Soybean seeds harvest with the application of various preparations forms of nodule bacteria with different homologous lectin concentrations (average of the 2 experiments) [80].
1. Introduction
Fixation of molecular nitrogen is one of the processes determining the biological productivity of our planet, which is why its study is one of the primary tasks of modern biology. The nitrogen cycle in nature is one of the key components of biogeochemical cycles of the Earth. The atmosphere consists of almost 80% (by volume) of the chemical element and is its main source. Nitrogen makes up a part of proteins and other molecules that form the basis of the structural organization of all levels of life. Humans and animals need it in the form of animal and vegetable protein. Plants need it in the form of salts of nitric acid and ammonium ions. [1-3].
The economic and environmental crisis, the decline in the quality of crop production, and the deterioration of the natural fertility of soil - are all reasons for increased attention to biological farming, which focuses on using the potential of natural ecosystems, in particular, nitrogen-fixing microorganisms.
Microorganisms which assimilate molecular nitrogen in the atmosphere are diazotrophs and they have a similar biochemical mechanism of nitrogen fixation. There are two main groups of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms, those that enter into a symbiosis with plants and those living freely in the soil. The second group includes associative nitrogen fixers and microorganisms, more adapted to a free existence in the soil. The division of nitrogen fixers into freeliving and associative is conditional, since the ability to live freely in the soil is typical to all nitrogen-fixing bacteria, whilst only symbiotic nitrogen fixers are able to assimilate molecular nitrogen very closely with plants. Links of cyanobacteria with other organisms can be quite diverse: there are phycobionts in lichens which live in the air-cells of mosses, in the leaves of water ferns, and in other places. It should be noted that the potential of symbiotic nitrogen fixers is significantly higher than of those that are free living [4-7].
The symbiotic and associative systems of plants and diazotrophs are an example of the evolution of the interaction of living organisms. Their study is particularly relevant with the implementation of highly productive and environmentally friendly farming. The biological fixation of molecular nitrogen from the air is a process of fixation and assimilation of nitrogen by microorganisms. It is of great practical importance, since the industrial production of chemical nitrogen fertilizer requires significant use of costly energy resources, which by themselves can be harmful for the environment. A comprehensive study of this problem is necessary due to the need to create new and effective biological preparations. The creation and use of biological agents on the basis of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms is the most justifiable method of increasing the productivity of plants and the quality of their harvest, which allows maintenance of the natural fertility of soils and the ecological balance of the environment. Their use makes it possible to regulate the number and activity of beneficial microflora in the rhizosphere of crops, and to provide plants with nitrogen fixed from the atmosphere. For example, in addressing the shortage of high-grade protein the key role belongs to the soybean. However, the soils on which the crop is grown for the first time [8] usually do not have nodule bacteria compatible with soybean or bacteria number is small (up to 20 per gram of soil).
2. Legume Lectins as a Factor in an Effective Symbiosis
The full establishment and functioning of the legume-rhizobial symbiosis depends significantly on a number of abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic factors. In particular, the effectiveness of symbiotic nitrogen-fixing is affected by temperature, aeration, pH level and moisture content of the substrate, the presence of pesticides, the content of nitrogen and other macro-and micronutrients. Of further importance is the virulence and activity of root nodule bacteria. The study of the influence and the establishment of the degree of importance of different factors to the effectiveness of symbiosis, will determine the conditions, and help to develop methods of optimizing the functioning of the symbiotic systems.
Wide dissemination of lectins in a variety of plants and the presence of these proteins in virtually all organs and tissues of plant organisms demonstrate the importance of their role in life processes. Initially it was assumed that the presence of lectins was a distinctive feature of seeds from the legume family. However, the number of organisms in which lectins have been found is increasing every day and there is reason to believe that all the above mentioned plants as well as algae, lichens and fungi contain lectins [9-11]. Nevertheless, in the present day researchers focus much of their attention on lectins of leguminous plants, the increased study of which leads us to understand the activity of these proteins in relation to the structure of the latter.
Legume lectins are a large group of carbohydrate binding proteins derived mainly from seeds. Lectins contained in the seeds of legumes, are localized in the proteins and make up approximately 10% of soluble protein extract. In recent years it has been found that these proteins are present in other parts of plants, including stems, leaves, bark, roots, and root nodules. Lectins accumulate in the vacuoles of cells and can come to the surface of the plants. They can also be associated with membranes and cell walls [12-15].
The basis of the biological activity of lectins is a reversible reaction with carbohydrates, which defines the different types of biological reactions [16] and their physiological significance. Lectins do not have uniform structural characteristics. In legumes, these proteins are generally composed of two or four subunits with a molecular mass of 25 000 - 30 000 and each having one carbohydrate binding site [15, 17]. Lectins can interact with both mono-and oligosaccharides, as well as the remnants of carbohydrates present in the complex organic substances - glycoproteins, polysaccharides, and glycosides. In the early 1980’s there was established a carbohydrate specificity for many legume seed lectins. However indisputable physiological carbohydrate ligands for any of these proteins have not been identified [14].
Over the past half-century many hypotheses were developed regarding the role of lectins in the life of legumes, but so far none of them have been fully confirmed. These proteins were detected due to their ability to bind carbohydrates, and most hypotheses about their functions are based solely on this wonderful property. Since it is known that the plant may contain a significant number of lectins, which are localized in different tissues and may form a gene duplication, while carrying out a variety of functions, it is believed that any attempt to dedicate a specific role to these proteins is doomed to failure [14].
