Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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1. Introduction
EHealth is an umbrella term that covers Health Informatics, Telehealth and other ICT (information and communications technology) solutions in health care and medicine. It has been broadly defined as “the intersection of medical informatics, public health and business, referring to health services and information delivered or enhanced through the Internet and related technologies. In a broader sense, the term characterizes not only a technical development, but also a state-of-mind, a way of thinking, an attitude, and a commitment for networked, global thinking, to improve health care locally, regionally, and worldwide by using information and communication technology” [1].
EHealth also incorporates virtual reality, robotics, multi-media, digital imaging, computer assisted surgery, wearable monitoring systems, health portals.
While the primary focus of Health Informatics is the use of information systems and digital repositories in healthcare (electronic health record or EHR, medical terminologies, clinical guidelines), Telehealth refers to the use of ICT for the purpose of providing services across distance, time, social and cultural barriers. These services include both clinical services (such as telemedicine, telenursing, telerehabilitation, telepharmacy, teledentistry, or telemonitoring) and non-clinical applications (health education, research, or administrative). Telemedicine focuses primarily on the delivery of clinical care and includes a number of speciality terms such as teleradiology, telepathology, telepsychiatry, teledermatology and telesurgery. [2]
In this chapter we discuss the challenges, strategies and trends in healthcare. We also discuss the opportunities and benefits associated with the adoption of eHealth/Telehealth solutions as well as their impacts on the health system and the population. Although these topics are discussed in Canadian context, they may also apply in other countries.
One of the fundamental goals of health systems in most countries is to provide equitable access to healthcare. However, there are multiple and varying barriers to achieving this goal. In some countries these barriers include limited access to portable clean water, a trained healthcare worker or critical lifesaving drugs. Other countries face challenges with providing medical intervention or an inoculation to prevent infectious diseases from spreading in an equitable and timely manner. There are also significant disparities between urban and rural healthcare. The barriers in the rural regions include “limited local expertise, resources, economic infrastructure, reimbursement for health services, as well as difficulties in retention and recruitment of health professionals, smaller population bases, isolation, and significant distances from needed expertise and service.” [3].
With advancement of ICT and financial support, we may be able to reduce the disparities between regions regardless of availabilities of local resources. For example, Canada’s First Nations people are not only affected by geographical isolation, but also by chronic poverty, under- or unemployment, substance abuse, limited opportunities for education and social advancement. Most reserves are located outside of major cities where all the social amenities are available, including sophisticated health care services. Over the past two decades the federal government has initiated a process of "transferring of control" to native communities and regional organizations. As a part, health care has become an integral aspect of aboriginal self-determination. In general, chronic care patients such as diabetics fare better at their home environment [4]
While we implement eHealth/ Telehealth services, we have to be cognisant of the needs for business continuity and disaster recovery plans and solutions. The current set up for eHealth/ Telehealth services is quite fragile as the disaster recovery plans do not exist or their implementation is not adequate.
Consequently, the scope of eHealth has been expanded. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines eHealth/ Telehealth/e-commerce as follows: “Tele-health includes surveillance health promotion and public health functions. It is broader in definition than tele-medicine as it includes computer-assisted telecommunications to support management, surveillance, literature and access to medical knowledge. Tele-medicine is the use of telecommunications to diagnose and treat disease and ill-health. Telematics for health is a WHO composite term for both tele-medicine and tele-health, or any health-related activities carried out over distance by means of ICT [5].
2. Definition of eHealth/Telehealth through scoping studies
The primary focus of eHealth/Telehealth is not technology. Rather, it is the adoption of the discoveries in medical sciences and advances in ICT to improve access to health services, and expand the range of these services from care to disease prevention to health maintenance to health education. The technology is just an enabler.
EHealth systems and services combined with organizational changes and the development of new skills create new opportunities to improve the healthcare system locally, nationally and globally through the collaboration and contribution of many stakeholders, including patients, health professionals, institutions, governments, researchers, academia and industry.
The healthcare system faces increasing pressure to improve health service delivery, health outcomes, and to contain healthcare costs regardless of economic status of the country. These challenges are directly linked to the changes in population demographic (e.g., ageing population, increased prevalence of chronic diseases), and increased expectations and needs for more equitable access to care, improved quality of care, improved health outcomes, and improved safety of care. Recently, these challenges have become more acute because of the shortages of healthcare professionals, complexity and accelerated communicability of diseases in many countries.
To address these challenges and meet the healthcare needs of population, many countries implement strategies that include establishing national health programs, improving health service delivery systems, fostering health maintenance and disease prevention, adopting proactive approach to management of healthcare resources, fostering research and innovation and adopting standardization and integration across the health systems.
Oh and colleagues [6] reported the results of scoping study by using the search query string “eHealth” OR “e-Health” OR “electronic health”. They used the Medline and Premedline (1966-June 2004); EMBASE (1980-May 2004); International Pharmaceutical Abstracts (1970-May 2004); Web of Science (all years), Information Sciences Abstracts (1966-May 2004); Library Information Sciences Abstracts (1969-May 2004); and Wilson Business Abstracts (1982-March 2004); dictionaries and an Internet search engine. They concluded that the term eHealth encompasses a set of disparate concepts, including health, technology, and commerce. In the definitions of eHealth, technology was viewed both as a tool to enable a process, function, service and as the embodiment of eHealth itself (e.g., a health website on the Internet). They discovered that technology was portrayed as a means to expand, to assist, or to enhance human activities, rather than as a substitute for them [6].
Paré and his colleagues [7] had reviewed more than 65 telemonitoring studies in the United States and Europe. The study, entitled “Systematic Review of Home Telemonitoring for Chronic Diseases”, concluded that home telemonitoring produces accurate and reliable data empowers patients and influences their attitudes and behaviours, and may improve their medical conditions. They concluded that home telemonitoring produces accurate and reliable data, empowers patients and influences their attitudes and behaviours, and may improve their medical conditions.
According to their study, the key clinical impact of implementing telemonitoring was a decrease in emergency room visits, hospital admissions, and average length of hospital stays. The effects of telemonitoring tended to be more consistent in pulmonary and cardiac studies than in studies on diabetes and hypertension.
3. Role of local, provincial, national governments and international organization in promoting e-health/ Telehealth
In order to implement comprehensive and over reaching e-health/ Telehealth service, it is vital to have all levels of governments and international organizations’ cooperation and support. Governments as policy-making organizations, play a key role in formulating regulations, governing, financing, and regulating the health and business sectors.
EHealth was discussed at the United Nations World Summit on the Information Society in December 2003 and at the World Health Assembly in May 2005. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has established various eHealth initiatives, such as the WHO Global Observatory for eHealth (GOe) in 2005, which aims "to provide Member States with strategic information and guidance on effective practices, policies and standards in eHealth". The World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), held with the participation of 175 countries (second phase, 16-18 November 2005, Tunis), affirmed its commitment to "improving access to the world\'s health knowledge and telemedicine services, in particular in areas such as global cooperation in emergency response, access to and networking among health professionals to help improve quality of life and environmental conditions".
The second global survey on eHealth was conducted by the GOe in late 2009 and was designed to build on the knowledge base generated by the first survey in 2005. While the first survey was general and primarily asked questions about the national level, the 2009 survey was designed to be thematic with far more detailed questions used to explore areas particular to eHealth. The survey has provided the GOe with a rich source of data that is being used to create a series of eight publications, the Global Observatory for eHealth series. GOe has release three reports to date: Telemedicine - Opportunities and developments in Member States; Atlas of e-Health country profiles; and m-Health. They are the most updated collection of survey data on eHealth from around the world. Over 800 eHealth experts and 114 counties have contributed to the data collection process. The mobile-Health (mHealth) survey was focused to identify the diverse ways mobile devices are being used for health around the world and their effectiveness. It is also to highlight the most important obstacles to implementing mHealth solutions and to examine if mHealth can overcome the ‘digital divide’. Their report was released in June 2011. For the purpose of their study, GOe defined mHealth as a component of eHealth and support medical and public health practice by using mobile phone by capitalizing on a mobile phone’s core utility of voice and short messaging service (SMS) as well as more complex functionalities and applications including general packet radio service (GPRS), third and fourth generation mobile telecommunications (3G and 4G systems), global positioning system (GPS), and Bluetooth technology [5].
It is valuable to have global data on eHealth adaption stages. The following Canadian example illustrates how adaption of eHealth/Telehealth intertwines the governments, health care providers, patients, public sectors and industries.
3.1. Canadian example
Every Canadian citizen has access to publicly funded healthcare, however, the manner in which the healthcare system is structured, funded and governed varies from province to province. While each province sets its own policies, strategies and priorities, some of the challenges are common across the country.
Issues Associated with Healthcare Delivery
Geography: Canada is a country of over 34.6 million people spread across almost 10 million square kilometres. While the majority is concentrated in a several urban areas, a significant proportion is scattered across the land in hundreds of geographically isolated communities, many in areas of extreme climatic conditions. These factors pose serious challenges to the provision of health services.
Ageing population: Seniors constitute one of the fastest growing groups in Canadian society. By 2041, about 23% of the population will be over 65, up from 12% in 1995. This growing portion of the population will inevitably require the devotion of a larger proportion of expensive health resources.
Shortage of health professionals: There is a general shortage of healthcare professionals. That threatens the supply of and extends wait lists for some healthcare services.
