and cooperation;
Technology.
With regards to “process optimization”, UNCTAD recommended following the criteria specified by art. 7.8 of the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement introducing, among others, fast tracks lanes, prioritization, implementing the trusted traders such as the AEO and simplifying the declarations. About “cost reduction”, the UNCTAD remarked the importance of reducing some tariff, accepting some goods received as gifts by approved organizations free of charges, while on point (iii)—“transparency and cooperation”—it highlighted the necessity of having prompt and transparent information among all countries not only about the pandemic itself but also on the transported goods. Lastly, about “technology” it remarks that efficient, rapid, and centralized processing should be further implemented.
Linked to this remark, in 2021 WCO together with WTO, drafted a paper [17] whose objective was to provide an evidence-based picture on three different technologies that Customs could utilize as trade facilitators to achieve safety and velocity, fundamental main stones in this period. The suggested tools are blockchain; IoT and Big Data. Specifically, WCO found that blockchain is still enduring an experimental phase, mainly involving private and permissioned blockchains. Many customs faced a certain hesitancy towards this technology, but the WCO paper highlight that there is a common “
Again in 2021, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)—United Nation Center for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business (UN/CEFACT) published a white paper [18] to provide some best practices ensuring efficient trade control together with facilitation measures to be implemented during the pandemic to avoid a total interruption of commercial trade. The measures to mitigate the impact on trade should involve several stakeholders, including the public sector (i.e., customs, and border authorities), public-private partnership (i.e., National Trade Facilitation Bodies), and private sector stakeholders (i.e., logistic, transport, production, and manufacturing sector) and shall be aimed to cross border cooperation with an increase of trust between partners. This could be achieved with special regimes, special economic zones, expedite pre-arrival clearance procedures, reliable exchange of information, and coordination between integrated risk management and sharing and combination of data into governmental databases accessible by other interested agencies. Similarly, further inputs should be given to National Trade Facilitation Body and external coordination within multilateral, regional and bilateral agreements as well as to trusted trader schemes. The last category includes, as known, the AEO together with the trusted trader. Given the strict requirements provided by the regulations governing the two schemes, governments can trust certified companies which shared with their border authority’s information on how they are structured, and on the management procedures and internal structures (i.e., compliance functions, supply chain management, and codes of conduct). Another proposed solution is to efficiently involve private sector actors who mainly run logistical supply chains who can control their workforce and share the records collected with the border authorities or by using packaging materials that are less likely to keep the coronavirus alive for long hours. Finally, a strong recommendation is given on the usage of technologies. The UNECE reminds that to reduce contagions it is important to limit human contact which can be done by introducing system-to-system electronic data interchange (EDI) such as the National Single Window1, the port community systems and single submission portals. All these automated systems may have several usages in commercial, logistics, and transport exchanges as well as in the regulatory field.
Covid-19 pandemic has presented a never seen before (at least in the last century) threat to international trade, leading to an important economic downturn. From the 1,179 billion dollars value of word exports of commercial services in 1995 to the 4,872 billion dollars value in 2014 [20] to 5,898 billion dollars in 2019 [21], the trend has almost always been upwards.
In 2020 Q2 [22], commercial services plunged by 30% and merchandise trade volume by 14.3% [23] on a year-on-year review and while they are now rising back up (respectively, +26% and +1.6% on a year-on-year comparison [24, 25] it will take time for them to be back at the pre-crisis level.
To reach a faster recovery, technological tools are definitely something States and governments should invest on.
The first one to invest on is blockchain, which has been recognized as an instrument that facilitates trade by helping risk management [17]. Nevertheless, it has only been fully deployed by 2% of WCO Members, while more than 40% do not even yet start planning its introduction [17].
Introducing a standardized dataset between economic operators and government agencies as well as developing common, interconnected, and interoperability blockchain solutions, shared legal requirements and definition of blockchain technology should help a wider usage of this particular tool.