An important feature of most of the representatives of the family
Plants throughout their lifespan release various matter into the environment. The presence of lectins has been found in the soil [20], which are secreted during the germination of seeds together with other biologically active substances [21]. It is believed that in the first stages of interaction between rhizobia and legumes an important role is played by the chemotactic response to bacteria. Nodule bacteria and other soil microorganisms, in response to plant exudates, stimulate the reproduction and active movement of bacteria towards the roots, colonizing the rhizosphere and rhizoplane. A positive chemotaxis of rhizobia on the root exudates and germinating seeds can be either nonspecific (due to the excretion of organic acids, carbohydrates, vitamins), or specific (induced by flavonoids and lectins) [9, 18, 22].
The initial stage of many plant-microbe interactions is recognition of partners, which is largely due to the exchange of molecular signals [23, 24]. This process begins with the exudation by the host plant of chemicals such as flavonoids and betaines that induce the gene expression of nodulation in rhizobia [25]. Flavonoids induce the transition of bacteria from free-living to those in a symbiotic state [26]. The first chemically-characterized inducer of the expression of nod-gene was luteolin, drawn from the extract of lucern seeds [27]. For each type of rhizobia, plants produce individual flavonoid signals that can stimulate or inhibit the nod-genes of rhizobia [28]. The identification of factors by microorganisms which are released by plants initiates physiological processes required for the infection of the host plant. In turn, the microbial signals induce the plant to express the genes required for the formation of responses [5, 18, 25, 29]. Amongst the signals produced by the bacteria, the most studied are the lipoсhitooligosaссharide Nod-factors [14, 24]. During the formation of symbiotic relationships lectins on the plant recognize the nod-factor signal released by the bacteria. It is believed that lectins binding to the bacteria whith the surface of root hairs are able to identify the rhizobial signaling molecules, through surface polysaccharides on the rhizobia [14, 30]. It has been shown that the lectin of dolichos roots, which is localized on the surface of root hairs, is able to connect with some of the Nod-factors [14]. Furthermore, from the soybean root tissue there has been found and characterized a chitin-binding protein of the plasma membranes of cells. The presence of this protein and the specificity of the induction of the biological response to the binding of ligand
Therefore Nod-factors play the role of a trigger mechanism for initiating bacterial invasion and nodulation of the plant [24]. Lipopolysaccharides inform the plant about the transition to a symbiotic interaction and the formation of the so called functional areas [32]. Legume plants are unique in their ability to form a response to Nod-factors, which consist of a preparation for the penetration of bacteria into the roots. Unfortunately, we do not know how the representatives of this family developed the ability to recognize such signals and how they improved upon these mechanisms [26].
An important stage of preinfection is the adsorption of bacterial cells on the surface of root hairs [33, 34]. The process of attachment of the bacteria from the
The adsorption of rhizobia has also been associated with the ability of legumes to synthesize specific glycoproteins called lectins, which bind to polysaccharides on the surface of rhizobia cells [36, 37]. It is believed [33, 34] that the ability of rhizobia to be adsorbed on the surface of the roots of the host plant (like the chemotaxis) may be either specific or nonspecific. The initial binding of rhizobial cells to the surface of root hairs occurs by the means of exopolysaccharides (EPS). The degree of affinity between EPS microsymbionts and host plant lectin determines the degree of homology between the symbiotic partners and provides an advantage over other homologous strains in the process of plant infection.
Dazo and his co-writer [38] proposed a model of the attachment of rhizobia to the surface of the roots of dicotyledonous plants. The first phase is non-specific attachment which is characterized by the fact that the polyvalent host plant lectin binds carbohydrate receptors on the cell surface of nodule bacteria. This results in an intercellular “bridge” between lectin and polysaccharide. The second phase is the "anchoring" of bacteria on the surface of plant cells. This is the phase of specific attachment. The bacterial cells attach to the plant cell, which is the signal for further stages of infection. At this point microfibrils are formed between the contacting surfaces which consist of cellulose [35].
The "Lectin" hypothesis which explains the specificity for formation of nodules as resulting from the complementary interaction of the surface structures of bacterial and plant cells. This forms an "antigen-antibody" complex, which was first recognized in the early 1980’s. Although initially a controversial subject, Diaz and co-writer [39] provided strong genetic evidence that the root lectins of legumes determine the specifics of symbiosis development. They injected special strains of
Therefore numerous experimental data confirms the important role of lectins in the early stages of the symbiosis and suggests the involvement of these proteins in a variety of physiological processes of plants.
Once they have prepared each other with molecular signals, the partners begin to form the structural basis of symbiosis - a nodule. This leads to a morphophysiological differentiation of bacterial and plant cells [18, 25]. Nod-factors control the phenotypic changes that occur in the roots of the host plant (the initial stage of symbiosis.) In addition there is also the deformation and proliferation of root hairs [25], the expression of early nodule genes [5], the induction of mitotic divisions in the cortex, followed by the onset of the first stages of histogenesis of nodules [42, 43].