Inequitable distribution of health professionals: Most health service providers live and work in large urban centres. This contributes to acute shortage of health professionals in many smaller communities and rural areas where the provision of equitable access to health services is increasingly challenging.
Patient safety: Several studies conducted by the Canadian Patient Safety Institute revealed that a significant number of patients experienced adverse events. One of the studies [8] revealed that an estimated 7.5% of patients admitted to acute care hospitals in Canada in the fiscal year 2000 experienced 1 or more adverse events. Also, 36.9% of these patients were considered to have highly preventable adverse events. Most of the patients who experienced adverse events recovered without permanent disability; their adverse events contributed to longer stays in hospital or temporary disability. However, a small but significant proportion of patients died or experienced a permanent disability as a result of their adverse events.
Increasing prevalence of public health threats: The number of incidents of chronic diseases is increasing. Furthermore, emerging threats to public health such as SARS and avian flu require a pan-Canadian health surveillance system to provide critical information to support a rapid and effective response. These factors contribute to a high utilization of the scarce healthcare resources.
Limited integration: Silos of care fail to provide patients and providers with timely and seamless access to the information they require and cause delays and needless duplication of services.
Fragmented funding: Funding of health services is a complicating factor and a matter currently of intense scrutiny and considerable controversy. The division of political, managerial and fiscal accountability across provincial and federal lines has created tensions particularly around the question of the current level, and most appropriate future level of funding.
Budget constraints: New treatments and technologies cost more and put additional demands on the strained healthcare budgets.
Language barriers: Canada is a culturally diverse country, which has created some health care challenges. From the last national census, of 30 million people, 18 million speak English, 7 million French and 5 million a mother-tongue other than English or French (official languages). Not being able to speak either official language is an obstacle for newcomers when seeking or obtaining healthcare.
Recent Trends in Delivery of Healthcare Services
Notwithstanding the provincial variations, several major trends have emerged that have a direct impact on adoption of eHealth. These trends include:
Consolidation of services: Entails consolidation of healthcare services delivery, either through hospital amalgamation or regionalization.
Integration of services: Integration of vertical health service delivery across the continuum of care primarily through regionalization.
Co-operation among service providers: Entails organizing workflows in such a way that they support the individual patient care process and facilitate co-operation among service providers.
Partnering: Third-party provisioning of health services through various mechanisms including outsourcing, shared service organizations and partnering between several healthcare organizations.
Alignment of federal and provincial strategies: Alignment of provincial eHealth agendas and strategies with the strong involvement of Canada Health Infoway - a federal organization created to foster and accelerate the development of pan-Canadian electronic health information systems.
Investment in eHealth: Strong senior-level support for eHealth solutions within healthcare organizations, regional health authorities and provincial ministries of health.
National Health Strategies for Health Information
In 2001, Canada Health Infoway was launched to develop Health Information Strategy and deploy information management and information technology solutions across the country. Infoway is an independent, not-for-profit organization whose members are 14 federal, provincial and territorial Deputy Ministers of Health.
Canada Health Infoway invests in partnership with provincial and territorial governments and regional health authorities across Canada to implement and reuse compatible health information systems that support a safer, more efficient healthcare system.
Infoway and its public sector partners have hundreds of projects, either completed or underway, delivering electronic health record (EHR) and point-of-service solutions to Canadians – solutions that bring tangible value to patients, providers and the healthcare system.
To accomplish its mission, vision and goal, Canada Health Infoway invests in health information technology solutions in priority areas, including the Registries, Interoperable Electronic Health Records, Diagnostic Imaging Systems, Drug Information Systems, Laboratory Information Systems, Public Health Surveillance, Telehealth, Innovation and Adoption, and Info structure.
Canada’s total healthcare expenditure was approximated at $121.4 billion in 2003/2004 fiscal year and $140 billion in 2005/2006 fiscal year. Although the Canadian health system is described as publicly funded, nearly 30% of funding comes from non-public sources, such as insurance companies and individuals.
As indicated in the 2003 Report on Canadian Hospital IT: Top Issues, Applications and Vendors, less than 2% of healthcare funding in hospitals is spent on information technology majority of which (over 80%) is spent on maintaining existing infrastructure and only 17% is devoted to development of new information technology solutions.
Public spending on eHealth is heavily influenced by Canada Health Infoway. Canada Health Infoway is an independent not-for-profit organization whose members are Canada’s 14 federal, provincial and territorial Deputy Ministers of Health.
While the initiatives led by Infoway and its public sector partners are an integral part of the pan-Canadian strategy to improve the health system, there are numerous challenges involved in the implementation of these initiatives. Examples include:
Privacy and security: Concerns about personal privacy and information confidentiality and the recent proclamation of Privacy and Confidentiality legislation across the provinces and territories is a considerable challenge to the development of inter-jurisdictional data sharing arrangements and to storage and manipulation of data holdings (especially patient records).
Standardization and interoperability: There is a growing recognition that compliance with health informatics and technology standards is critical to achieving interoperability among eHealth solutions. However, given the number of health informatics and technology standards, their state of maturity and adoption, and lack of universal interoperability standards for eHealth, the challenge of building plug-and-play interoperable systems requires significant expertise and continuing effort.
Integration with service delivery: the integration of technology with the service delivery system is a key critical success factor for a wide adoption of eHealth solutions.
Technology suitability: Deployment of eHealth solutions that are suitable and well-aligned with the healthcare workflows is critical. Some challenges still remain to be addressed. For example, some of the technologies remain unproven in extremes of climate and in far-north locations. There are also limitations imposed by the fragility and newness of certain technologies and products in situations where ongoing technical maintenance and operational services are limited or do not exist.
Technology acceptance: Public and professional acceptance of the new technology solutions and new ways of service delivery remains a significant risk factor and a challenge to be addressed.
Safety: while there is growing recognition that eHealth solutions assist in ensuring patient and health professional safety, there is also recognition that the safety of eHealth products must be addressed in a similar way as for medical devices.
Sustainability: There is a growing recognition that the deployment of eHealth solutions goes beyond technology and involves change management and further investment. Financial and human resources must be invested in the management and operations of the eHealth solutions to realize their full potential and be sustainable.
Education and training: Education of sufficient numbers of information technology, information management and health informatics specialists to implement, operate, manage and continue the development and improvement of the technologies and the systems remains a challenge that needs to be addressed.
The healthcare market is changing and expanding at a rapid rate and the focus is on automation, increased efficiency and effectiveness of decision making, improved outcomes and patient care provider safety through the increasing use of information technology and eHealth applications.
The following table presents some examples of trends in care delivery and eHealth/Telehealth solutions.
Future Global Healthcare Strategies is quite clear from the Canadian example that there are many challenges associated with an adoption of eHealth/Telehealth at the national level. There have been many pilot projects and initiatives using varied equipment and strategies. Some of the initiatives have been sustained and others were abandoned. The key factors for abandonment are costs and benefits, complexity of technologies, low level of acceptance among healthcare service providers, and lack of technical assistance.
Over a decade, Wootton had held annual conference on “Success and Failure of Telehealth” He found that despite the large number of published articles on the concept of telemedicine in the developing world, there are remarkably few examples of successful implementations. Wootton and others [10] have published a book on “Telehealth in developing world” which summarized the experience of starting and sustaining Telehealth projects in the developing world. This book has assembled large contribution of Telehealth experience from developing countries.
According to the International Telecommunication Union, there are now close to 5 billion mobile phone subscriptions in the world. In 2010, there were 143 counties which offer third generation mobile telecommunications (3G) services and several counties are even moving toward fourth generation mobile telecommunications (4G). The Internet access is essential for eHealth and two billion people are Internet users of which 1.2 billion are in developing counties [11]. Given the volume of available mobile phones in the world, the prospect of using mobile phone or devices for healthcare seems promising.
Therefore, it is reasonable for the WHO to pay special attention to mHealth, following the extensive survey of eHealth activities among the member countries. Fourteen categories of mHealth services were surveyed: health call centres, emergency, toll-free telephone services, managing emergencies and disasters, mobile telemedicine, appointment reminders, community mobilization and health promotion, treatment compliance, mobile patient records, information access, patient monitoring, health surveys and data collection, surveillance, raising health awareness, and decision support systems. According to mHealth document [12], mobile phones are used to call a call center, emergency calls, medical consultations but not for health promotion or decision support or surveillance in developing countries. In case of disaster, they will use mobile phone or toll free call. As they move forward with mHealth, it is a vital importance to establish a policy for protecting privacy and security of health data [13].