Nevertheless, the actual usage of blockchain covers different areas in the countries where it has been fully or partially used: it may be found in e-commerce environments, in supply chain interconnectivity as well as in electronic certifications and licensing. Particularly, the EU started both a research program to investigate the usage of blockchain in protecting geographical indications, and certification of product origin and in helping VAT collection [17, 26], and the TRICK project in the context of the textile industry funded by Horizon 2020 [17, 27]. Indonesia is currently experimenting with blockchain to automate documentation, simplify the exchange of goods and increase communication and cooperation between counterparts [17].
Other countries are seeking to link it with AEO and container movements: it has been hypothesized that using blockchain in these contexts may faster registration systems and entrust the system and the relationship between counterparts. Among these, it can be named the Malesia experience [17] trying to make the system more competitive and the example of the CADENA project which is a blockchain solution that enables efficient, automated and secure information sharing on AEOs among the Border and Customs authorities of Costa Rica, Peru and Mexico in the context of further implement the mutual recognition agreements [28].
These experiences shall be of guidance and the positive effects that they proved out shall be replicated in other geographical areas.
A second instrument is IoT, which is wildly used to share information with different stakeholders, leading to better risk management, data analysis and efficiency in the Customs clearance process [17]. For example, the usage of QR Codes for transit, the usage of e-lock, GPS tracking, X-ray scanners, and CCTVs cameras interconnected with national or regional Customs are services that help an automatization of border crossing procedures. For example, the Italian Customs and Monopolies Agency is conducting IoT projects based on IoT_ID code to completely digitalize the procedures for goods transported by road and rail transiting in Italian ports [29] while Hong Kong has implemented the GPS technology and e-lock connecting their data with the one of China Mainland [17].
Other instruments that stakeholders can implement are linked to big data, data analytics, artificial intelligence ad machine learning technologies. The more common advantages are seen in data quality, predicting future trends and facilitating customs audits [17]. These have been utilized, among other uses, to ameliorate the efficiency of financial and tax data, to respond to the most common questions through chatbots, to find anomalies in high revenue areas, to find illicit traffic and goods, to enhance Customs clearance efficiency.
Almost half of the WCO members already use them [17] and only less than a quarter have not started planning to introduce them.
To implement such technologies would require States to invest money in new technologies, to overcome the lack of knowledge and expertise, to find a common and shared legal background, and to strengthen trust between counterparts, finally leaving aside cautiousness and lack of trust towards technologies. Nevertheless, governments, as highlighted in the literature [30], face other challenges such as handling the complexity arising from a massive data extraction and converting it into a meaningful model parameter.
This chapter has analyzed several strategies related to the movement of goods during the Covid-19 pandemic and expressed by international organizations, including ICC, WTO and WCO. Knowing that the pandemic is not likely to end soon, and that automatization may be the path to be followed to pursue a faster and more secure trade exchange, the common idea is to emphasize the usage of new technologies such as blockchain, IoT, machine learning, data analytics, artificial intelligence, and big data.
Although, most countries have already started implementing some or all of them, getting several advantages by their use such as speed control and tracking—as collected in the WCO annual consolidated survey—, there still are several issues to face to have widespread usage. Costs, lack of knowledge, good practices and/or trust, legislation and privacy issues, and lack of governmental strategy and coordination are the one to be faced shortly to ensure an interconnected international customs system.
This chapter focuses only on strategies proposed by international organizations, without acknowledging national responses to the pandemic, and this may represent a limit in the investigation.
Future research directions may be, on the one hand, understanding whether any country would be able to implement the proposed approaches, investing in new technologies for its borders and Customs, and seeing the actual improvements in the relationship among the international trade stakeholders; on the other hand, selecting a specific geographical scope, examining regional and national response to the downshift of international trade and the proposed solutions at a local level.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
All authors have equally contributed to this chapter.