Based on the assumption regarding the participation of lectins in various physiological processes in the formation of symbiosis, much attention was paid by researchers to the study of the direct effects of plant lectins on the manifestation of the symbiotic properties of nodule bacteria. In particular, it has been shown that the incubation of nodule bacteria
Co-incubation of nodule bacteria with lectin enhances soybean growth processes in the early stages of ontogeny as well as in the functioning of the symbiotic system, increases the nitrogen-fixing activity and, consequently, the productivity of plants [47, 49, 50]. This is why in recent years work was done on the selection of the optimal concentration of the homologous lectin, and the length of time of its co-incubation with the culture of
In the bacterial model
The presented data gives cause to consider the homologous lectin, not only as a receptor or a signaling molecule in the initial stages of symbiosis, but also as a molecular signal that changes the metabolism of rhizobia, which significantly affects their symbiotic properties and the physiological status of the host plant.
In the process of development of nodules in legume plants, lectins are localized at least in three different places. Their possible functions are related to areas of infection on the surface of the roots. In the nodule primordia lectins can stimulate mitotic activity reducing the threshold of sensitivity to the rhizobial Nod-factors. At the same time, in the central part of the mature nodule, lectins can function as spare nitrogen compounds [54].
It is thought that legume lectins are involved in the formation of nodules. The activating effect of lectin on the synthesis of extracellular and capsular polysaccharides of rhizobia is shown, which in turn induces the formation of infection threads [55]. Data for the study of lectin gene expression during the development and functioning of root nodules of lucerne provided evidence supporting the involvement of these proteins in the early stages of the ontogenesis of nodules [56]. A study has been made of a number of genes and plant proteins encoded by them, which play a role in the formation and functioning of root nodules. Among them is a lectin related to the pea
It is established that the proteins extracted from lupine and soybean nodules are capable of hemagglutinating activity. A comparative analysis of the nitrogen-fixation of soybean nodules and the lectin activity of the protein extracts from these nodules revealed a link between these rates in ontogenesis [57]. This data suggests that the proteins which are capable of lectin activity may be directly involved in the processes of nodule functioning.
A hypothesis was made by Antoniuk and his co-writer that the lectin of wheat germs acts as a signal for
Nodule bacteria penetrate the plant cell (as opposed to
Legume lectins may influence the receptor and signaling molecules during the stages of the symbiosis. Hemagglutinating activity of the proteins contained in the nodules, varies depending on the efficiency of their functioning. Specific lectins are able to modify the symbiotic properties of the nodule bacteria which positively affect the physiological status of the host plant and, ultimately, the effectiveness of the symbiotic system. Uncovering the role that lectins have in the functioning of the symbiotic apparatus of legumes requires further research. At the same time these proteins can be regarded as one of the factors for the effective symbiosis, which must be considered when developing and implementing new approaches to the management of production process in legume plants.
3. Biotechnology of Diazotrophs
Microorganisms which are the basis of biological preparations must comply with certain requirements, as well as have certain properties including virulence, activity and effectiveness, specificity, competitiveness, and technological properties (the ability to accumulate titer in the standard and production environments). Among the general requirements for the development of new biological preparations are the following: a high titer of active bacteria cells, the desired length of shelf life, transportability, technological properties (solubility, the ability to stay on the seeds, etc.), as well as the economic efficiency of their production.
The efficiency of symbiotic systems, "plant - microorganism" is defined by the virulence and level of activirty of microsymbionts. Virulence of nodule bacteria for example is the ability to penetrate into the soybean root through root hairs and lead to the formation of nodules by complex morphophysiological changes. The first stage of virulence is tumorgenic activity which is the ability to form tumors on the roots. Truly virulent strains are characterized by nodulating activity (nodulation), the ability to form complete nodules. A nodule is a complex organ of the plant, the main structure of which is made up of: tissue infected with bacteria where molecular nitrogen is fixated; conductive tissue through which photosynthates are delivered and products of nitrogen fixation are taken out; and the meristem, due to which the growth of nodules occurs [1, 5, 18].
At certain stages of the formation of associative rhizocenosis and legume-rhizobial symbiosis, other important properties of bacteria develop such as: nitrogen-fixing activity - the recovery rate of which is N2 in NH3, and symbiotic effectiveness - the ability of plants to develop intensively, using symbiotrophic feeding on nitrogen. Symbiotic efficiency is to a great extent determined by the nitrogen-fixing activity of nodules, especially in conditions where there is a shortage of fixed nitrogen, but the efficiency of the symbiosis also depends on a number of factors not directly linked to nitrogen fixation. An important role in determining the productivity of plant-bacterial interactions can be played by the compatibility of the metabolic systems of the partners (for example, ways of transporting nitrogen and carbon), and the absence of active defense reactions in plants in response to the presence or the penetration of microorganisms. Bacteria found in the rhizosphere or nodules can synthesize substances that stimulate (phytohormones, vitamins) or inhibit (rhizobiotoxins) the development of the host plant. It has been found that the effective and ineffective strains of nitrogen-fixing bacteria differ on a number of biochemical parameters. Effective strains most probably have a far richer metabolic fund, and their acidifying- restoring processes occur more actively [1, 3, 6, 18].
Specificity is the ability of bacteria to selectively interact with a particular species or group of plants. Specificity is one of the important systematic characteristics of nodule bacteria and is closely linked to their activity.
Different races of nitrogen-fixing bacteria compete with each other. The more virulent strains will more actively colonize or inoculate relative to other strains, the root system of plants specific to them. Researchers have different interpretations of the concept of bacteria competitiveness. Some consider it to be the ability to compete with the strains which spontaneously inoculate the plants; while others consider it to be resistance to the local saprophyte microflora and to displace the local strains [60, 61].