Trends
Examples of eHealth Solutions
Purpose
Consumer Health Informatics
Client empowerment
Health information portals eLearning systems Collaborative tools
Provide access for health information and education material Connect to others who have the same / similar health conditions Participate in support groups
Self-Care
Personal electronic health record Monitoring devices and bio-sensors Medical devices eLearning systems
Collect data about health status Monitor health conditions and lifestyle Perform diagnostic procedures Perform non-invasive treatment interventions
Personal health record
Electronic health record / smart card Document management Data integration systems Messaging systems Privacy and security solutions
Collect data about health status Provide a comprehensive and secure clinical view of client health information accessible to authorized persons (e.g., healthcare professionals) from any location at any time
Evidence-based medicine
Electronic health record Good health practices Health information portals
Provide access to evidence-based guidelines, studies, and health practices Promote good health practices
Professional Informatics
Computer-aided decision tools
Computer-aided clinical discipline / disease-specific practice guidelines Care pathways
Provide access to medical information / knowledge anywhere and anytime
Clinical communications
Electronic clinical communications tools for booking, referrals, clinical documentation
Communicate electronically with clinical systems and other services providers Assist in sharing clinical expertise
Knowledge management
Collaborative tools Multimedia conferencing systems E-learning systems Data mining tools Data fusion tools Rule discovery tools Knowledge capture systems
Organize and disseminate the existing knowledge Create new knowledge taking into account tacit and explicit aspects of knowledge
Evidence-based medicine
Computer-assisted clinical practice guidelines Electronic health record Good health practices Health information portals Clinical support systems
Combine the new knowledge with the existing practices and clinical standards Provide tools for rigorous scientific evaluation of collected facts Develop and disseminate practice guidelines and health practices Provide access to medical journals and studies
Service Delivery
Remote sensing and monitoring
Bio-sensors and wearable products Implantable devices Smart medical devices Telemonitoring
Monitor individuals with critical / chronic conditions Monitor individuals who work / live in extreme conditions
Remote service delivery
Telehealth systems Telemedicine applications Telelearning
Improve access to health and education services for people living in areas with limited access to these services Facilitate collaboration among the health stakeholders, including service providers and service recipients Provide a tool for continuing medical / health education
Personalized care
New diagnostic and treatment modalities Genomic and molecular medicine technologies, including sequencing, genotyping, gene expression profiling, and protein engineering Specialized tools to identify and stratify health risks and recommend preventative measures for individuals
Participate in the development of care plans and assessment of the appropriateness of care Facilitate collaboration among the health stakeholders, including service providers and service recipients Predict and prevent diseases
Population-based care
Population identification and screening tools Specialized tools to aid in decision-making
Facilitate population based health planning Predict the evolution of disease in populations
Medication management
ePharmacy systems Electronic health record Drug interaction systems Drug dispensing devices
Identify and stratify medical risks and recommend preventative measures for population Prescribe and monitor remotely clients’ compliance with the care plan Coordinate response to extraordinary population-wide risks (e.g., pandemic, environment contamination)
Virtual health team
Collaborative tools Multimedia conferencing systems Teleconsultation applications eLearning systems Knowledge management systems
Facilitate collaboration among health stakeholders, including: Communities of practice / interest Service providers across different care areas, including acute, community, continuing care, mental health and other areas
Healthcare Business Management
Proactive business management
Data mining tools Workflow management Forecasting tools Best management practices
Mine and analyze clinical, organizational and economic information across facilities and service areas to monitor and measure efficiency and effectiveness of the health service delivery system Perform forecasting and service delivery planning Develop and disseminate best management practices
Data Management and Protection
Data and information quality
Search engine tools Data cleansing tools Data mining tools Data fusion and rule discovery tools Pattern-based tools Ontology tools
Ensure quality of data and information (e.g., accuracy, completeness, consistency, clarity, currency, relevancy, timeliness)
Integration
Virtual electronic health record Middleware Integration broker Messaging system Enterprise application integration system
Provide access to data Facilitate data exchange between heterogeneous systems Integrate systems at different levels e.g., network, data, application level
Security
Security tools Persistent security
Protect systems and networks through providing security services e.g., authentication, authorization, auditing Protect data, information, knowledge in the environment where security services may not be available
Table 1.
Examples of eHealth trends and solutions
According to Paré et al. (2011), implementation of mobile device with customized homecare nursing software helped to structure and organizes the nursing activities in patients\' homes. There were 137 homecare nurses and they were asked to complete a structured questionnaire and 101 had completed (74% response rate).The nurses reported significant level of satisfaction with the quality of clinical information collected. A total of 57 semi-structured interviews were conducted and most nurses considered the software to be user friendly. A questionnaire was mailed out to approximately 1240 patients and 223 patients responded. They reported that nurses who used mobile computing device during their home visits seemed to manage their health condition better and provided superior homecare services. The use of mobile computing had positive and significant effects on the quality of care provided by homecare nurses.
4. Disaster recovery plan
As we move forward with the ICT supported healthcare, we must ensure the security, integrity, business continuity and recovery of healthcare data and services after a disaster, either manmade or natural. Advancement of technology and adoption of ICT solutions have contributed to escalating amount of digital data in business and public sectors. It is quite common for health care to be affected by earth quakes, fire, floods and severe storms in resource rich counties.
EHealth/ Telehealth networks can be destroyed or disabled in few seconds by natural disasters like in Japan. Numerous natural disasters such as tsunami, hurricanes, earth quakes, ice storms, tornados, forest fires or floods can significantly affect people’s ability to access basic necessities, such as food, shelter, and healthcare regardless of economic status of the country. In addition, there are numerous active wars and battle zones around the world where basic livelihood have been threatened.
Over the past decades there has been a substantial increase in the number of people affected by disasters and the subsequent socio-economic losses. In 2007, 414 disasters resulting from natural hazards were reported. They killed 16,847 people, affected more than 211 million others and caused over 74.9US$ billion in economic damages. Last year\'s number of reported disasters confirmed the global upward trend in natural hazard-related disasters, mainly driven by the increase in the number of hydro-meteorological disasters. In recent decades, the number of reported hydrological disasters has increased by 7.4% per year on average. (Annual Disaster Statistical Review: Numbers and Trends 2007, Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters).
Therefore, disaster recovery should be an integral part of planning, development and adoption of ICT solutions in health. It is not a matter of if, but when disaster is going to happen. It is essential to have a policy and a disaster recovery plan for eHealth
An example of such as a policy has been developed by eHealth Ontario (2009) which states;
“Business continuity management processes must be implemented to identify and limit to acceptable levels the business risks and consequences associated with major failures or disasters, considering both the disruption of eHealth Ontario services and the capability and time to resume essential operations.
The potential consequences of disasters, security failures, and service disruptions must be analyzed to determine the criticality of services and supporting IT infrastructure components.
Integrated plans must be developed, implemented, and tested to ensure that all critical business services are maintained or can be restored on a prioritized basis, to an acceptable level and within the required time-scales, in the event of failure. Business continuity commitments for critical services must be incorporated into Service Level Agreements with clients. Disaster Recovery plans should be tested annually.
Contingency plans must provide for the following [13]:
timely restoration of service disrupted by a failure within a system, process, or function
emergency recovery of service at an alternate location in the event of a disaster or prolonged outage at the primary site
limited recovery of critical services in the event of major loss of staff.”
The mission of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is to promote policies that will improve the economic and social well-being of people around the world. The OECD provides a forum in which governments can work together to share experiences and seek solutions to common problems such as healthcare.
As identified by the OECD, there is "an absence, in general, of independent, robust monitoring and evaluation of programmes and projects" [14]. In this context, there is a very real need to benchmark for the first time in a consistent and comparable manner eHealth deployment, take-up, and impact in hospitals across the EU27.
The OECD [15] has used a case study approach to explore the various handicaps, incentives, enabling of secure exchanges of information, and the use of benchmarking in relation to eHealth with an aim to determine which practices can improve the adoption and use of ICT. It undertook six case studies, three of which were in Europe (the Netherlands, Spain and Sweden). Internationally, it also explored the situation in Australia, Canada and the United States of America (USA). This study therefore plays a vital role in discovering the eHealth deployment, take-up, and impact in hospitals across the EU27.
According to eHealth Benchmarking III [16] was prepared based on the result of survey conducted by Deloitte, in association with Ipsos Belgium and with the support of Diane Whitehouse of The Castlegate Consultancy, on behalf of the Information Society and Media Directorate-General European Commission (EC).
They had surveyed 906 acute hospitals; targeted Chief Information Officers (CIOs) in all the hospitals and Medical Directors in 280 of the hospitals: CIOs were asked about the availability of eHealth infrastructure and applications in their hospitals; whereas Medical Directors were asked about priority areas for investment, impacts and perceived barriers to the further deployment of eHealth. The survey was carried out in 2010 in all 27 Member States of the European Union (EU) and in Croatia, Iceland, and Norway [16].
Their method of data collection and analysis were clearly stated and processes of cross validation were included within and between the questionnaires for the Medical directors and CIOs. Within this study, they have inquired about their disaster recovery plan doe the acute hospitals in EU.
Disaster recovery implies the ability to recover those mission-critical computer systems that are required to support the business’s continuity – in this case, the business is the hospital. There were more than 80% of the hospitals have an enterprise archive strategy for long-term storage and disaster recovery.
Enterprise archive strategies relate to "a comprehensive information archiving strategy aligned with an organisation’s goals and performance needs.
All the hospitals surveyed in eight European countries (Austria, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) have an enterprise archive strategy for long-term storage and disaster recovery. The similar trend exists in Belgium, Germany, Spain and the UK. However France and Italy are both below the EU+ average. Of the hospitals that have an enterprise archive strategy, for most of them it is driven by the hospital’s own strategy. Only in a few hospitals is it driven by national or regional healthcare IT programmes. "IBM - Information Lifecycle Management Services - Enterprise Archive - North America." [17].
Many of the hospitals in EU are operationalizing the disaster recovery plan within the hospital except Denmark, Ireland and Sweden are the only three countries where the strategy is driven by either regional or national health care IT program more than by the hospital’s own strategy.