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They bring people-centred care closer to the communities where they are needed most, thereby helping improve health outcomes and the overall cost-effectiveness of services. Nurses usually act as first responders to complex humanitarian crises and disasters; protectors and advocates for the community and communicators and co-ordinators within teams. Communication is a core component of sound relationships, collaboration and co-operation, which in turn are essential aspects of professional practice. The quality of communication in interactions between nurses and patients has a major influence on patient outcomes. Increases in nursing communication can lessen medical errors and make a difference in positive patient outcomes. This chapter explores how effective communication and interpersonal skills can enhance professional nursing practice and nursing relationships with various stakeholders. It explains principles of communication, communication process, purpose of communication, types of communication, barriers to effective communication, models of communication and strategies of improving communication and guidelines for successful therapeutic interactions.",book:{id:"6615",slug:"nursing",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing"},signatures:"Maureen Nokuthula Sibiya",authors:[{id:"73330",title:"Dr.",name:"Nokuthula",middleName:null,surname:"Sibiya",slug:"nokuthula-sibiya",fullName:"Nokuthula Sibiya"}]},{id:"24279",doi:"10.5772/19684",title:"Speculative Ethics: Valid Enterprise or Tragic Cul-De-Sac?",slug:"speculative-ethics-valid-enterprise-or-tragic-cul-de-sac-",totalDownloads:2540,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"250",slug:"bioethics-in-the-21st-century",title:"Bioethics in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Bioethics in the 21st Century"},signatures:"Gareth Jones, Maja Whitaker and Michael King",authors:[{id:"35851",title:"Prof.",name:"Gareth",middleName:null,surname:"Jones",slug:"gareth-jones",fullName:"Gareth Jones"},{id:"47645",title:"Dr",name:"Michael",middleName:"Robert",surname:"King",slug:"michael-king",fullName:"Michael King"},{id:"47646",title:"Mrs.",name:"Maja",middleName:null,surname:"Whitaker",slug:"maja-whitaker",fullName:"Maja Whitaker"}]},{id:"31748",doi:"10.5772/33900",title:"Medical Ethics in Undergraduate Medical Education in Pakistan: Towards a Curricular Change",slug:"medical-ethics-in-undergraduate-medical-education-in-pakistan-towards-a-curricular-change-",totalDownloads:2766,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1743",slug:"contemporary-issues-in-bioethics",title:"Contemporary Issues in Bioethics",fullTitle:"Contemporary Issues in Bioethics"},signatures:"Ayesha Shaikh and Naheed Humayun",authors:[{id:"97665",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayesha",middleName:null,surname:"Humayun",slug:"ayesha-humayun",fullName:"Ayesha Humayun"},{id:"104368",title:"Prof.",name:"Naheed",middleName:null,surname:"Humayun",slug:"naheed-humayun",fullName:"Naheed Humayun"}]},{id:"31743",doi:"10.5772/35001",title:"Neuroenhancement - A Controversial Topic in Contemporary Medical Ethics",slug:"neuroenhancement-a-controversial-topic-in-medical-ethics",totalDownloads:3921,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1743",slug:"contemporary-issues-in-bioethics",title:"Contemporary Issues in Bioethics",fullTitle:"Contemporary Issues in Bioethics"},signatures:"Kirsten Brukamp and Dominik Gross",authors:[{id:"102555",title:"Dr.",name:"Kirsten",middleName:null,surname:"Brukamp",slug:"kirsten-brukamp",fullName:"Kirsten Brukamp"},{id:"105119",title:"Prof.",name:"Dominik",middleName:null,surname:"Groß",slug:"dominik-gross",fullName:"Dominik Groß"}]},{id:"19610",doi:"10.5772/20184",title:"Euthanasia: A Confounding and Intricate Issue",slug:"euthanasia-a-confounding-and-intricate-issue",totalDownloads:2829,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"242",slug:"euthanasia-the-good-death-controversy-in-humans-and-animals",title:"Euthanasia",fullTitle:'Euthanasia - The "Good Death" Controversy in Humans and Animals'},signatures:"Isabelle Marcoux",authors:[{id:"37725",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabelle",middleName:null,surname:"Marcoux",slug:"isabelle-marcoux",fullName:"Isabelle Marcoux"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59779",title:"Effective Communication in Nursing",slug:"effective-communication-in-nursing",totalDownloads:9583,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Nurses are critical in the delivery of essential health services and are core in strengthening the health system. They bring people-centred care closer to the communities where they are needed most, thereby helping improve health outcomes and the overall cost-effectiveness of services. Nurses usually act as first responders to complex humanitarian crises and disasters; protectors and advocates for the community and communicators and co-ordinators within teams. Communication is a core component of sound relationships, collaboration and co-operation, which in turn are essential aspects of professional practice. The quality of communication in interactions between