There are several methods for application of microorganisms to plants: a liquid culture, preparations on gel substrates (bacterial exopolysaccharides, silica gel, highly dispersed materials) and applications on solid carriers (vermiculite, lignin, perlite, peat) [6, 62]. Obtaining the production-strains of nitrogen-fixing bacteria and the creation of biological preparations based on them - is a long process of research and production (Fig. 1), in which we can distinguish the following stages:
1. Research:
- reisolation of the nitrogen-fixing microorganism from its natural habitat;
- an introduction into the culture and analytical selection of perspective strains;
- generation of new highly effective strains using genetic engineering methods;
- the study of physiological and biochemical characteristics, symbiotic properties, competitiveness, efficiency and technological properties of nitrogen-fixing bacteria;
- conducting research trials, registration, depositing and patenting of the strains;
- cultivating of axenic cultures of microorganisms in museum conditions.
2. The preparatory stage of production:
- preparation of nutritional medium, and nutrient supplements;
- revival of the physiological activity of nitrogen-fixing bacteria after storage (reseeding of culture, reactivation on a shaker at constant temperature and aeration);
- establishing a system of air purification, and other activities (if necessary) predetermined by the specifics of the production.
3. Production process:
- the cultivation of bacteria on industrial shakers, in flasks or in fermenters (bioreactors in the form of specially constructed chambers, in which occurs the process of growing microorganisms and fermentation);
- selection of the final product (obtaining a liquid culture of the microorganism);
- preparation of the carrier (packing and sterilization of the substrate, the introduction nutrient supplements), or containers for the liquid substance (sterilization of containers);
- inoculation of the used carrier.
4. Storage or incubation of the biological preparations under certain temperature conditions.
5. Quality control (titer of bacterial cells / 1g of the preparative form, the presence of foreign microflora).
6. Treatment of wastewater and gas emissions, recycling waste.
The general scheme of production (see figure 1) includes the above mentioned stages; however each case has its peculiarities. This is due to the degree of complexity of each separately organized biotechnological process (laboratory conditions, the use of shakers, industrial rockers, different fermenters), and the technological requirements of cultured organisms and choice of the preparative form of the final product (liquid culture, different carriers). For example, a kit for the fermentation of microorganisms in liquid media may consist of inoculation and production fermentors, air purification systems for fermentation, a set of connecting tubes, as well as the compressor and the gas meter.
After establishing a positive impact of the soil microflora on plant productivity, the question arose about the practical application of micro-organisms, in particular those fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The creation of biological products on the basis of nitrogen-fixing bacteria was dictated by the need to preserve their life and functional activity in a specific preparative form (nutrient medium or substrate) aiming to widen its practical application.
The first biological preparation based on the nitrogen-fixing nodule bacteria - Nitragin, was produced in Germany in 1896 [63]. In the Soviet Union the preparation Rizotorfin was created and widely used. It is a peat substrate with nutrient supplements containing highly active and competitive strains of rhizobia for a specific type of legume plants. Bacterial fertilizers for legume plants based on symbiotrophic nitrogen fixers are the most commonly used biological preparation of diazotrophs. For example, in the United States Nitragin and Double-noktin were produced and used on hundreds of thousands of hectares of crops. In other countries the following compounds were used: Nitrosoil and Nitrum in Argentina and Uruguay, Rhizoctonia in New Zealand, Tropical-inoculum, Nodulite and Nitrogerm in Australia, Ariss Agro in India, and Okadin in Egypt [64]. In Ukraine, up to 20% of crop cultures (predominantly soybean) are inoculated by biological preparations [3].
To inoculate the seeds the most commonly used preparations are based on nodule bacteria from the families of
4. Ways to Improve the Productivity of the Soybean-Rhizobial Symbiosis
One of the objects with prospects in biotechnology are cyanobacteria because of their ability in photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation, the synthesis of biologically active substances and growth activating substances. These substances positively influence on soil fertility and the activity of soil biota. Cyanobacteria are closely linked to the bacteria such as
The co-treatment of lucerne seeds by nitrogen-fixing bacteria and cyanobacteria
Creation and selection of compatible algal-rhizobial associations, including the axenic cultures of cyanobacteria and nodule bacteria as well as their Tn5-mutants may be one of the methods of biologically stimulating legume-rhizobial symbiosis, which enhances the significance of the interaction of rhizobia with plants and the efficiency of bacterial preparations based on them.
In the formation of legume-rhizobial symbiosis the essential components of the interaction of the symbiotic partners are polysaccharides which are synthesized by nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Perhaps it was under the influence of these substances, acting as elicitors in the early stages of the morphogenesis of nodules, that gene activation occurrs for a number of plant genes that "sit in silence" in the uninoculated plant roots.