Due to the nature of the service, it is essential to restore hospitals’ critical clinical information. In EU, almost half the hospitals’ critical clinical information system operations can be restored within 24 hours in the event that a disaster were to cause the complete loss of data at the hospital’s primary data centre. However, 10% of hospitals say that this can only be done in less than one week. Shockingly, 1% says that it would take up to a month and, even worse, in another 1% of hospitals it would take more than a month.
Immediate recovery is possible in more than half of the hospitals in Luxembourg and Sweden. More than nine out of ten hospitals in Austria, Bulgaria, and Sweden would restore data immediately or within 24 hours. The response time is longer than 24 hours for more than half of the hospitals surveyed in Finland, Greece and Norway.
5. Conclusion
EHealth/Telehealth will continue to evolve with advances in ICT, information science, medicine and biotechnology. The new generation of healthcare providers and patients will be far more comfortable with new technologies, new applications and services, and innovative service delivery methods. There is also a growing recognition that eHealth provides an opportunity for healthcare providers to improve health systems and transform them from the ‘Diagnose and Treat’ to ‘Predict and Prevent’ models.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/38841.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/38841.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/38841",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/38841",totalDownloads:3104,totalViews:502,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:71,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 8th 2011",dateReviewed:"May 7th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 12th 2012",dateFinished:"September 6th 2012",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/38841",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/38841",book:{id:"2824",slug:"ehealth-and-remote-monitoring"},signatures:"Masako Miyazaki, Eugene Igras, Lili Liu and Toshio Ohyanagi",authors:[{id:"90933",title:"Dr.",name:"Masako",middleName:null,surname:"Miyazaki",fullName:"Masako Miyazaki",slug:"masako-miyazaki",email:"masako.miyazaki@ualberta.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Alberta",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"100861",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshio",middleName:null,surname:"Ohyanagi",fullName:"Toshio Ohyanagi",slug:"toshio-ohyanagi",email:"ohyanagi@sapmed.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Sapporo Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"100862",title:"Dr.",name:"Lili",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Lili Liu",slug:"lili-liu",email:"lili.liu@ualberta.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Alberta",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Definition of eHealth/Telehealth through scoping studies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Role of local, provincial, national governments and international organization in promoting e-health/ Telehealth",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Canadian example",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Disaster recovery plan",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'EysenbachG.2001What is e-health? J. med. internet. res. 3 (1). Available: http://www.jmir.org/2001/2/e20/.Accessed 2012 April 29.'},{id:"B2",body:'e-Health; Open Clinical2011Available: http://www.openclinical.org/e-Health.html.Accessed 2012 April 29.'},{id:"B3",body:'AlversonD. C.ShannonS.SullivanE.PrillA.EffertzG.HelitzerD.BeffortS.PrestonA.2004Telehealth in the Trenches: Reporting Back from the Frontlines in Rural America”. Telemed. j. e-Health 10: Sup 2, S95S109. Available: http://hsc.unm.edu/som/telehealth/docs/telemedjournalarticle.pdf.Accessed 2012 April 29.'},{id:"B4",body:'Health Canada,2011http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fniah-spnia/index-eng.php.Accessed 2012 April 29.'},{id:"B5",body:'Global Observatory for eHealth series2011Health Canada, 1-3. Available: http://www.who.int/goe/publications/ehealth_series_1 en/;http://www.who.int/goe/publications/ehealth_series_vol2/en/index.html; http://www.who.int/goe/publications/goe_mhealth_web.pdf). Accessed 2012 April 29.'},{id:"B6",body:'OhH.RizoC.EnkinM.JadadA.2005What is eHealth: a systematic review of published definitions. J. med. internet res. 7(1). Available: http://www.jmir.org/2005/1/e1/).Accessed April 30, 2012.'},{id:"B7",body:'ParéG.SicotteC.Moreault-PM.Poba-NzaouP.NahasG.TemplierM.2011Mobile computing and the quality of home care nursing practice. J. telemed. telecare. 17313317'},{id:"B8",body:'BakerG. R.NortonP. G.FlintoftV.BlaisR.BrownA.CoxJ.EtchellsE.GhaliW. A.HenertP.MajumdarS. 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1. Introduction
Human spaceflight and exploration began in the 1960s. Manned spaceflight activities have continually expanded in frequency and scope since that time, and plans are now forming for long-duration flights to deep-space destinations. However, numerous risk factors have potential to negatively affect the astronauts’ health during deep-space missions, especially microgravity and space radiation. Exposure of astronauts to space radiation is relatively unpredictable yet inevitable. Space radiation comes from two major sources: solar particle events (SPE) emanating from the sun and galactic cosmic rays (GCR) originating from sources outside the solar system.
SPE mainly includes protons and can lead to moderate- to high-dose rate exposures to ionizing radiation during long-term space mission [1, 2]. Astronauts may receive cumulative doses from 1 to 3 gray (Gy) during an SPE [3, 4]. Especially, proton radiation contributes to more than 80% of SPE [1, 2, 5].
GCR contains high atomic number and energy (HZE) particles, such as 56Fe, 28Si, 16O, 12C, and so forth. HZE particles are characterized by dense tracks of ionization, a property quantified as high-linear energy transfer (LET). The properties of HZE particles are consistent with their stronger toxicities and higher energy to normal tissues than photon and proton radiation [6, 7]. Previous studies have documented that the value of RBE in relation to γ-ray radiation was 1.25 for 56Fe, 1.4 for 28Si, and 0.99 for 12C using a mouse model [6, 8]. Among HZE particles, 56Fe has high-linear energy transfer that might heavily contribute to GCR in space [9]. There are many different components including ions, hydrogen, helium, and so on in spacecraft [10]. Based on measurements in the Mars Science Laboratory from 2011 to 2012, the irradiation dose of GCR in the spaceflight was approximately 481 ± 80 μGy per day [11]. For a 600- to 900-day Mars mission, the total radiation doses from GCR reside between 0.33 and 0.49 Gy. Therefore, the total radiation dose from SPE and GCR will reach to 1.0 Gy or above. Although doses and dose rates of space radiation are low, it will still result in space dose accumulation in the body and high risk to astronauts’ health during a long-term space mission [9, 12].
Radiation-induced tissue damage in the body has long been understood since Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-ray in 1895 [13]. Hematopoietic and gastrointestinal systems have been shown to be the two most sensitive compartments of the body to radiation. It has been well-documented that radiation (including space radiation) also induces dysfunction of the brain, manifesting as behavioral and cognitive disabilities [14, 15]. The detrimental effects of X-ray radiation in the body were firstly reported by Warren and Whipple [16] and Shouse et al. [13]. They reported that exposing dogs to high doses of X-rays resulted in death from severe hematopoietic suppression and damage. The detrimental effects of radiation on human health were heavily realized after the use of the first atomic bombs in 1945. Many people in Hiroshima and Nagasaki who survived the initial bomb blast later died from radiation exposure in the event. Long-term toxic impacts of the atomic bomb on humans were observed as well, such as the high risk of hematopoietic malignancies. Further studies proved that hematopoietic failure was one of the primary reasons in radiation-induced death when animals experienced a moderate to high dose of total-body irradiation. This is supported by a study in the 1940s showing that shielding the spleen or one entire hind leg with lead or transplantation of splenocytes protected mice from the lethal effect of irradiation [17]. The importance of hematopoietic cells under radiation was also supported by studies showing that intravenous infusions of bone marrow (BM) cell suspensions protected mice from the effects of radiation [95]. Initially, investigators suggested that a humoral factor from the spleen and BM cell suspensions might benefit the radioprotective effects [18], while later studies proved that it was attributed to the transplanted hematopoietic cells [19, 20, 21]. When Till and McCulloch discovered hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in the 1960s, those cells protecting animals from IR-induced lethal hematopoietic damage were HSCs [22, 23]. Remarkable progress has been subsequently made in understanding of the mechanisms by which radiation causes hematopoietic damage.
However, the effects of space radiation on the hematopoietic system have yet to be fully understood, leading to a lack of effective countermeasure strategies thus far. In the present chapter, we mainly focus our discussion on the biological effectiveness of space radiation, such as proton and oxygen, whereby space radiation induces HSC injury, and the implication of HSC injury to IR-induced BM suppression in mouse. In addition, genomic instability, malignancies, and intestinal, brain, behavioral, and cognitive effects induced by space radiation will not be discussed here, which were extensively discussed by other investigators [24, 25].
2. Composition of the mouse hematopoietic system
Hematopoietic stem cells often replenish the whole blood system throughout the life span of the body and maintain hematopoietic homeostasis. In Till and McCulloch’s landmark work [22, 23, 26], they utilized colony-forming unit-spleen (CFU-S) assay to identify functional HSCs even while these HSCs were a mixed population with different proliferating and self-renewal abilities. This pioneering research not only provided strong evidence to show in vivo HSC existence but also stimulated many investigators to define and isolate HSCs and characterize their properties in mice and humans.