nurses and patients has a major influence on patient outcomes. Increases in nursing communication can lessen medical errors and make a difference in positive patient outcomes. This chapter explores how effective communication and interpersonal skills can enhance professional nursing practice and nursing relationships with various stakeholders. It explains principles of communication, communication process, purpose of communication, types of communication, barriers to effective communication, models of communication and strategies of improving communication and guidelines for successful therapeutic interactions.",book:{id:"6615",slug:"nursing",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing"},signatures:"Maureen Nokuthula Sibiya",authors:[{id:"73330",title:"Dr.",name:"Nokuthula",middleName:null,surname:"Sibiya",slug:"nokuthula-sibiya",fullName:"Nokuthula Sibiya"}]},{id:"19615",title:"Everything Under Control: How and When to Die - A Critical Analysis of the Arguments for Euthanasia",slug:"everything-under-control-how-and-when-to-die-a-critical-analysis-of-the-arguments-for-euthanasia",totalDownloads:6576,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"242",slug:"euthanasia-the-good-death-controversy-in-humans-and-animals",title:"Euthanasia",fullTitle:'Euthanasia - The "Good Death" Controversy in Humans and Animals'},signatures:"Josef Kuře",authors:[{id:"30926",title:"Prof.",name:"Josef",middleName:null,surname:"Kuře",slug:"josef-kure",fullName:"Josef Kuře"}]},{id:"19620",title:"Debate For and Against Euthanasia in the Control of Dog Populations",slug:"debate-for-and-against-euthanasia-in-the-control-of-dog-populations",totalDownloads:12576,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"242",slug:"euthanasia-the-good-death-controversy-in-humans-and-animals",title:"Euthanasia",fullTitle:'Euthanasia - The "Good Death" Controversy in Humans and Animals'},signatures:"Antonio Ortega-Pacheco and Matilde Jiménez-Coello",authors:[{id:"30340",title:"Dr.",name:"Matilde",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Coello",slug:"matilde-jimenez-coello",fullName:"Matilde Jimenez-Coello"},{id:"30393",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega-Pacheco",slug:"antonio-ortega-pacheco",fullName:"Antonio Ortega-Pacheco"}]},{id:"61494",title:"Transcultural Nursing",slug:"transcultural-nursing",totalDownloads:2688,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Culture is defined as the sum of all the material and spiritual values created in the process of social development and the tools that are used to create and hand these values down to next generations and show the extent of the man’s authority and control over their natural and social environment. The term “culture”, which diversifies in each community and so is experienced differently, also affects the way individuals perceive the phenomena such as health, illness, happiness, sadness and the manner these emotions are experienced. The term health, whose nature and meaning is highly variable across different cultures requires care involving cultural recognition, valueing and practice. The nursing profession, which plays an important role in the health team, is often based on a cultural phenomenon. The cultural values, beliefs and practices of the patient are an integral part of holistic nursing care. The aim of nursing is to provide a wholly caring and humanistic service respecting people’s cultural values and lifestyles. Nurses should offer an acceptable and affordable care for the individuals under the conditions of the day. Knowing what cultural practices are done in the target communities and identifying the cultural barriers to offering quality health care positively affects the caring process. Nurses should explore new ways of providing cultural care in multicultural societies, understand how culture affects health-illness definitions and build a bridge for the gap between the caring process and the individuals in different cultures.",book:{id:"6615",slug:"nursing",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing"},signatures:"Vasfiye Bayram Değer",authors:[{id:"228268",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vasfiye",middleName:null,surname:"Bayram Değer",slug:"vasfiye-bayram-deger",fullName:"Vasfiye Bayram Değer"}]},{id:"72954",title:"Value-Based Healthcare",slug:"value-based-healthcare",totalDownloads:832,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Value-based healthcare is a new health-care model in which what is important is value to the patient. Value is a broad term, but in essence, it is the best outcome for the patient per dollar spent. To provide value to the patient, the medical practice should be centered around conditions and care cycles and the results must be measured. We now know that the model we have right now, the fee-for-service model, is not linked to quality of the patient. All around the world, many hospitals and clinics are making the transition to this value-based model. To provide the best for the patient, we must have the best medical evidence to follow. In the following chapter, we will cover a few aspects of value-based healthcare, its reimbursement model, the integrated practice