It has been suggested that the polysaccharides of non-rhizobial origin, as well as glycopolymers of rhizobia, are able to mimic the action of phytohormones and stimulate the processes of nodulation and morphogenesis in the legume-rhizobial symbiosis [73]. It is shown that the cells of nodule bacteria during the action of exogenous polysaccharides (Baktozol) increased in growth, produced more biomass and changed the activity of some enzymes of the nitrogen exchange [74, 75]. The stimulating effect of the synthetic polysaccharide (PS MOD-19) on the growth of rhizobia, biomass accumulation and changes in their metabolism during the growth of bacteria on solid and liquid media in the presence of the biopolymer was later revealed. During the processing of the seeds of peas (
Our studies also show the effectiveness of biological products of nodule bacteria modified by homologous lectin, and the economic feasibility of their use [47, 49-51, 77-79]. In accordance with the existing concepts about the mechanisms of interaction of plants with rhizobia, polysaccharides of the latter are a factor which provides a "recognition" by the bacteria of the corresponding host plant through complementary binding to the plant lectin. Lectins are proteins that have the ability to reversibly and selectively bind to carbohydrates and carbohydrate parts of biopolymers without changing the covalent structure of the latter [77, 79]. Along with other biologically active substances legume lectins during the germination of seeds secrete themselves into the environment [21]. These proteins stimulate the proliferation and active movement of soil microorganisms to the roots, and influence the growth of microsymbionts and the synthesis by them of exoglycans [48]. Plant lectins are regarded as one of the factors of effective symbiosis, which is also proposed for consideration when developing and implementing new approaches to the management of production processes in legume plants [77]. It is known that treatment of rhizobia by plant lectin specific to them has a positive effect on their virulence and competitiveness [34], and also increases the nitrogen-fixing activity of root nodules. Lectin acts on the biosynthesis of nitrogenase [58, 59] in the bacterial cell. As a consequence, pre-incubation of rhizobia with homologous lectin enhances the growth processes of plants and increases the productivity of the symbiosis [47].
The results of our studies indicate to the prospects of using bacterial agents modified by homologous lectin, both liquid and manufactured on a solid carrier (Table 1).
The use of this protein makes it possible to improve the efficiency of the symbiotic system of soybean
Liquid | 0 | 29,3 ± 2,7 | – | – |
100 | 36,6 ± 1,5 | 7,3 | 24,9 | |
300 | 32,5 ± 1,8 | 3,2 | 10,9 | |
Perlite | 0 | 34,6 ± 1,2 | – | – |
100 | 43,1 ± 1,1 | 8,5 | 24,5 | |
300 | 40,3 ± 1,7 | 5,6 | 16,4 | |
LSD 0,05 | 4,6 |
0 | 36,2 ± 0,7 | 33,1 ± 1,8 | 22,5 ± 0,7 | 30,6 ± 1,1 | – | – |
100 | 45,1 ± 1,4 | 41,2 ± 0,8 | 25,8 ± 1,1 | 37,4 ± 1,1 | 6,8 | 22,2 |
300 | 41,9 ± 1,5 | 38,8 ± 2,0 | 27,3 ± 1,0 | 36,0 ± 1,5 | 5,4 | 17,6 |
LSD 0,05 | 4,2 | 5,1 | 2,5 |
Note. I, II - 2005., III - 2006.
The economic efficiency of using bacterial preparations to inoculate the seeds of legume plants before sowing depends on the increase of yield, its cost and additional expenses. The calculation of economic efficiency of soybean production via a typical technological map was shown on a farm in the Kiev region (Table 3). By using bacterial preparations of soybean nodule bacteria (application of inoculation) the yield of the crop increased throughout Ukraine by an average of at least 12%, which makes it possible to increase the profitability of production to 27.8% (see Table 3). The use of bacterial preparations modified by homologous lectin in the conditions of our field trials led to an increase in soybean yield of no less than 9.8% in comparison with conventional inoculation (see Table. 1 and 2). A comparative analysis of various indicators of economic efficiency of soybean cultivation points to the feasibility of using bacterial preparations to inoculate seeds (see Table 3). The profitability of production at the same time increased by 11.7%. The maximum profitability (39.2%) was observed when using bacterial preparations modified by homologous lectin, indicating the benefits of their use. Table 4 also shows that the use of bacterial preparations reduced production costs and increased net income. Thus, the cultivation of soybeans in the conditions and fields of Ukraine can produce about 0.4 hryvnia net profit to every 1 hryvnia spent. Therefore different preparatory forms of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms effectively increase the productivity of plants and can be recommended for agricultural production. The use of bacterial agents leads to a slight increase in the cost of production while the economic effect of using nitrogen-fixing bacteria is achieved due to the additional crop yield, the savings made on fertilizers and the reduction of other production energy costs.
Seed yield | cwt/ha | 20,0 | 22,4 | 24,6 |
Supplementary yield | cwt/ha | – | 2,4 | 4,6 |
Cost of yield | UAH/hа | 2400,0 | 2688,0 | 2952,0 |
Costs of biopreparation | UAH/hа | – | 36,0 | 53,0 |
Net cost | UAH/cwt | 103,34 | 93,88 | 86,17 |
Net profit | UAH/hа | 333,13 | 585,13 | 832,13 |
Profitability | % | 16,1 | 27,8 | 39,2 |
Note. UAH - Ukrainian hryvna.
5. Conclusion
Given the uniqueness of the biochemical processes of nitrogen fixation by microorganisms and global importance of biological nitrogen fixation in the nitrogen cycle in the biosphere, this phenomenon requires further study and attention. Scientists still face the problem of finding new nitrogen-fixing communities, the creation of genetically engineered micro-and macro- symbionts, as well as studying specific mechanisms of the relationship between plants and microorganisms.
A comprehensive study of plant-bacterial symbioses and associations made possible the use of biological nitrogen fixation in practice and opened up prospects for the management of this process. Work is presently being done on the generation, testing and introduction of new strains of
References
- 1.
Kretovich V. L. 1994 Biokhimia Usvoeniya Azota Vozdukha Rasteniyami (Biochemistry of Plants Nitrogen-Fixation). Moscow: Nauka. - 2.