In the decades since Till and McCulloch’s study [22, 23, 26], multiple cell surface markers have been used to separate HSCs from other populations. For example, lineage cell surface markers, such as Ter119, CD4, CD8, B220, Gr-1, Mac-1, and NK1.1, are not detected neither in mouse multipotent progenitors (MPPs) nor in hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs). Both HSCs and MPPs express c-Kit and Scal-1, which are therefore named lineage negative (Lin-), c-Kit+, and Sca-1+ as LSK cells (Figure 1). HPCs express c-Kit, but not Sca-1, and are termed Lin−c-Kit+Sca-1−. In 2005, Kiel et al. further utilized CD150 and CD48 surface markers to distinguish HSCs and MPPs [27]. HSCs express CD150, but not CD48, and termed CD150+CD48−LSK cells. MPPs are CD150+/−CD48+LSK cells. Investigators also used different strategies to identify HSCs. Combination of CD34 or ThyloFlk-2− with LSK surface markers was used to isolate HSCs, named as CD34−LSK and Thy1loFlk-2−LSK cells, respectively [26]. Trumpp’s group combined CD34, CD135, CD150, CD48, and LSK markers to further differentiate HSC into long-term HSCs (CD34−CD135−CD150+CD48−LSK cells) and short-term HSCs (CD34+ CD135−CD150+CD48−LSK cells). In addition, HSCs have a feature with highly expression of ATP-binding protein like ABCG2 and can efflux DNA-binding dye Hoechst 33342. The Hoechst-effluxing side population (SP) cells were therefore used to indicate HSC population in the case of some circumstances [28], such as 5FU and radiotherapeutic stress conditions.
Figure 1.
Composition of mouse hematopoietic system. Long-term hematopoietic stem cell (LT-HSCs, CD34−CD135−CD150+CD48−LSK cells) is located at the top of the hierarchy and has the ability to self-renew, proliferate, and differentiate into short-term HSCs (ST-HSC, CD34+CD135−CD150+CD48−LSK cells) and multipotent progenitors (MPPs, CD34+CD135+CD150+/−CD48+LSK cells), which can further differentiate into different progenitors, such as common lymphoid progenitors (CLPs), common myeloid progenitors (CMPs) and their progeny megakaryocyte/erythroid progenitors (MEPs), and granulocyte/monocyte progenitors (GMPs). Progenitors can proliferate different lineages of mature blood cells.
It is well-documented that the hematopoietic system is organized in a hierarchical manner (Figure 1). The rare long-term HSCs are located at the top of the hierarchy and have the capacity to self-renew, proliferate, and differentiate into various lineages of mature blood cells though immature MPPs and HPCs [29]. The most important feature of HSCs is quiescent to maintain their self-renewal ability and potentially provide lifelong hematopoiesis. The dominant HSCs have ability to protect the whole blood system against different stress conditions [30]. Under sublethal irradiation, HSCs have been long-term damaged, which can be easily ignored in clinic because of normal cell counts from the bone marrow and peripheral blood. Damaged HSCs induced by photon-irradiation have impaired self-renewing ability, leading to bone marrow failure and death [31]. However, whether low doses of space radiation trigger long-term HSC damage remains unknown. Comparing to HSCs, MPPs and HPCs have limit or lack self-renewal ability even though they are proliferating populations. The property of MPPs and HPCs with proliferation provides a beneficial role in case of normal hematopoiesis and stress hematopoiesis. For example, in case of blood loss or infection, MPP and HPC quickly proliferate to meet the requirement of mature cell production, trying to maintain normal hematopoiesis. Under radiotherapy and chemotherapy, MPPs and HPCs can be easily depleted with acute myelosuppression because of their proliferating feature. This will lead to HSC activation, proliferation, and differentiation to reestablish MPP and HPC populations and rebuild hematopoiesis, which might result in HSC exhaustion.
3. Proton radiation and hematopoietic stem cells
During spaceflight missions outside low Earth orbit, there remains the possibility of astronauts receiving damaging doses of space radiation. Because the dose-depth distribution of SPE spectrum protons is relatively low [32], during an SPE the skin and organs near the surface of the skin will receive higher doses than deeper organs such as the bone marrow. In addition, compared to traditional radiation therapy with X-rays (photons) or electrons, proton therapy has potential benefit for clinical cancer treatment because of its favorable distribution of the radiation dose, leading to selectively increased radiation dose to the cancerous tissues while lowering the dose to normal tissues [33, 34]. However, the hematopoietic system is highly sensitive to ionizing radiation, and exposure to even a relatively low dose of SPE may still be able to result in substantial damage to the system [35, 36]. Therefore, understanding the biological effects of proton radiation is immediately needed.
One of the characteristics of the radiation-induced hematopoietic syndrome is a decline in blood cell counts, resulting from radiation-induced cell killing in circulating blood cells and suppression of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells in the bone marrow [37, 38, 39]. Studies have reported that whole-body exposure to protons causes acute effects on the hematopoietic system in animal models [40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45]. The decreased WBCs, lymphocytes, and neutrophils were detected starting at 4 hours after 0.25–3 Gy proton radiation, with the lowest numbers observed on day 4 [43, 44]. The reduction in WBCs and lymphocytes was still evident in mice after exposure to 2.0 Gy of protons (230 MeV) [41]. This might be due to the high sensitivity of lymphocytes to proton radiation, which is consistent with the data from γ-radiation [46]. Two Gy of proton radiation induced the acute decrement of peripheral blood cells, which was shown completely recovered in the long term. The dynamic changes of peripheral blood counts might result in ignoring the negative effects of proton radiation on hematopoietic system. However, the abnormalities of splenic WBCs and lymphocytes were still detected at more than 100 days after low dose of proton radiation [47]. Taken together, proton radiation has not only acute injury but also long-term harmful effects on the hematopoietic system.
It has been well established that exposure to a significant dose of total-body γ-irradiation (TBI) induces not only the acute radiation hematopoietic syndrome but also long-term bone marrow injury [48, 49]. The acute radiation hematopoietic syndrome induced by γ-irradiation is primarily attributed to the induction of apoptosis of HPCs, while γ-irradiation-induced long-term BM suppression is mainly ascribed to the persistent damage to HSCs. While the effects of γ-irradiation on the hematopoietic system have been extensively documented, much less is known about the effects of proton irradiation [35, 36].
Previously, mice were exposed to two different doses (0.5 and 1.0 Gy) of proton radiation and examined the acute and long-term effects on BM HSPCs at 2 and 22 weeks after proton radiation, respectively (Table 1). Results showed that exposure of mice to 1.0 Gy of proton radiation resulted in a significant decrease in the number of WBCs and PLTs from peripheral blood 2 weeks after the exposure [50]. It was demonstrated that 1.0 Gy of oxygen ion radiation (16O TBI) significantly decreased the cell counts of peripheral blood leukocytes when measured 2 weeks after exposure in male C57BL/6 mice [51]. Interestingly, the decrease of peripheral blood cell counts was not observed 2 weeks after 0.5 Gy proton TBI or 0.1 and 0.25 Gy 16O TBI [51]. The threshold dose of protons (50 or 70 MeV) to induce a decline in WBC counts in female ICR outbred mice was previously estimated to be between 0.25 and 0.5 Gy [43]. The threshold dose identified from this previous study is lower than the result from our study. It may have resulted in part from the use of different strains of mice, the time when the mice were studied after radiation or the difference in energies of protons between the two studies. For example, the linear energy transfer values for 50, 70, and 150 MeV protons would be 1.26, 0.96, and 0.55 keV/μm [52]. Because of the dose-depth distribution of SPE protons, only relatively large or higher-energy spectrum SPEs may lead to BM exposure to these doses of protons in astronauts. However, the doses of SPEs that can cause significant HSPC damage have been observed, raising the possibility that astronauts might experience reductions in circulating blood cell counts and BM HSPC damage if they encounter such an SPE. The dose-depth distribution in mice exposed to protons is different from that in humans [1]. It was found that a dose of 0.5 Gy protons (150 MeV) significantly reduced hematopoietic stem/progenitor cell function. The effects of protons at this energy and at doses below 0.5 Gy are unknown. Since the dose to the blood-forming tissues of human subjects will likely be low, future studies need to examine the hematopoietic effects of proton doses below 0.5 Gy.
Table 1.
Acute and long-term effects of proton irradiation on hematopoietic cells.
Proton TBI can acutely induce the decrease of all lineages of peripheral blood cells, since all lineages of blood cells are generated from hematopoietic stem cells through their differentiation into various lineages of progenitors. We have shown that the exposure to both 0.5 and 1.0 Gy proton TBI damaged not only HPCs but also LSK cells, leading to the defect in their numbers and function, which were supported by the decreased abilities to form in vitro colonies including BFU-E, CFU-GM, and CFU-GEMM [50]. The in vivo functional defect of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells after proton exposure will be further investigated through bone marrow transplantation in future studies. We have also reported that a 1.0 Gy dose of 16O TBI significantly decreased peripheral blood counts and BM HSPCs 2 weeks after the exposure [51]. Therefore, the mechanisms of space radiation-induced acute damage to the hematopoietic system should be investigated further.
In our previous studies, we firstly show that exposure to proton radiation causes long-term hematopoietic injury at 22 weeks after the exposure [53]. Our data provide the first direct evidence that exposure of mice to 1.0 Gy dose of proton radiation results in not only a sustained reduction in the frequency of BM HSCs but also in the long-term inhibition of HSCs clonogenic function to form BFU-E, CFU-GM, and CFU-GEMM colonies in vitro (Table 2). In contrast, the number and frequency of HPCs returned to normal levels at 22 weeks postradiation. Another question that needs to be addressed is whether proton radiation-induced HSC damage leads to hypoplastic syndrome after hematopoietic stress. Myeloid leukemia could be induced by low and/or moderate doses of γ-irradiation and 56Fe heavy ion radiation in mice [54, 55]. It has been shown that proton radiation induced minor myeloid leukemia but have high possibility to induce hepatocellular adenoma and malignant lymphoma in CBA mice [56], which is in contrast with the effects of γ-irradiation, showing that 3 Gy of γ-irradiation caused around 25% of CBA mice developing acute myeloid leukemia. These differences are due to the differential biological effectiveness between proton and γ-irradiation. To closely mimic space environment, investigators used minipig animal models to expose to electron solar particle event (eSPE) [57]. Comparing to eSPE, proton solar particle events (pSPE) have stronger negative effect on the numbers of peripheral WBCs, lymphocytes, neutrophils, and monocytes with a factor of 2.79. These data suggest that different hematopoietic populations have differential radiosensitivity to proton irradiation.