units, and the information technology necessary to implement it.",book:{id:"9566",slug:"bioethics-in-medicine-and-society",title:"Bioethics in Medicine and Society",fullTitle:"Bioethics in Medicine and Society"},signatures:"Patrick Rech Ramos",authors:[{id:"321359",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:"Rech",surname:"Rech Ramos",slug:"patrick-rech-ramos",fullName:"Patrick Rech Ramos"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"167",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81683",title:"An Examination of Safe Injection Sites and Ethical Issues in Philadelphia, United States",slug:"an-examination-of-safe-injection-sites-and-ethical-issues-in-philadelphia-united-states",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104565",abstract:"The opioid epidemic in the United States has been an ever-increasing public health crisis. Despite being a major issue in the United States for decades, relatively little action has been taken to address the opioid crisis. To mitigate the harm the opioid epidemic has caused in the United States, safe injection sites have emerged as a promising solution. Despite the exhaustive benefits of safe injection sites, including the reduction in the number of opioid overdose deaths, safe injection sites have faced opposition in the United States. Most of these concerns in the United States question the legality of safe injection sites, along with potential community implications. Through examining the ethics of safe injection sites from a Catholic social teaching perspective and performing an integrative literature review, safe injection sites are clearly ethical and would aid in respecting the dignity and life of people who inject drugs (PWID). With safe injection sites being ethical and recommendations in this paper to overcome concerns about safe injection sites, safe injection sites are a viable option to combat the opioid crisis in the United States.",book:{id:"10878",title:"Bioethical Issues in Healthcare",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10878.jpg"},signatures:"Peter A. Clark and David Grana"},{id:"80067",title:"The Risk of Inequality in Italian Healthcare Due to Covid-19",slug:"the-risk-of-inequality-in-italian-healthcare-due-to-covid-19",totalDownloads:64,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97514",abstract:"The Italian National Health Service, characterized by the principles of universality, equality and fairness, has undergone changes over the years that have involved these essential characteristics. The decrease in financial resources was the first element that touched the Italian health organization. The spread of Covid-19 has attacked the balance of healthcare in Italy and put the equality of the entire care system at risk. The reform of the Italian health system, especially through the correct use of European financial resources, is the real test for the Italian health system of the future. It can be a moment of relaunch or the certification of a decline that jeopardizes constitutional rights.",book:{id:"10878",title:"Bioethical Issues in Healthcare",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10878.jpg"},signatures:"Carlo Ciardo"},{id:"79666",title:"Good Pharmacy Practice in India: Its Past, Present and Future with Need and Status in COVID 19",slug:"good-pharmacy-practice-in-india-its-past-present-and-future-with-need-and-status-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:150,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100635",abstract:"The pandemic of COVID-19 has highlighted the importance of emergency preparedness and response (EP and R) in India’s education, training, capacity building, and infrastructure growth. Healthcare professionals, especially pharmacy professionals (PPs) in India, continued to provide drugs, supplies, and services during the pandemic. The public-private healthcare system in India is complicated and of varying quality. Patients face problems as a result of gaps in pharmacy practice education and training, as well as a lack of clarity about pharmacists’ positions. Job requirements and effective placement of healthcare professionals in patient care, as well as on (EP and R) task forces or policy representation, are complicated by this lack of distinction. We have also seen malpractice and spurious distribution in the healthcare and pharmaceutical domain in terms of personal protective kits, medications, injectable, life-saving oxygen, and other items during this unprecedented pandemic situation. A few of the incidents are as follows. The central division police in Bangalore (the Global BPO & IT Hub of India) booked a case of bed-blocking at a private hospital and arrested three people, one of whom is an Arogya Mitra (primary contact for the beneficiaries at every empaneled hospital care provider), for allegedly extorting ₹1.20 lakh from the son of a COVID-19 patient who later passed away. At least 178 COVID-19 patients in India have died because of oxygen shortage in recent weeks. Another 70 deaths have been attributed to an oxygen shortage by patients’ families, but this has been denied by the authorities. The Allahabad High court made a remark “Death of COVID patients