Ignatov V. V. 1998 Biological Nitrogen-Fixation and Nitrogen Fixers 9 28 33 - 3.
Kots S. Ya Morgun V. V. Patyka V. F. et al. 2011 Biologicheskaya Fiksatsiya Azota: Bobovo-Rizobialnyi Simbioz (Biological Nitrogen Fixation: Legume-Rhizobial Symbiosis). Kiev: Logos. - 4.
Novikova N. I. 1996 Modern Views on the Phylogeny and Taxonomy of Nodule Bacteria 65 4 437 450 - 5.
Spaynk, G., Kondoroshi, A., Hukas, P., editors. Tikhonovich, I.A., Provorov, N.A., Engl. translation editors 2002 Rhizobiaceae. Molecular Biology of Bacteria Interacting with Plants. St.-Petersburg. - 6.
Patyka V. P. Kots S.Ya. Volkogon V. V. et al. 2003 Biologichnyi Azot (Biological Nitrogen). Kiev: Svit. - 7.
Kukk, E.G. Division of Cyanobacteria In: Fedorov A.A. (ed.) Moscow: Prosveschenie 1977 78 92 - 8.
Patyka V. P. Krutylo D. V. Kovalevska T. M. Influence of Aboriginal Populations of Soybean Nodule Bacteria on Symbiotic Activity Introductional Strain Bradyrhizobium japonicum 634b 2004 66 3 14 21 - 9.
Kots S.Ya. Malichenko S. M. Krugova E. D. et al. 2001 Fiziologo-Biokhimichni Osoblyvosti Zhyvlennya Roslyn Biologichnym Azotom (Physiological and Biochemical Features of Plant Nutrition of Biological Nitrogen). Kiev: Logos. - 10.
Antonyuk V. O. 2005 Lektiny ta ikh Syrovynni Dzherela (Lectins and their Sources of Raw Materials). Lvov: PP «Kvart». - 11.
Yamaleyeva A. A. 2001 Lektiny Rastenii i ikh Biologicheskaya Rol (Plant lectins and their biological role). Ufa: Publisher Bashkir. University. - 12.
Aleksidze G. Ya Vyskrebentseva E. I. Korolyev N. P. Purification and Some Properties of Lectin from the Fraction of the Cell Walls of Sugar Beet 1984 31 6 1021 1027 - 13.
Vyskrebentseva E. I. Borisovа N. N. Distribution of Lectin Activity in the Mitochondria of Sugar Beet: Lectin Activity of Mitochondrial Membranes and Matrix of Sugar Beet 1996 43 4 527 532 - 14.
Etzler M.E. From Structure to Activity: New Insights into the Functions of Legume Lectins 1998 10 53 247 255 - 15.
Loris R. Hamelryck T. Bouckaert J. Wyns L. 1998 Legume Lectin Structure 1383 1 9 36 - 16.
Lutsyk M. D. Panasyuk E. N. Lutsyk A. D. 1981 Lektiny (Lectins). Lvov: Vyscha shkola, Pablisher Lvov University. - 17.
Sharon N. Lis H. Legume Lectins - a Large Family of Homologous Proteins 1990 4 14 3198 3208 - 18.
Tikhonovich, I. A., Provorov, N. A., editors. 1998 Genetika Simbioticheskoi Azotfiksatsii s Osnovami Selektsii (Genetics of Symbiotic Nitrogen-Fixation and Basis of Breeding). St.-Petersburg: Nauka. - 19.
Stougaard J. Regulators and Regulation of Legume Root Nodule Development 2000 124 2 531 540 - 20.
Pospelov S. V. Samorodov V. M. Pospelova G. D. The Main Directions and Results of Research in Lectin Biology in Poltava State Agricultural Institute 2001 4 42 47 - 21.
Fountain D. W. Foard D. E. Replogle W. D. Yang W. K. Lectin Release by Soybean Seeds 1977 197 4309 1185 1187 - 22.
Chuiko N. V. Antonyuk T. S. Kurdish I. K. Chemotaxis of Bradyrhizobium Japonicum to Various Organic Compounds 2002 71 4 460 466 - 23.
Ovtsyna A. O. Tikhonovich I. A. 2004 Structure, Function, and the Practical Application of Signaling Molecules that Initiate the Development of the Legume-Rhizobial Symbiosis 2 3 14 24 - 24.
Geurts R. Bisseling T. Rhizobium Nod Factor Perception and Signalling 2002 14 S239 S249 - 25.
Martihus M. F. Regina G. S. Franco A. A. Importância Compositos Fenólicos nas Interações Entre Espécies Leguminosas e Rizóbio 2002 22 1 65 81 - 26.
Hirsh A. M. Lum M. R. Downie J. A. What Makes the Rhizobia-Legume Symbiosis so Special? 2001 127 1484 1492 - 27.
Peters N. K. Frost J. W. Long S. R. 1986 A Plant Flavone, Luteolin, Induces Expression of Rhizobium Meliloti Nodulation Genes 233 977 980 - 28.
Parret X. Staehelin C. Broughton W. J. Molecular Basis of Symbiotic Promiscuity 2000 64 1 180 201 - 29.
Kalsi G. Etzler M. E. Localization of a Nod Factor-Binding Protein in Legume Roots and Factors Influencing its Distribution and Expression 2000 124 1039 1048 - 30.