Table 2.
Induction of cellular apoptosis, ROS, and DNA damage after proton irradiation.
Protons have a higher linear energy transfer and are denser ionizing radiation than photon. Therefore, protons deposit high energy at the end of their range termed “Bragg peak” and cause heavily damage to the target tissues, cells, and molecules. Compared to γ-irradiation, proton radiation causes larger γ-H2AX foci [58], leads to hypermethylated DNA [59], has different transcriptome profiles [60], and modulates different signaling pathways [61]. More detailed investigation into what unique biological effects proton radiation has is called for to instruct proton studies.
Because an SPE contains protons of multiple energies below 150 MeV, some groups have developed cell culture or animal models of exposure to broad energy spectra of protons to better simulate an SPE. Previously, some differences were found in peripheral blood cell counts between mice exposed to one-energy protons (230 MeV, 2 Gy) and mice exposed to SPE-like protons at the same dose level [41]. Exposure of minipigs to SPE-like protons at a skin dose as low as 0.5 Gy (estimated dose to the BM: 0.42 Gy) caused decrement in peripheral blood cell counts up to at least 2 weeks after exposure [45]. Hence, further studies with SPE-like proton exposures at low doses are warranted. Since we used only two radiation doses (0.5 and 1 Gy), we were not able to prepare dose-response curves for the effects observed. In one of our separate studies, mice were irradiated with fully modulated beams containing particles from 0 energy to 150 MeV and a uniform dose versus depth profile. Doses of protons were 0.1, 0.25, and 0.5 Gy. Bone marrow cells were collected at 2 weeks after irradiation and examined as described in the current manuscript. We found a dose-dependent decrease in LSK cells, together with an increase in ROS levels and apoptosis in these cells (data not shown). In summary, our study has demonstrated that acute exposures to medium doses of proton TBI induced damage to HPCs and LSK cells in a mouse model.
Radiation-induced cell damage might be mediated by induction of apoptosis, DNA damage, and oxidative stress [48, 62]. We therefore assessed those parameters in HPCs and LSK cells 2 weeks after proton exposure [50]. Our data indicate that HPCs and LSK cells may respond differently to proton radiation. Exposure to 1.0 Gy protons resulted in an increase in cellular apoptosis in HPCs. Irradiated LSK cells, on the other hand, showed both increased apoptosis and oxidative stress. Neither of the two cell types showed enhanced DNA damage or cell cycling 2 weeks after proton exposure. Importantly, LSK cells in mice bone marrow from acute and long-term proton exposure cause the significant induction of oxidative stress [50, 53]. In the previous studies, it has been reported that the long-term increase in ROS production in LSK cells was observed after 16O radiation and γ-rays [48, 63, 64]. For example, increasing levels of ROS production were detected at 2 months after 6.0 Gy of total-body γ-irradiation, which might be related to irradiation-induced DNA damage, leukemia, and senescence in irradiated hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. Both proton and gamma radiation may induce residual negative effects on the bone marrow, which might be mediated by overproduction of chronic reactive oxidative stress in HSCs [63, 65, 66]. Taken together, present data indicate that irradiation-induced oxidative stress in HSCs might be a critical factor in the hematopoietic cell response to space radiation.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays an important role in determining the fate of normal stem cells. Low levels of ROS are required for stem cells to maintain their quiescence and self-renewal capacities. Increases in ROS production cause stem cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and cell death, leading to their exhaustion. Regulating ROS production in stem cells is important to maintain tissue homeostasis and repair damaged area during the life span of an organism. It has been reported that the levels of ROS were closely related to the proper functional hematopoietic stem cells. There are multiple different ways for ROS production in cells, such as mitochondria oxidative phosphorylation, glycolysis, NADPH oxidases (NOXs) enzyme, peroxisomal and cytochrome P450 metabolism, and so on. Mitochondria oxidative phosphorylation is not a major source to generate ROS in hematopoietic stem cells under homeostasis. This is because (1) HSCs locate bone marrow hypoxic niche with low levels of oxygen; (2) HSCs have small amount of mitochondrial and immature mitochondrial; (3) HSCs have high level of pimonidazole, which is a hypoxia marker; and (4) HSCs have capacity to response to hypoxia by increasing hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) expression [67]. Subsequently, increasing levels of HIF-1α benefit HSCs to use anaerobic glycolysis, instead of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, to produce energy along with reducing ROS production. Previous studies have shown that increasing expression of NOX enzyme might contribute to γ-irradiation-induced ROS production in HSCs [66], which was supported by increasing NOX4 expression, rather than other isoforms of NOXs in γ-ray irradiated HSCs [66]. Diphenyliodonium (a selective NOX inhibitor) treatment can partially restore the functional impairment in γ-ray irradiated HSCs by decreasing irradiation-induced ROS production in HSCs [66]. For space radiation circumstance, the higher level of NOX4 expression was observed in proton-irradiated HSCs than that in unirradiated HSCs. These data indicated that NOX enzyme, especially NOX4, might be involved in the induction of ROS production in proton-irradiated HSCs. The importance of ROS production in space radiation-induced HSC injury should further be assessed by using NOX4 inhibitor or other antioxidants, such as N-acetylcysteine and gamma-tocotrienol in future studies. There are some other potential unanswered questions including (1) whether these chronically oxidative-stressed HSCs induced by proton radiation experience senescence, (2) whether these space-irradiated HSCs have chromosomal instability, and (3) whether the chromosomal aberrant HSCs after space radiation result in the leukemia development, which was evidenced in mice after γ-irradiation exposure [38, 65, 68].
One of HSC properties is its self-renewal ability, which is sustained via its slow cycling and quiescence. By using BrdU-chasing assay and H2B-GFP mice model, it has been shown that dominant HSCs divide only once every 145 days, which ensures self-renewal capacity along with providing whole life blood homeostasis and avoiding HSC exhaustion [69]. It was reported that loss of FOXO3a resulted in increasing ROS production and accelerating HSC cycling, which is along with the defect of HSC self-renewal capacity and the exhaustion of HSCs. N-acetylcysteine (NAC), an antioxidant, can protect FOXO3a mutant HSCs from oxidative stress and restore HSC dormancy. The same phenotype was also seen in the case of loss of Bmi-1 and TSC1 in mice [70, 71, 72], which is due to increasing ROS production and cycling in HSCs. Upon proton radiation, data have shown that there were far fewer HSCs in G0 phase and higher numbers of HSCs in G1 phase than nonirradiated controls. Proton radiation-induced HSC cycling is consistent with upregulation of positive cell cycle regulators cyclin D1 and cyclin D3. Although HSC proliferation might compensate for the decreased number of HSCs after proton radiation, it will be at risk of loss self-renewal of HSCs.
Additionally, it has demonstrated that the persistent increase of DNA damage in proton-irradiated HSCs, but not in HPCs, was associated with proton radiation-induced ROS production in HSCs. Unrepaired DNA damage in proton-irradiated HSCs might negatively affect HSC self-renewal, proliferation, and differentiation, leading to long-term functional damage in HSCs. Taken together, these findings provide strong evidence showing that proton TBI induces not only acute hematopoietic injury but also long-term BM suppression and HSC damage. These detrimental effects of proton radiation on hematopoietic cells are closely related to the induction of oxidative stress in irradiated HSCs. The proton exposure-induced acute and long-term hematopoietic damage might be ameliorated through using antioxidants, which should be investigated in the future.
4. Oxygen radiation and hematopoietic stem cells
As we discussed above, GCR contains various HZE particles including 56Fe, 28Si, 16O, and 12C, which have more detrimental effects on normal tissues than do photon and proton radiations during spaceflight. Oxygen (16O) radiation has relatively high-charge and high-linear energy transfer (LET), leading to a high relative biological effectiveness. In this section, we will mainly discuss the biological negative effects of 16O on hematopoietic stem cells in long-duration space missions.
Hematopoietic cells in the body are the most radiosensitive cells to radiation [73, 74]. Exposure to γ-irradiation causes both acute and long-term damage in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs), which is due primarily to radiation-induced cellular apoptosis and senescence in HSPCs [37, 38, 39, 65]. Using porcine and mice model, it has documented that proton radiation induced both acute and long-term hematopoietic damage. We have described the acute and residual effects of proton radiation on hematopoietic stem cells showing that numbers and function of bone marrow HSCs in mice were detrimentally affected. The negative effects of proton radiation mainly contribute to increasing the production of oxidative stress and DNA damage in irradiated HSCs [53]. 56Fe radiation causes significant alterations in the expression of repetitive elements and DNA methylation, and 0.1-0.4 Gy of 56Fe radiation resulted in significant epigenetic changes in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells in a mouse model [75]. Using cultured human hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, it was found that 12C radiation induced chromosome aberrations and cellular apoptosis [76]. 0.3–0.9 Gy of 28Si radiation triggers a significant increase of cellular apoptosis in irradiated mice HSCs at 4 weeks after the exposure, which results in the deficiency of numbers and clonogenic function of irradiated HSCs [77]. These findings indicate that GCR, including different forms of ionizing radiation, induces acute and residual injury in hematopoietic stem cells. However, it remains elusive whether 16O radiation induces acute and long-term hematopoietic effects and what main factors are involved in the negative effects on HSCs under 16O exposure.