due to non-supply of oxygen not less than genocide” on reports circulating on social media regarding the death of COVID-19 patients due to lack of oxygen in Lucknow and Meerut. A day ago, the Delhi police busted an industrial manufacturing unit in Uttarakhand’s Kotdwar where fake Remdesivir injections were being manufactured and arrested five people. These depict the ground reality and ethical standards of good pharmacy practice in this country. There is an utmost necessity to relook and re-establish the standards of pharmacy practice in healthcare setups available in each and every corner of the country in line with guidelines provided by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP). For that, the dependency and responsibilities are very high on healthcare professionals, particularly in this pandemic situation. The pharmacy zone is adaptable, evolving, and increasingly diverse, offering a wide range of work and management opportunities to execute. PPs are human service professionals whose responsibilities include safeguarding individuals by dispensing medications based on prescriptions. Representing the world’s third-largest medicinal services with active gathering, and in India, there are over 1,000,000 (1 million) enrolled PPs employed in various capacities and readily contributing to the country’s well-being. Pharmacy practice, which includes clinical, community, and hospital pharmacy, is referred to as total healthcare in its true sense. Through adaptation and implementation of GPP in healthcare setup, PPs form an essential link between physicians, nurses, and patients in the social community group, with an ultimate emphasis on patient well-being and protection. To instill quality and raise the standard in this chaotic situation there are strict measures required in the country. The International Pharmaceutical Federation and World Health Organization define good pharmacy practice (GPP) as practices that meet the personal needs of patients or those using pharmacy services by offering appropriate evidence-based care. In developed countries, pharmaceutical assistance is defined as a pharmaceutical practice model that involves attitudes, ethical values, behaviors, skills, appointments, and co-responsibility to prevent diseases, promote and recovery health in an integrated manner as part of the healthcare process, highlighting, among other, the requirement that the institution fully adopts the GPP. There is a need for a GPP Program designed by the Indian Govt. or its stakeholders in the context of the Indian healthcare system and adopting “new normal” due to the unprecedented event of COVID 19 and also raising the standard and importance of GPP for the healthcare professionals in the current scenario.",book:{id:"10878",title:"Bioethical Issues in Healthcare",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10878.jpg"},signatures:"Mrinmoy Roy"},{id:"79358",title:"Determination of Death: Ethical and Biomedical Update with International Consensus",slug:"determination-of-death-ethical-and-biomedical-update-with-international-consensus",totalDownloads:189,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100604",abstract:"Humanity has been confronted with the concept and criteria of death for millennia and the line between life and death sustains to be debated. The profound change caused by life support technology and transplantation continues to challenge our notions of life and death. Despite scientific progress in the previous few decades, there remain big variations in diagnosis criteria applied in each country. Death is a process involving cessation of physiological function and determination of death is the final event in that process. Legally, a patient could be declared dead due to lack of brain function, and still may have a heartbeat when on a mechanical ventilator. Though there is no point in supporting ventilation in a dead person, withdrawing a ventilator before the legal criteria for death may involve the physician in both civil and criminal proceedings. To identify the moment of death is vital to avoid the use of unnecessary medical intervention on a patient who has already died and to ensure the organ donation process, clear and transparent. The age-old standard of determination of death is somatic standard and cardiopulmonary standard. Harvard report (1968) defines irreversible coma as a replacement criterion for death and prescribed clinical criteria for the permanently nonfunctioning brain. The current unifying concept of death: irreversible loss of the capacity for consciousness combined with irreversible loss of the capacity to breathe. WHO (2014) adopted minimum determinant death criteria, acceptable for medical practice globally, achieving international consensus on clinical criteria to maintain public trust and promote ethical practices that respect fundamental rights of individuals and minimize philosophical and biomedical debate in human death. AAN (2019) endorses that the brain death is the irreversible loss of all functions of the entire brain and equivalent to circulatory death.",book:{id:"10878",title:"Bioethical Issues in Healthcare",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10878.jpg"},signatures:"Md. Shah