Kijne J. W. Bauchrowitz M. A. Diaz C. L. Root Lectins and Rhizobia 1997 115 3 869 873 - 31.
Dey R. B. Okada M. Ito Y. et al. Binding Site for Chitin Oligosaccharides in the Soybean Plasma Membrane 2001 126 1162 1173 - 32.
Mathis R. Van Gijsegem F. De Rycke R. et al. Lipopolysaccharides as a Communication Signal for Progression of Legume Endosymbiosis 2005 102 7 2655 2660 - 33.
Malichenko S. M. Datsenko V. K. Mamenko P. M. Adsorption of Nodule Bacteria of Specific and Nonspecific Legume Roots 1-4 October 2001, Ternopol, Ukraine 2001 - 34.
Lodeiro A. R. Lopez-Garsia S. L. Vazquez T. E. E. Favelukes G. 2000 Stimulation of Adhesiveness, Infectivity, and Competitiveness for Nodulation of Bradyrhizobium Japonicum by its Pretreatment with Soybean Seed Lectin 188 2 177 184 - 35.
Chumakov M. I. 1996 Involvement of Surface Polysaccharides and Proteins of Bacteria of the Family Rhizobiaceae in the Adsorption and Attachment to Plant Surfaces 65 6 725 739 - 36.
Hirsh, A.M. Role of Lectins (and Rhizobial Exopolysaccharides) in Legume Nodulation 1999 2 320 326 - 37.
Wisniewski, J.-P., Delmotte, F.M. Modulation of Carbohydrate-Binding Capacities and Attachment Ability of Bradyrhizobium Sp. (Lupinus) to White Lupin Roots 1996 42 234 242 - 38.
Dazzo F. B. Truchet G. L. Sherwood J. E. et al. Specific Phases of Root Hair Attachment in the Rhizobium Trifolii-Clover Symbiosis 1984 48 6 1140 1150 - 39.
Diaz C. L. Hosselet M. Logman G. J. J. Distribution of Glucose/Mannose-Specific Isolectins in Pea (Pisum Sativum L.) Seedlings 1990 181 451 461 - 40.
Van Rhijn P. Fujishige N. A. Lim P. O. Hirsh A. M. Sugar-Binding of Pea Lectin Enhances Heterologous Infection of Transgenic Alfalfa Plants by Rhizobium Leguminosarum Biovar Viciae 2001 126 133 144 - 41.
Baimiyev Al. Ch Gubaidullin I. I. Differences in the Carbohydrate-Binding Structure of the Lectin Peptides from Galega Orientalis and Officinalis Determine the Difference in their Choice of a Partner Legume-Rhizobial Symbiosis 24-26 October, Ufa 2001 - 42.
Chimote, Vivek., Kashyap, L.R. Lipochitooligosaccharides and Legume-Rhizobium Symbiosis. A new concept 2001 39 5 401 409 - 43.
D’Haeze W. Holsters M. 2002 Nod-Factor Structures, Responses, and Perception During Initiation of Nodule Development 12 6 79R 105R - 44.
Halverson L. J. Stacey G. Effects of Lectin on Nodulation by Wild-Type Bradyrhizobium Japonicum and a Nodulation-Defective Mutant 1986 51 4 753 760 - 45.
Brelles-Marino G. Costa G. A. Boiardi J. L. Enhancement of Infection Thread Formation by Rhizobium Etli Incubated with Bean Seed Lectin 1996 151 243 246 - 46.
Malichenko S. M. Datsenko V. K. Mamenko P. M. Kots S.Ya. Participation Specific and Nonspecific Lectins to Leguminous Plants Nodule Bacteria in the Formation and Functioning of Nitrogen-Fixing Symbiosis 2002 3 18 49 57 - 47.
Sytnikov D. M. Kots S.Ya. Malichenko S. M. Efficiency of Symbiotic System Soybean- Bradyrhizobium Japonicum under the Influence of Homolohous Lectin and Different Mineral Nitrogen Supply 2005 37 5 394 401 - 48.
Kosenko L. V. Mandrovskaya N. M. Effect of Pea Lectin on the Growth of Pea Microsymbionts and the Biosynthesis of Exoglycans 1998 67 5 626 630 - 49.
Sytnikov D. M. Malichenko S. M. Yakimchuk R. A. Mosendz G. N. Incubation Duration Influence of Inoculation Suspension with Lectin on the Growing, Nitrogenase Activity and Productivity of Soybean 2006 38 4 310 316 - 50.
Sytnikov D. M. Kots S.Ya. Malichenko S. M. Kiriziy D. A. Photosynthetic Rate and Lectin Activity of Soybean Leaves after Inoculation with Rhizobia together with Homologous Lectin 2006 53 2 169 175 - 51.
Sytnikov D. M. Kots S.Ya. Datsenko V. K. Efficacy of Biological Preparations of Soybean Root Nodule Bacteria Modified with a Homologous Lectin 2007 43 3 274 279 - 52.
Karpova I. S. Koretska N. V. Kochubey T. O. The Ability of Lectins Modulate the Action of Antibiotics on the Growth of Mutants Bacillus Subtilis 2005 77 3 136 141 - 53.
Martínez C. R. Albertini A. V. P. Figueiredo M. V. B. et al. Respiratory Stimulus in Rhizobium Sp. by Legume Lectins 2004 20 1 77 83 - 54.
Brewin N. J. Kardailsky I. V. Legume Lectins and Nodulation by Rhizobium 1997 2 3 92 98 - 55.