In one of our experiments, C57BL/6 J mice were exposed to 0.1, 0.25, and 1.0 Gy 16O (600 MeV/n) total-body irradiation (TBI) and analyzed the effects of 16O radiation on peripheral blood and BM 2 weeks after the exposure [51] (Table 3). Since hematopoietic cells are known to be radiosensitive, it is not surprising that a significant decrease was observed in peripheral WBC and platelet counts in mice exposed to 1.0 Gy of 16O. In comparison to 16O radiation, peripheral blood cell counts, including numbers of WBCs and platelets, were almost recovered to normal levels at 2 weeks after 1.0 Gy of γ-ray radiation in BALB/c mice [78]. This might due to (1) different animal species used and (2) different biological effectiveness of 16O and γ-ray radiation along with high LET properties of 16O. 16O TBI causes cellular apoptosis in hematopoietic progenitors but not hematopoietic stem cells at 2 weeks postexposure. To monitor how fast HPCs recover from 16O TBI, apoptotic assay was performed at 3 months after 0.1, 0.25, and 1.0 Gy of 16O TBI, showing that the apoptotic levels in HPCs and HSCs after the exposure are similar to those in nonirradiated mice. These data suggest that HPCs have a slower recovery than HSCs after 16O TBI.
Table 3.
Acute and long-term effects of oxygen irradiation on hematopoietic cells.
Previous studies have demonstrated that the functional defect of mouse HSCs was observed under either radiation or chemotherapeutic drug treatment. For example, the reconstitution capacity of mouse HSCs has detrimental effects under 1.0 Gy of total-body γ-ray radiation along with apparent myeloid bias differentiation [78, 79]. One dose of 5-fluorouracil treatment significantly decreased the numbers and engraftment ability of mouse HSCs at day 10 after the exposure [80]. To investigate the effects of low doses of 16O TBI on HSC function, in vitro colony-forming assays using bone marrow cells were performed at 2 weeks after 0.1–1.0 Gy doses of 16O exposure. It shows that low doses of 16O TBI not only decreases numbers of HSCs but also abates the in vitro colony-forming abilities, such as decreased numbers of BFU-E, CFU-GM, and CFU-GEMM from irradiated bone marrow cells. These data suggest that the function of HSC after 16O TBI was negative affected despite low doses of 16O used. Using in vitro cell culture model, previous studies have shown that 16O radiation has more dramatic effects on chromosomal aberrations, micronuclei formation, cell survival, and apoptosis than photon radiation [81, 82]. It has been documented that 6.5 Gy total-body γ-irradiation decreased the numbers of bone marrow HSCs up to 50% at 2 weeks postexposure, which was observed at 2 weeks after 1.0 Gy of total-body 16O radiation [38]. These results indicate that 16O radiation has a higher RBE than photon radiation.
To explore long-term effect of 16O TBI on hematopoietic cells, 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, and 1.0 Gy 16O (600 MeV/n) radiations were used to irradiate C57BL/6 J mice. Irradiated mice were analyzed for the long-term effects of 16O radiation on peripheral blood cells and bone marrow cells 3 months postexposure [83]. Although there are the same numbers of peripheral blood cells at 3 months after 0.05 to 1.0 Gy of 16O TBI as nonirradiated controls, numbers of HPC and HSCs from irradiated mice were significantly lower than those from nonirradiated controls. The changes of peripheral blood cell counts after oxygen radiation are similar to the effects of other types of ionizing radiation, such as 0.5 and 1.0 Gy of γ-TBI [84, 85]. Peripheral blood cell counts were back to normal levels 2 months after sublethal doses of γ-ray exposure [86]. Recovery of peripheral blood cell counts may neglect the effects of irradiation on bone marrow HSCs [84], which will result in overlooking the long-term bone marrow suppression after radiation.
We have demonstrated that 0.1 to 1.0 Gy of 16O TBI, but not 0.05 Gy dose, resulted in a dramatic impairment in both numbers and function of bone marrow HSCs in mice at 3 months after exposure. Comparing to 16O TBI, exposure of mice to 0.5 and 1.0 Gy of γ-TBI did not negatively affect the numbers and function of HSC in mice at 3 months after exposure. The phenotype from 16O- and γ-TBI might be related to their RBE along with higher RBE levels of 16O TBI than γ-TBI [81]. The long-term detrimental effects of 16O TBI on bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells have also been seen in 6.5 Gy sublethal doses of γ-rays and 1.0 Gy low dose of proton radiation, showing a reduction in HSC reserves and a defect in HSC function [48, 85, 87, 88]. When comparing the effects of different radiation sources on HPCs, we have shown that acute exposure to low doses of 16O TBI triggered a significant reduction in numbers of HPCs at 2 weeks after exposure. However, numbers of HPCs in irradiated mice recovered back to normal levels 2 weeks after either γ-ray or proton exposure [51]. These data indicate that 16O-irradiated HPCs have a slower recovery than proton- and photon-irradiated HPCs.
We have previously demonstrated that exposure of mice to 1.0 Gy of 16O TBI leads to an increased rate of apoptosis at 2 weeks postexposure in irradiated HPCs but not HSCs. This is consistent with HPC colony-forming ability assay, showing lower numbers of BFU-E, CFU-GM, and CFU-GEMM when compared to those in nonirradiated controls [51]. When we further examined HPC colony-forming abilities at 3 months after same dose of 16O TBI, it showed that numbers of various colonies were still much lower than those in nonirradiated controls [83]. Notably, the decreased colony-forming abilities after 16O TBI were in a dose-independent manner, which suggests “hit and damage.” These data suggest that oxygen irradiation has features with a high-linear energy transfer and strong relative biological effectiveness.
A cobblestone area-forming cell (CAFC) assay is a surrogate in vitro hematopoietic stem cell functional assay. We measured HSC in vitro CAFC-forming ability at 3 months after 0.1, 0.25, and 1.0 Gy of 16O radiation, showing that irradiated mice HSCs had a significant reduction of CAFC numbers independent of radiation doses (Table 4). These unusual dose-response curves have also been seen in the studies of 28Si radiation, such as effects of 28Si radiation on synaptic plasticity and contextual fear memory [89, 90]. However, when mice were exposed to 0.05 Gy of 16O TBI, numbers of CAFC were comparable to nonirradiated controls, indicating that HSC function was not affected after exposure to 0.05 Gy 16O TBI [83]. These long-term negative effects of 16O TBI on HSCs are also observed in other different types of ionizing radiation [53, 63, 91]. Mice were exposed to 1.0 Gy of proton total-body irradiation, leading to a significant decrease in the CAFC-forming ability in HSCs at 22 weeks postexposure [53]. 6.5 Gy of γ-ray total-body irradiation caused a reduction in HSC colony-forming ability 2 months postexposure [38]. As we discussed previously, peripheral blood cell counts were back to normal levels at 3 months after low-dose 16O TBI, while the numbers and function of bone marrow HSCs were significantly decreased after exposure. Proliferation of progenitors (such as myeloid, lymphoid, and erythroid progenitors) might contribute to the recovery of peripheral blood cells after radiation. These results suggest that low doses of ionizing radiation can induce long-term HSC suppression, while 16O TBI has stronger abilities to induce the long-term HSC suppression than other types of ionizing radiation.
Table 4.
Induction of cellular apoptosis, ROS, and DNA damage after oxygen irradiation.
Cellular apoptosis and ROS production are crucial mediators in irradiation-induced cell damage. We exposed mice to 1.0 Gy of 16O, and it triggered an aberrant increase in ROS production in HPCs and HSCs 2 weeks after exposure [51]. Meanwhile, increasing levels of apoptosis were significant in irradiated HPCs, but not LSK cells and HSCs, when compared to nonirradiated controls. Whether the different acute responses of HPCs and HSCs to 16O TBI are related to ROS production has yet to be determined. Induction of ROS production persisted up to 3 months after 16O TBI [83], which is congruent with the decreased expression of the antioxidant genes GPX2 and SOD3 in 1.0 Gy 16O-irradiated HSCs when compared to nonirradiated HSCs. Previous studies utilized proton and γ-ray radiation to prove that HSC functional impairment might be attributable to the accumulation of residual ROS [53, 63, 92, 93]. This is evidenced by a decrease in in vivo engraftment capacity and in vitro colony-forming ability using bone marrow cells after radiation. The importance of ROS overproduction on functional HSCs was not only supported under radiation stress condition but also supported by other genetic animal models. Deletion of Foxo3, ATM, TSC1, and Bmi-1 in mice leads to the impairment of numbers and function of HSCs along with increasing ROS production. Application of antioxidants, such as N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), on these mutant mice significantly ameliorated the HSC functional deficiency [71, 94, 95, 96]. We have provided data showing 16O-irradiated HSCs had higher levels of ROS production than nonirradiated animals in both acute and long-term studies. It is well accepted that mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and NADPH oxidases are two main sources to produce ROS in mammalian cells. Because HSCs reside in hypoxic environmental niche in the bone marrow and have higher expression of HIF1α in response to hypoxia, HSCs produce ROS mainly through glycolysis and NOX enzyme. We have previously shown that proton and γ-ray radiation induced significantly upregulation of NOX4 in irradiated HSCs [53, 66]. The NOX4 inhibitor diphenyliodonium can partially protect functional HSCs from γ-irradiation-induced long-term damage. Therefore, antioxidants, such as NOX4 inhibitors and NAC, should be further tested whether inhibiting ROS production can decrease 16O TBI-induced ROS production to accelerate the functional recovery of HPCs and HSCs after 16O irradiation exposure.