Alam Panna"},{id:"77450",title:"For a Model of Revision, Assistance and Care of Identities",slug:"for-a-model-of-revision-assistance-and-care-of-identities",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98415",abstract:"The global crisis scenario has highlighted the weaknesses of advanced personal assistance and care systems, based on the absolute primacy of technical knowledge. Almost all health organizations have been challenged by the new Coronavirus. The universal system because it is realistically unable to reach everyone efficiently and effectively. The private model, albeit moderated by intentions of global care, because it is onerous and, in fact, not very inclusive. This study, without any pretense of completeness, thanks to an examination of the most well-known documents published by the organizations for the promotion of human health, both EU and international, highlights the essential aspects and purposes of some of the main models of health care, also identifying the critical issues and the remedies prepared. The main purpose of the text is to highlight and reflect on possible alternative solutions to the current strategies to combat the pandemic, implemented by the states. The probable contributing causes that have contributed to the spread of the new coronavirus and its variants globally and that have their roots in now dated issues are then analyzed. The lesson that the Pandemic teaches us is that “no one is saved alone” and that the problems of each family, social, national etc., represent the problems of everyone. The document concludes in the sense that, only through a new approach to individual and collective health care, marked by greater solidarity and respect for individual, specific identities and frailties, starting from those “hidden” in society (adolescents, elderly, of handicaps, immigrants, etc.) it will be possible to promote welfare systems that are more attentive to the needs imposed by the challenges of globalization and therefore really more effective, economical and efficient, and therefore more humane.",book:{id:"10878",title:"Bioethical Issues in Healthcare",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10878.jpg"},signatures:"Federico D’Angiolillo"},{id:"77679",title:"Compassion Versus Care in Healthcare Institutions: What’s the Difference?",slug:"compassion-versus-care-in-healthcare-institutions-what-s-the-difference",totalDownloads:97,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97860",abstract:"In February 2013, the Francis Report outlined what it described as ‘systematic failings’ at Mid Staffordshire NHS Foundation Trust resulting in the death and suffering of many patients through neglect (in the UK context, hospitals can apply to gain foundation trust status. Foundation trust hospitals are part of the National Health Service (NHS) but are not directed by central government and have greater freedom to decide the way services are delivered. They adhere to core NHS principles of free medical treatment based on need and not the ability to pay.) A lack of compassion, particularly among nursing staff, was identified as one of the contributing factors to poor care. The NHS was founded on the core value of compassion that today is one of six values all NHS staff are expected to demonstrate. Frequently invoked as a means to ensuring good patient care, it is a concept that is contested by a number of writers who argue that such moral emotions are not only unnecessary but dangerous. The purpose of this work is to explore the difference between compassion and care (but not medical treatment) in the context of the NHS. The paper draws on the work of Anca Gheaus, who argues there is a distinction to be made between the two and that while it is possible to be compassionate towards everybody, the ability to care, is limited to fewer people and is a more intense and engaged activity. Regarded as the founding myth of the NHS, the work also draws on the parable of the Good Samaritan to make the distinction between the two concepts more visible, and argues the roles played by the Good Samaritan and the innkeeper, remain relevant to the workings of today’s healthcare system. It also reflects on the need for kindness within the system.",book:{id:"10878",title:"Bioethical Issues in Healthcare",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10878.jpg"},signatures:"Una P. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"82392",title:"Nanomaterials as Novel Biomarkers for Cancer Nanotheranostics: State of the Art",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105700",signatures:"Hao Yu, Zhihai Han, Cunrong Chen and Leisheng Zhang",slug:"nanomaterials-as-novel-biomarkers-for-cancer-nanotheranostics-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - 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Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation"},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Biochemistry",id:"11"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/41675",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"41675"},fullPath:"/chapters/41675",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()