Mody B. Mody V. Peanut Agglutinin Induced Alterations in Capsular and Extracellular Polysaccharide Synthesis and Ex-Planta Nitrogenase Activity of Cowpea Rhizobia 1987 12 3 289 296 - 56.
Bauchrovitz M. A. Barker D. G. Truchet G. Lectin Genes are Expressed throughout Root Nodule Development and During Nitrogen-Fixation in the Rhizobium-Medicago Symbiosis 1996 9 1 31 43 - 57.
Sytnikov D. M. Kots S.Ya. Malichenko S. M. Lectin Activity of Different Soybean Organs under Conditions of Efficient and Inefficient Symbiosis 2006 38 1 53 60 - 58.
Antonyuk L. P. Ignatov V. V. The Role of Wheat Germ Agglutinin in Plant-Bacterial Interactions: a Hypothesis and Experimental Data to Support it 2001 48 3 427 433 - 59.
Antonyuk L. P. Fomina O. R. Ignatov V. V. Effect of the Wheat Lectin on the Metabolism of Azospirillum Brasilense: Induction of Protein Biosynthesis 1997 66 2 172 178 - 60.
Sharypova L. A. Simarov B. V. Method of Comparing the cCompetitiveness of Effective Strains Rhizobium Meliloti 1985 15 85 91 - 61.
Butovina O. Yu Tolkachev N. Z. Knyazev A. V. Highly Competitive Strains of Nodule Bacteria- the Basis of the Effectiveness of Biological Preparations 1997 59 4 123 131 - 62.
Sherstoboyeva E. V. Dudinova I. A. Kramarenko S. N. Sherstoboyev N. K. Biological Preparation of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria: Problems and Prospects of their Application 1997 59 4 109 117 - 63.
Dorosinskii, L.M. 1970 Klubenkovye Bakterii i Nitragin (Nodule Bacteria and Nitragin). Leningrad: Kolos. - 64.
Sherstoboyeva, O.V. The Role of Microbiological Preparation in Enhancing the Productivity of Plants Environmentally Safe Methods 2004 36 3 229 238 - 65.
Kots S. Ya Mykhalkiv L. M. 2005 Fiziologiya Symbiozu ta Azotne Zhyvlennya Lutserny (Physiology of Symbiosis and Nitrogen Nutrition of Alfalfa). Kiev: Logos. - 66.
Tolkachev, N.Z. The Potential for Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation by Soybean in the Southern Ukraine 1997 59 4 34 41 - 67.
Kozhemyakov, A.P. Productivity of Nitrogen Fixation in Agrocenozes 1997 59 4 22 28 - 68.
Gromov B. V. 1996 Cyanobacteria in Biosphere 9 33 39 - 69.
Parshykova T. V. Patsko E. V. Sirenko L. A. The Use of Microscopic Algae of Eutrophic Water to Maintain Soil Fertility and Increase Yields of Agricultural Crops 2007 17 2 262 272 - 70.
Pankratova E. M. Trefilova L. V. Zyablykh R.Yu. Ustyuzhanin I. A. Cyanobacteria Nostoc Paludosum Kütz as the Basis for Agriculturally Useful Microbial Associations on the Example of Bacteria of the Genus Rhizobium 2008 77 2 266 272 - 71.
Sytnikov D. M. Vorobey N. A. Kots S.Ya. Physiological Reaction of Legume Plants to Inoculation with Algal-Rhizobial Association 2009 57 2 239 244 - 72.
Sytnikov D. M. Vorobey N. A. Patsko E. V. Reaction of Soybean on Inoculation whith Algal-Rhizobial Compositions Biotechnology (Ukraine)2010 3 6 42 48 - 73.
Krugova E. D. Kots S.Ya. Mandrovskaya N. M. Effects the Synthetic Polysaccharide MOD-19 on the Formation and Functioning of the Symbiotic System Pisum Sativum L.- Rhizobium Leguminosarum Bv. Viciae 2009 45 3 324 330 - 74.
Krugova E. D. Mandrovskaya N. M. Okhrimenko S. M. Effect of Bacterial Exopolysaccharides on the Efficiency of Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation of Pea and Soybean Plants 2002 34 3 239 244 - 75.
Kosenko, L.V., Mandrovskaya, N.M., Krugova, E.D., Varbanets, L.D. Effects of Plant Growth Stimulator Bactozol on Rhizobium Leguminosarum Bv. Viciae 250A and Nitrogen Resistant Mutant M-71 under Conditions of Different Nitrogen Supply 2003 72 1 40 47 - 76.
Mandrovskaya N. M. Krugova E. D. Kots S.Ya. Dulnyev P. G. Effects of Synthetic Polysaccharide on the Growth of Nodule Bacteria and Rhizogenesis of Roots 2005 4 47 51 - 77.
Kots S.Ya. Sytnikov D. M. Legume Lectins as a Factor of Efficient Symbiosis 2007 39 6 463 475 - 78.
Sytnikov D. M. Vorobey N. A. Beregovenko S. K. Efficacy of Bacterial Preparations Based on Tn5-mutants with Homologous Lectin 2008 3 15 46 52 - 79.
Sytnikov D. M. Kots S.Ya. Participation of Lectins in Plant Physiological Processes 2009 41 4 279 296 - 80.
Sytnikov, D.M. Economic Effect and Application of Bacterial Preparations Modified with Homologous Lectin 2012 1 17 75 84