Under radiotherapy and chemotherapy stress conditions, dominant HSCs might be activated from quiescent status to provide the need for stressed hematopoietic system. However, frequent HSC activation might cause its loss of self-renewal ability, differentiation, and death with bone marrow failure syndrome [69, 97]. We have shown that proton and γ-irradiation can efficiently activate quiescent HSCs [53, 65], leading to the redistribution of different cell cycle phases and stem cell functional defects. Data from genetic mice models, such as depletion of FOXO3a and Lkb1, showed that HSCs had fast cycling with loss of HSC self-renewal ability and HSC exhaustion [94, 98, 99, 100]. There are fewer numbers of HSCs in G0 and higher numbers in G1/G2SM at 2 weeks after 16O TBI [51]. Additionally, we observed that around 15% of irradiated HSCs had more than two γH2AX foci per cell 2 weeks after 16O exposure [51], which is positively correlated with the increased ROS production in 16O TBI HSCs. Taken together, all of ROS production, DNA damage, and HSC cycling after 16O TBI might contribute to HSC defect induced by oxygen radiation, which will be tested in our future studies.
Note:
Due to the large difference in size between mice and human subjects, the dose-depth distribution in mice exposed to protons is different from that in humans [1]. The dose to the blood-forming tissues in humans will be lower, whereas the dose to the blood-forming tissues in mice is likely very similar to the dose at the surface. This difference in dose-depth profile should be taken into considerations when translating risk of hematopoietic damage in response to space radiation in a mouse model to the human situation.
During long-term space flight (such as to Mars), astronauts will encounter either a chronic, fractionated dose of space radiation or they will accumulate 1–3 Gy of radiation exposure. Presently, it is impossible to achieve chronic or fractionated doses of space radiation due to the limited access to the facilities capable of producing synthetic space radiation. In most research to date, investigators have used either acute radiation exposure or higher doses of space radiation in animal models. Cautions should therefore be taken when applying those findings from animal studies to human.
The protons and oxygen nuclei in the studies described here were all delivered within a few minutes, and most charged particle exposures during space flight occur at a very low-dose rate and/or are fractionated. Though we acknowledge that the high-dose rates we used are a limitation of our studies, low-dose rate exposures were not possible because of practical constraints. Future studies with low-dose rate or fractionated exposures should provide further insight into dose-rate dependence of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cell response to high-energy charged particle radiation.
5. Conclusion
In summary, proton and oxygen space radiation have detrimental effects on the hematopoietic system even with at low doses, which will have potential implications for health outcomes during long-duration space missions. Increasing ROS production might be a major mediator on space radiation-induced HSC damage. Knowledge gained from this chapter could aid in planning countermeasure strategies to protect against hematopoietic effects of radiation exposure during space travel. To minimize the health negative effects of deep-space travel, decreasing oxidative stress might be a good approach to mitigate the adverse effects of proton and HZE particle exposure on the hematopoietic system.
Acknowledgments
The study was in part supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 81460110, 81660123, and 81860026),
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
\n',keywords:"space irradiation, proton irradiation, oxygen irradiation, apoptosis, reactive oxygen species, hematopoietic stem cells, bone marrow",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68773.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68773.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68773",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68773",totalDownloads:677,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"July 30th 2019",datePrePublished:"August 27th 2019",datePublished:"May 27th 2020",dateFinished:"August 24th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Space radiation is an unavoidable health risk during space activities. Hematopoietic cells are sensitive to radiation including proton and oxygen radiation and so on. Understanding the mechanisms responsible for detrimental effects of space radiation is important to achieve countermeasures protecting hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), which generates different hematopoietic populations. However, the biological effects of various sources of space radiation on HSCs are not understood well. Induction of cellular apoptosis, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and DNA damage upon space radiation is believed to be critical mediators for HSC damage. In this chapter, we will mainly discuss the biological effectiveness of proton and oxygen radiation on the numbers and function of HSCs. Space radiation-induced apoptosis, ROS, and DNA damage were examined as well, which will provide foundation to develop novel strategies protecting HSCs from space radiation.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68773",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68773",signatures:"Huihong Zeng, Mengzhen Yue and Lijian Shao",book:{id:"7632",type:"book",title:"Beyond LEO",subtitle:"Human Health Issues for Deep Space Exploration",fullTitle:"Beyond LEO - Human Health Issues for Deep Space Exploration",slug:"beyond-leo-human-health-issues-for-deep-space-exploration",publishedDate:"May 27th 2020",bookSignature:"Robert J. Reynolds",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7632.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-510-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-509-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-849-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"220737",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"J. Reynolds",slug:"robert-j.-reynolds",fullName:"Robert J. Reynolds"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"298838",title:"Dr.",name:"Lijian",middleName:null,surname:"Shao",fullName:"Lijian Shao",slug:"lijian-shao",email:"lshao@ncu.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"321456",title:"Dr.",name:"Huihong",middleName:null,surname:"Zeng",fullName:"Huihong Zeng",slug:"huihong-zeng",email:"erguhhe9h9r@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"321457",title:"Dr.",name:"Mengzhen",middleName:null,surname:"Yue",fullName:"Mengzhen Yue",slug:"mengzhen-yue",email:"g9t63uhfegtze@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Composition of the mouse hematopoietic system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Proton radiation and hematopoietic stem cells",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Oxygen radiation and hematopoietic stem cells",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Cengel KA, Diffenderfer ES, Avery S, Kennedy AR, McDonough J. Using electron beam radiation to simulate the dose distribution for whole body solar particle event proton exposure. Radiation and Environmental Biophysics. 2010;49(4):715-721'},{id:"B2",body:'Townsend LW. Implications of the space radiation environment for human exploration in deep space. Radiation Protection Dosimetry. 2005;115(1-4):44-50'},{id:"B3",body:'Simonsen LC, Cucinotta FA, Atwell W, Nealy JE. Temporal analysis of the October 1989 proton flare using computerized anatomical models. 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Nature. 2010;468(7324):653-658'},{id:"B99",body:'Lorenz E, Uphoff D, Reid TR, Shelton E. Modification of irradiation injury in mice and guinea pigs by bone marrow injections. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1951;12:197-201'},{id:"B100",body:'Main JM, Prehn RT. Successful skin homografts after the administration of high dosage X radiation and homologous bone marrow. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1955;15:1023-1029'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Huihong Zeng",address:null,affiliation:'
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
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by",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10475",title:"Smart Biofeedback",subtitle:"Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d2bd9997707c905959eaa41e55ba8f1",slug:"smart-biofeedback-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Edward Da-Yin Liao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10475.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3875",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward Da-Yin",middleName:null,surname:"Liao",slug:"edward-da-yin-liao",fullName:"Edward Da-Yin Liao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8059",title:"Neurostimulation and Neuromodulation in Contemporary Therapeutic 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by",editors:[{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8751",title:"Somatosensory and Motor Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86191c18f06e524e0f97a5534fdb2b4c",slug:"somatosensory-and-motor-research",bookSignature:"Toshiaki Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8751.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70872",title:"Prof.",name:"Toshiaki",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"toshiaki-suzuki",fullName:"Toshiaki Suzuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9347",title:"Neuroimaging",subtitle:"Neurobiology, Multimodal and Network Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3479e76c6ac538aac76409c9efb7e41",slug:"neuroimaging-neurobiology-multimodal-and-network-applications",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9347.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8938",title:"Inhibitory Control Training",subtitle:"A Multidisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd82354f3bba4af5421337cd42052f86",slug:"inhibitory-control-training-a-multidisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo and Massimo Bartoli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8938.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6998",title:"Synucleins",subtitle:"Biochemistry and Role in Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b4b802fec508928ce8ab9deebd1375f",slug:"synucleins-biochemistry-and-role-in-diseases",bookSignature:"Andrei Surguchov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6998.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"266540",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Surguchov",slug:"andrei-surguchov",fullName:"Andrei Surguchov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:65,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"46296",doi:"10.5772/57398",title:"Physiological Role of Amyloid Beta in Neural Cells: The Cellular Trophic Activity",slug:"physiological-role-of-amyloid-beta-in-neural-cells-the-cellular-trophic-activity",totalDownloads:5886,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:null,book:{id:"3846",slug:"neurochemistry",title:"Neurochemistry",fullTitle:"Neurochemistry"},signatures:"M. del C. Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 26th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. 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She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. 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Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. 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He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. 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He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence"},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness"},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",annualVolume:11969,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"216491",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Skoulikaris",fullName:"Charalampos Skoulikaris",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRMsbQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-04-21T09:31:55.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"300124",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Shahady",fullName:"Thomas Shahady",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002kuIgmQAE/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:32:10.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lynchburg College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/38841",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"38841"},fullPath:"/chapters/38841",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()